AD11

Lecture notes
E. Stalio
November 24, 2011
Contents
1 Fluid properties 7
1.1 Fluid particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.1 Particle dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2 Continuum hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Conditions for incompressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Fluid motion 10
2.1 Referential description / spatial description . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Particle path, streamline, smokeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Motion and deformation of a uid element . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.1 Angular velocity of a uid element . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.2 Shear strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Integral transformations and the Reynolds transport theorem 14
2.4.1 Control volumes and uxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.2 Divergence theorem or Gausss Theorem . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.3 Stokes theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.4 Reynolds transport theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3 Fundamental equations 17
3.1 Mass conservation equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1.1 Alternative form of the mass conservation equation . . 18
3.1.2 Convenient form of the Reynolds transport theorem . 18
3.2 Momentum equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2.1 Cauchy tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.2 Symmetry of stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.3 Stokes three postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Governing equations for incompressible ows . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Bernoullis equation for high Re, rotational ows . . . . . . . 22
4 Irrotational solenoidal ow 24
4.1 Velocity potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2 Momentum equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3 Mass conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1
CONTENTS 2
4.4 Potential ow solution approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.4.1 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5 Potential ow solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5.1 Elementary ow #1: uniform ow . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5.2 Elementary ow #2: source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5.3 Uniform ow + source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5.4 Rankine oval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5.5 Elementary ow #3: doublet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5.6 Non lifting ow over a circular cylinder . . . . . . . . 26
4.5.7 Elementary ow #4: vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5.8 Lifting ow over a circular cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5.9 Potential ow around an expansion corner and in a sink 27
5 Vortex dynamics 29
5.1 Theorems for vortex motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.1.1 Kelvins circulation theorem (1867) . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.1.2 The Helmholtz vortex theorems (1858) . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2 The equation of vorticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.1 Vortex stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.3.1 The tornado example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6 Fundamentals of Boundary-Layer theory 32
6.1 Introduction to the BLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.2 Boundary Layer Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.3 Turbulent boundary layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.4 Vorticity over a at plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.5 Iterative solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.5.1 Displacement thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.5.2 Eective body, actual body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.5.3 Iterative procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.6 Boundary layer over a non planar surface . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.7 Separation, attachment and wakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.7.1 Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.7.2 Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.7.3 Wakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.8 The starting vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.9 Drag of slender and blunt bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.9.1 Types of drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.9.2 Drag coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.9.3 Drag and wake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.9.4 Pressure coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7 Circulation theory of lift 51
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2 KuttaJoukowsky theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.3 Kutta condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.4 The vortex sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.5 Prandtl-Munk method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.6 Vortex panel method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8 Thin airfoil theory 54
8.1 Airfoil nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.2 Thin airfoil theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.2.1 Symmetric airfoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.2.2 Cambered airfoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.3 Real airfoil behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
8.3.1 Airfoil stall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
8.3.2 Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.4 Quality of an airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.5 High lift devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.5.1 Multi-element airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9 Wings of nite span 60
9.1 Finite wing nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9.2 Induced drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9.3 Prandtl classical lifting-line theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.3.2 Downwash velocity induced in y . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.3.3 Induced angle of attack in y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.3.4 Fundamental equation of the lifting line theory . . . . 62
9.4 Elliptical circulation distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.4.1 Lift slope for a nite wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.4.2 Wings of elliptical shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.5 Delta wings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
10 Blunt bodies 68
10.0.1 Base pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
10.1 Energy in the wake of a blunt body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
10.2 Kinetic energy content of the wake vortices . . . . . . . . . . 69
10.3 Strategies for form drag reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
10.4 Flow past a circular cylinder: the real case . . . . . . . . . . . 70
10.4.1 Low speed open loop wind tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
10.4.2 Flow features for dierent ow conditions . . . . . . . 70
10.5 Drag coecient of bodies with sharp corners . . . . . . . . . 71
10.6 Interference eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
10.7 Aerodynamics of three-dimensional blunt bodies . . . . . . . 73
CONTENTS 4
10.8 Road Vehicle Aerodynamics (RVAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Nomenclature
Latin letters
a speed of sound (m/s)
a
0
lift slope of an airfoil
b boundary layer width (m)
D rate of deformation tensor of components
ij
(1/s)
D/Dt material time derivative
I turbulence intensity (m/s)
i turbulence intensity, relative value
L boundary layer length (m)
n outward normal
p pressure (Pa/s)
q
kinetic energy of the freestream q

1
2
u
2
(Pa)
s
1
, s
2
, s
3
Cartesian components of strain (rad)
T temperature (K)
T stress tensor of components
ij
(N/m
2
)
u, v, w Cartesian velocity components (m/s)
u
, u
r
, u
z
velocity components in a cylindrical coordinate system
x
1
, x
2
, x
3
Cartesian coordinates (spatial description)
x, y, z Cartesian coordinates (spatial description)
5
CONTENTS 6
Greek letters
circulation
_
v d
l (m
2
/s)
specic volume (m
3
/Kg)
ij
component of the rate of deformation tensor (1/s)
dynamic viscosity (Pa s)
kinematic viscosity, dened as / (m
2
/s)
coordinate along the vortex sheet in the edge view
, curvilinear coordinate system (2D)
density (Kg/m
3
)
line integral of the vorticity (in 2D) =
_
P
2
P
1
z
dl (m/s)
ij
component of the stress tensor (N/m
2
)
angular velocity vector of a uid element (rad/s)

potential, also transported scalar (intensive quantity)
stream funcion, also scalar function
vorticity vector (1/s)
global vorticity (in 2D), =
_
S

z
dS (m
2
/s)
Subscripts
c critical
e outer edge of the boundary layer
f friction
s separation
w wall
freestream conditions
Superscripts
referential (Lagrangian) description
(t) top
(b) bottom
Symbols
of the same order of magnitude
equal by denition
approximately equal
Chapter 1
Fluid properties
1.1 Fluid particles
By denition a uid particle is a point that moves with the local uid ve-
locity.
A uid particle is also called a material point and is dened by its po-
sition at a reference time. Material lines, surfaces and volumes are dened
similarly. Because a material surface moves with the uid, the relative ve-
locity between the the surface and the uid is always zero. Consequently a
uid particle cannot cross a material surface. Taken from Pope [16] 2.2.
1.1.1 Particle dimension
A uid particle must be large enough to contain many molecules, so that
averages performed for dening the macroscopic properties are meaningful.
On the other hand, particles should be small enough (with respect to the
ow domain) not to be aected by macroscopic eects.
L
1
d L
2
(1.1)
See the book by Tritton [19] 5.2.
1.1.2 Continuum hypothesis
Once we invoke the continuum hypothesis to obtain continuous elds, we
associate with a single position and time x, t the macroscopic properties as
u, , p, T calculated as the mean over the particle volume.
We can as well consider dierences in properties over distances smaller
than molecular scales,
x
lim
h0
_
(x + h, y, z, t) (x, y, z, t)
h
_
Taken from Pope [16], page 11 and Tritton [19] 5.1.
7
CHAPTER 1. FLUID PROPERTIES 8
T (K) (Pa s) (Kg/m
3
) (m
2
/s)
250 15.96 10
6
1.3947 11.44 10
6
300 18.46 10
6
1.1614 15.89 10
6
350 20.82 10
6
0.9950 20.92 10
6
Table 1.1: Thermophysical properties of air at atmospheric pressure, data
from [10] p. 917.
1.2 Conditions for incompressibility
Both density and viscosity of a uid depend upon temperature and pressure.
= (T, p), = (T, p). Here we only consider the eects of pressure
variation and show through an order of magnitude analysis that
=
u
2
a
2
Ma
2
(1.2)
where the speed of sound a is dened as:
a
_
p
_
s
(1.3)
which is a = 340.9 m/s at standard sea level. The order of magnitude
equivalence
p u
2
(1.4)
can be deduced
1
from
grad p (v grad ) v (1.5)
which applies for steady, high Reynolds number ows [19]. The result is
that if you wish / to be < 0.1, then Ma < 0.32 and u
< 108 m/s,

corresponding to 388 km/h. If you wish / to be < 0.01, then Ma < 0.1
and u
< 34 m/s, corresponding to 123 km/h.

This comes from [19] 5.8
1
The Bernoulli equation is not adequate as it is derived for constant density ows
CHAPTER 1. FLUID PROPERTIES 9
10 0 10 20 30 40 50
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
x 10
5
t (
o
C)

(
P
a

s
)
Figure 1.1: Variation of air viscosity with temperature.
10 0 10 20 30 40 50
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
t (
o
C)

(
K
g
/
s
)
Figure 1.2: Variation of air density with temperature.
Chapter 2
Fluid motion
2.1 Referential description / spatial description
x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) spatial coordinates
x
= (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) material (Lagrangian) coordinates
density eld, spatial description
density eld, referential description

v velocity eld, spatial description
v
velocity eld, referential description

Spatial (Eulerian) description xes attention on a given region of space
and takes the spatial position x and time t as the independent variables.
In the framework of a spatial description, the position is indicated by x;
velocity is the reading of a perfect instrumentation with which an observer
records the uid velocity as a function of time at a xed point in space
v = v(x, t)
the time derivative of the velocity
_
v
t
_
x
is the rate of change of the reading of an ideal velocity meter located in x.
It is called the local rate of change of v, not the acceleration of a particle in
the laws of dynamics.
Example in a steady ow around a cylinder, the local rate of change of v
is zero everywhere but uid particles experience velocity variations.
10
CHAPTER 2. FLUID MOTION 11
Referential (Lagrangian) description It refers the motion to a refer-
ence conguration in which the generic particle occupies position x
0
; this
denes its identity. We suppose that the reference conguration is the con-
guration occupied at time t = 0 and fall within a Lagrangian description.
See [14] 4.3.
Position of particle x
0
at time t in the referential description is given by
x
= x
(t, x
0
)
while at the reference time
x
(t
0
, x
0
) = x
0
the particle moves with the local uid velocity by denition
t
x
(t, x
0
) = v (x
(t, x
0
), t) (2.1)
See the book by Pope [16], 2.2.
Lagrangian elds of density and velocity are dened in terms of their
Eulerian counterparts
(t, x
0
) = (x
(t, x
0
), t)
v
(t, x
0
) = v(x
(t, x
0
), t)
Material time derivative in spatial coordinates Since the laws of
dynamics deal with particle acceleration and not with local rate of change,
we need to be able to calculate the particle acceleration from a knowledge
of the spatial description (See [14] 4.3).
We investigate the material derivative of the density
(t, x
0
) =

t
(x
(t, x
0
), t) (2.2)
and obtain
D
Dt
=

t
+v grad (2.3)
for the velocity eld
Dv
Dt
=
v
t
+ (v grad ) v (2.4)
where (v grad ) operating on a vector must be regarded as a new operator
dened through its Cartesian expansion, see [19] 5.5.
The material derivative of the velocity can be evaluated from its spatial
description through equation (2.4). The rate of change of any other material
property may also be calculated as soon as its spatial description is known
D
Dt
=

t
+v grad (2.5)
2.2 Particle path, streamline, smokeline . . .
Particle path . . . Experiment: long time exposure of a ow carrying a
small number of reecting particles.
Streamline A streamline is dened as a continuous line of which the tan-
gent at any point is in the direction of the velocity.
Streamlines do not intersect except at a position of zero velocity; other-
wise one would have the meaningless situation of a velocity with two direc-
tions (see [19], 6.1). Experiment: streamlines can be located by oating
some reecting particles in the uid and taking a picture with a smaller
exposure time.
In steady ow each particle path is along one of the unchanging stream-
lines, and they coincide also with a smokeline.
Smokeline ( = streakline) . . .
Vortex line Same as streamline, but tangent to the vorticity.
Streamtube A streamtube is a tubular region within the uid bounded
by streamlines. Because streamlines cannot intersect, the same streamlines
pass through a stream tube all along its length.
If the ow is incompressible, the speed is proportional to the inverse of
the cross-sectional area. Convergence of streamlines indicate acceleration,
divergence deceleration. (see [19], 6.1)
Vortex tube Similar as stream tube, but bounded by vortex lines.
End of lesson number 1. Date: 23/09/2011. Hours: 3. Sum: 3.
2.3 Motion and deformation of a uid element
A uid element can undergo four dierent types of motion or deformation:
translation, rotation, dilatation, shear strain. See [20] 1-3.3.
2.3.1 Angular velocity of a uid element
The uid element is a specic, innitesimally small element of mass in the
gas. The angular velocity of a uid element in 2D Cartesian coordinates is
dened as the angular velocity of the diagonal of an initially square element
z
= lim
t0
1
+
2
2t
(2.6)
Counterclockwise rotations are considered positive by convention; the angle
1
is the angle at time t +t of the side of a uid element that was parallel
to x at time t. Using tan for small angles and Taylor expansion to
rst order approximation for the evaluation of
1
and
2
z
=
1
2
_
v
x

u
y
_
(2.7)
The angular velocity vector

of a uid element in Cartesian coordinates
is given by
i
=
1
2
_
u
k
x
j
u
j
x
k
_
(2.8)
Vorticity
When v is the velocity eld, then = curl v is twice the angular velocity
vector of the uid element. The vector is therefore associated with pure
rotation of a uid element. This does not mean that for every vortex curl v =
0, on the other side curl v = 0 does not necessarily mean that there is a vortex
in the velocity eld, e.g. the plane Couette ow.
Examples
Vortex of assigned angular velocity
u
r
= 0 u
= r
the vorticity vector curl v equals 2
k in this case.
Elementary vortex
u
r
= 0 u
=
c
r
for r = 0
Fluid elements undergo a translation around x = y = 0 with no rotation.
The origin r = 0 is a singular point of the ow eld where (see [3]
3.14).
The vorticity around the vortex of assigned velocity and the elementary
vortex can be evaluated using the curl operator in cylindrical coordinates
curl (v)
k =
1
r
_
(ru
)
r

u
r
_
or through the transformation from cylindrical to Cartesian coordinates
_
_
_
x = r cos
y = r sin
2.3.2 Shear strain
Two dimensional shear strain is commonly dened as half decrease of the
angle between two lines which are initially perpendicular in the unstrained
state, see [20]. Strain
1
is dened as
s
k

(
i
j
)
2
(2.9)
i
is again the angle at time t + t of the side of a uid element that was
parallel to x
i
at time t. Rigid rotation around the x
k
axis corresponds to
i
=
j
and s
k
= 0. The rate of deformation tensor is dened as
i,j

1
2
_
u
i
x
j
+
u
j
x
i
_
(2.10)
Terms that lie on the diagonal represent the dilatation of a uid element;
o-diagonal terms account for strain.
2.4 Integral transformations and the Reynolds trans-
port theorem
2.4.1 Control volumes and uxes
The ux of volume per unit time owing through dS is
v n dS (2.11)
this represents the volume of material owing through the innitesimal sur-
face area dS of normal n in time dt, see [14] 5.1.
Volume ux, mass ux, momentum ux
See [14] 5.1
2.4.2 Divergence theorem or Gausss Theorem
Let the region V be bounded by a closed surface S with outward normal n,
if the vector eld

f has continuous partial derivatives
_
S
f n dS =
_
V
div

f dV (2.12)
In many books [14] the scalar version of the theorem is introduced rst
_
S
n
i
dS =
_
V
x
i
dV (2.13)
for any i = 1, 2, 3 and where n
i
is the component in direction i of the normal
to dS.
1
Strain = deformation due to stress.
Volume ux
_
S
v ndS
_
m
3
s
_
Mass ux
_
S
v ndS
_
kg
s
_
Momentum ux
_
S
v v ndS
_
Ns
s
_
Energy ux
_
J
s
_
Table 2.1: Four types of uxes.
2.4.3 Stokes theorem
If we assume a positive side to the surface S and take the normal n toward
the positive side, then the positive sense on C is implied by the right hand
screw rule. Circulation is then dened as

_
C
f d
l (2.14)
Stokes theorem for the continuous eld

f, with continuous partial deriva-
tives on S _
C
f d
l =
_
S
curl

f ndS (2.15)
Example
Circulation of the elementary vortex in section 2.3.1 is uniform = 2c.
The Stokes theorem can be employed for showing that the vorticity eld
around the elementary vortex is zero everywhere except in the origin, where
z
. (see [3] 3.14 p. 247).
Remark Circulation can be regarded as a measure of the combined strength
of all vortex lines passing through S.
2.4.4 Reynolds transport theorem
Transport of a intensive property is governed by
t
_
V
dV =
D
Dt
_
Vm
dV
_
S
v ndS (2.16)
being V xed in space:
t
_
V
dV =
_
V
()
t
dV (2.17)
Chapter 3
Fundamental equations
3.1 Mass conservation equation
For a material particle
D
Dt
_
Vm
dV = 0 (3.1)
using equations (2.16) and (2.17) and the Gauss theorem
_
V
_
t
+ div (v)
_
dV = 0 (3.2)
the integral of equation (3.2) vanishes for arbitrary choice of the volume V
and under the hypothesis of regularity of the integrand function.
t
+ div (v) = 0 (3.3)
Control volume approach Equation (3.3) can be obtained also dening
an arbitrary volume V xed and entirely within the uid. Fluid moves into
or out of this volume. The total mass in volume V
_
V
dV (3.4)
the rate of loss of mass from volume V
_
S
u ndS (3.5)
hence
d
dt
_
V
dV =
_
S
u ndS (3.6)
since the volume is xed
_
V
t
dV =
_
S
u ndS (3.7)
[19] 5.5
17
CHAPTER 3. FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS 18
3.1.1 Alternative form of the mass conservation equation
The meaning of divv may be suggested by
1
D
Dt
= divv (3.8)
where = 1/. Equation (3.8) is a straightforward consequence of equations
(3.3) and (2.5) where also
1
d
dt
=
1
d
dt
is used.
The divergence of the velocity eld divv is interpreted as the rate of
change of the volume of a material element and is called the rate of expan-
sion, see [5] p. 75.
3.1.2 Convenient form of the Reynolds transport theorem
Starting from the Reynolds transport theorem (2.16) and using the conti-
nuity equation (3.3)
D
Dt
_
Vm
dV =
_
V
D
Dt
dV (3.9)
for a vector eld
D
Dt
_
Vm
v dV =
_
V
Dv
Dt
dV (3.10)
equation (3.10) is used in the derivation of the momentum conservation
equation.
3.2 Momentum equations
The continuum form of Newtons third law is a basic postulate of continuum
mechanics [14]
D
Dt
_
Vm
vdV =

F (3.11)
In equation (3.11) all the external forces acting on V
m
are indicated by

F.
External forces might be subdivided into volume forces (body forces) and
surface forces (contact forces)
D
Dt
_
Vm
vdV =

F
S
+

F
V
(3.12)
if gravitational force is the only body force acting upon the uid
1
,
D
Dt
_
Vm
vdV =

F
S
+
_
V
gdV (3.13)
1
Fictitious forces appear to act on mass elements when their motion is referred to an
accelerating set of axes, see [5] p. 7.
The expression for surface tractions

F
S
is provided using results from the
theory by Cauchy.
3.2.1 Cauchy tetrahedron
Cauchy (1823) demonstrated that the component along j of the traction

t
on a plane of normal n = (n
1
, n
2
, n
3
) is
t
j
=
1j
n
1
+
2j
n
2
+
3j
n
3
(3.14)
The j-th component of the stress is given in terms of the components of the
stress tensor.
Remark The stress is a quantity with a magnitude and two directions,
the direction in which it acts and the normal to the surface associated with
it; it is thus a second order tensor [19] 5.6.
3.2.2 Symmetry of stress tensor
The proof that the stress tensor matrix is symmetric is usually given only
for the special case of homogeneous i.e., uniform stress in a body in equilib-
rium. However the conclusion is valid under much more general conditions,
including the dynamic case, and is not restricted to homogeneous states of
stress (from reference [14], p. 78).
As a result of equation (3.14), and the symmetry of the stress tensor
(and Gausss theorem as well), forces acting on the surface of the particle
take the following form
F
S
=
_
S
t dS =
_
S
T ndS =
_
V
div TdV (3.15)
We are now left with the problem of nding a suitable expression for the
stress tensor.
3.2.3 Stokes three postulates
1. The uid is continuous and its stress tensor is at most a linear function
of the strain rates.
2. The uid is isotropic.
3. When the strain rates are zero, the deformation law must reduce to
the hydrostatic pressure condition
ij
= p
ij
.
It follows that the deformation law for a Newtonian uid can be set as
ij
= p
ij
+
_
u
i
x
j
+
u
j
x
i
_
+
ij
divv (3.16)
This comes from White [20] 2-4.2.
Mechanical pressure
p =
1
3
(
11
+
22
+
33
) = p
_
+
2
3
_
divv (3.17)
The mechanical pressure p equals the thermodynamic pressure p for =
2
3
or in the case of incompressible ow (divv = 0).
Equal Transit-time fallacy Simple explaination for the generation of lift
based on the balance of momentum. Why the equal transit time theory
is inaccurate. Example from an Italian textbook
2
Ad esempio, nel caso [. . . ] in cui la supercie inferiore è piat-
ta e quella superiore bombata le particelle uide che passano
al di sotto proseguono dritte, mentre le altre, dovendo percor-
rere uno spazio maggiore, acquistano velocità pi` u elevata; cosic-
che, allincontrarsi delle due correnti in coda al prolo, si ha la
creazione di un vortice [. . . ] :(
3.3 Governing equations for incompressible ows
Mass and momentum conservation equations for incompressible, constant
viscosity ows take the form
_
Dv
Dt
= grad p +
2
v + g
_
N
m
3
_
divv = 0
_
1
s
_
Boundary, initial conditions
(3.18)
Buoyancy forces can be neglected in road vehicle aerodynamics (RVAD)
applications (g 12 N/m
3
).
Boundary conditions at walls No slip condition lies ultimately in ex-
perimental obsevation.
The relative velocity between solid wall and uid must be zero. Without
the v = 0 boundary condition viscous action would place no limits on the
amount of uid per unit time that could pass through a pipe. [19] p. 63
2
C. Caputo. Le turbomacchine, vol. 2. CEA, seconda edizione, 2001.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
x
t
Figure 3.1: Graphical representation of solution (3.23)
Advective term The one dimensional wave equation is shortly introduced
here for an explanation of the role of the advective term in the NS equations.
t
+ u
x
= 0 (3.19)
the general solution to (3.19) is of the form
(x ut) (3.20)
where (x) is the initial condition.
Non linearity of the NSE is in the advection term.
Viscous term The one dimensional diusion equation is shortly intro-
duced here for an explanation of the role of the viscous term in the NS
equations.
t
=
x
2
(3.21)
for the following initial condition in x [01]
(x) = sin(x) (3.22)
the solution to equation (3.21) is given by
(x, t) = sin(x) exp(
2
t) (3.23)
Originated from the stress tensor.
Represents viscous stress. Viscous stress oppose relative movements
between neighboring particles and equivalently the deformation of uid
particles, see [19] 5.6.
In general the viscous term has a smoothing eect similar to the
conductive term in the Fourier equation.
Numerical solutions . . . short speech about the numerical solution to
the NS equations
Two dimensional Poiseuille ow
Two hypothesis are necessary: fully developed (u/x = 0), stationary
(/t = 0) ow. Continuity and BCs then imply v = 0. The y-momentum
equation gives p/y = 0. The x-momentum dp/dx = f(x). The equation
to be integrated twice:
dp
dx
=
2
u
y
2
(3.24)
gives
u =
1
2
dp
dx
_
y
2
h
2
_
(3.25)
where h is half the channel height and the origin of axes is set at the channel
half height. For all the details of the solution, see Anderson [3] 16.5 Linear
stability analysis indicates that the solution to (3.24) is not stable for high
Re numbers.
3.4 Bernoullis equation for high Re, rotational
ows
The incompressible, constant viscosity momentum conservation equation is
v
t
+ (v grad ) v = grad
p
+
2
v (3.26)
where gravity is neglected. Using the following vector identity [2]
(
f grad )
f = (curl

f)

f + grad
_
f
2
2
_
(3.27)
equation (3.26) becomes
v
t
+ v = grad
_
p
+
v
2
2
_
+
2
v (3.28)
For high Reynolds number ows, equation (3.28) simplies to
v
t
+ v = grad
_
p
+
v
2
2
_
(3.29)
in the case of stationary ow
v = grad
_
p
+
v
2
2
_
(3.30)
along a streamline
( v) v = 0 (3.31)
or a vortexline (( v) = 0), the sum
p
+
v
2
2
(3.32)
is uniform.
Chapter 4
Irrotational solenoidal ow
4.1 Velocity potential
If a vector eld v is the gradient of a scalar function
grad = v (4.1)
then is called the potential function of the vector eld. Since curl (grad )
is always zero, the vector eld is irrotational.
Conversely it can be easily proved using the Stokes theorem ([5] p. 100)
that in a simply connected region where curl v = 0 a scalar function exists
such that v = grad with
(P) (P
0
) =
_
P
P
0
v d
l (4.2)
Consider the elementary vortex . . .
4.2 Momentum equation
Using the following vector identity [2]
f = grad (div

f) curl (curl

f) (4.3)
equation (3.28) which is valid only for solenoidal ows becomes
v
t
+ v = grad
_
p
+
v
2
2
_
curl (4.4)
For curl v = 0 equation (3.28) reduces to
v
t
= grad
_
p
+
v
2
2
_
(4.5)
24
CHAPTER 4. IRROTATIONAL SOLENOIDAL FLOW 25
and for v = grad
grad
_
t
+
p
+
v
2
2
_
= 0 (4.6)
a time-dependent form of Bernoullis equation is recovered. The sum
t
+
p
+
(grad )
2
2
= (t) (4.7)
is a time varying, uniform quantity. As (t) is uniform, its value is deter-
mined by the boundary conditions.
4.3 Mass conservation
For potential ows (v = grad ), the divergence free velocity eld constraint
becomes:
2
= 0 (4.8)
boundary conditions for far away from the body are
grad |
= u
(4.9)
Wall boundary conditions are of the no penetration kind; stronger con-
ditions such as no slip boundary conditions would make the problem over
specied and no solution would be available ([19] 10.3). In case of = 0
there can be slip.
grad |
w
n = 0 (4.10)
Note that equation (4.8) is linear, eects can be superimposed.
4.4 Potential ow solution approach
The general approach to the solution of incompressible, irrotational ow can
be summarized [3] as
1. Solve (4.8) with appropriate boundary conditions (BCs);
2. obtain v = grad ;
3. obtain the pressure eld from Bernoulli equation.
Equation (4.7) is not linear v
2
1
+ v
2
2
= (v
1
+ v
2
)
2
; solutions cannot be su-
perimposed. As White [20] puts it: inviscid ow is nonlinear also but the
nonlinearity is conned to the calculation of the static pressure, not to the
determination of the velocity eld, which is linear.
4.4.1 Remarks
An incompressible, irrotational ow solution is independent of the vis-
cosity, viscous and inviscid solutions coincide.
Equation (4.8) can be solved decoupled from (4.7)
In equation (4.8) time does not appear. The velocity eld is indepen-
dent of the previous time step solution.
Pressure eld and aerodynamic forces do depend on the previous time
step solution through /t.
It is shown in [5] that prescribed values of the normal component of v
on the boundary uniquely determine the velocity eld.
Again in [5] it is demonstrated that in the ow produced by a rigid
body moving through the uid which would otherwise be at rest, the
irrotational solenoidal solution is determined uniquely by the instanta-
neous velocity of the body and its geometry: neither the acceleration
nor the past history is relevant.
Lecture by Mrs. Errico on Friday, October 28th
4.5 Potential ow solutions
This part is taken from the book by Anderson [3].
4.5.1 Elementary ow #1: uniform ow
4.5.2 Elementary ow #2: source
4.5.3 Uniform ow + source
4.5.4 Rankine oval
4.5.5 Elementary ow #3: doublet
4.5.6 Non lifting ow over a circular cylinder
The pressure coecient for the potential ow around a cylinder is given by
c
p
= 1 4sin
2
(), as displayed in gure 4.1.
4.5.7 Elementary ow #4: vortex
4.5.8 Lifting ow over a circular cylinder
Magnus eect . . .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
(rad)
c
p
Figure 4.1: Pressure coecent for the potential ow around a cylinder.
4.5.9 Potential ow around an expansion corner and in a
sink
The solenoidal irrotational ow solution in a sink ( < ) or around an
expansion corner ( > ) is given by the solution to the Laplaces equa-
tion satisfying the boundary condition that the normal velocity component
vanishes at solid walls. In polar coordinates r, the solution is
= Ar
n
cos (n), n = / (4.11)
so that the velocity eld becomes
_
_
_
u
r
= nAr
n1
cos (n)
u
= nAr
n1
sin (n)
(4.12)
and the streamfunction, which gives the shape of the streamlines
= Ar
n
sin (n), n = / (4.13)
In the potential ow case, velocity in the r = 0 corner goes to zero in a sink
( < ) forming a stagnation point, while it diverges to in an expansion
corner ( > ). See the book by Landau [13] p. 23.
Figure 4.2: Potential ow solution in a sink ( = 2/3) and around an
expansion corner ( = 7/6)
Chapter 5
Vortex dynamics
5.1 Theorems for vortex motion
The theorems for vortex motion are formulated for the case of inviscid ow.
In such case the Eulers equation holds
Dv
Dt
=
1
grad p (5.1)
5.1.1 Kelvins circulation theorem (1867)
For an inviscid ow in the presence of conservative body forces only, the
integral along a material (dyed) loop i.e. closed line of uid composed by
the same particles as time proceeds C
m
(t),
m
=
_
Cm(t)
v d
l (5.2)
is independent of time
d
m
dt
= 0 (5.3)
The physical explanation of the result is that when Eulers equation
applies, the only stress acting on a uid particle are the pressure stresses.
These act normally to the particle surface and cannot bring a particle into
rotation (See Tritton [19] 10.3).
Permanence of irrotational motion a inviscid ow that is initially
irrotational throughout remains so at all subsequent times (See Tritton [19]
10.3).
29
CHAPTER 5. VORTEX DYNAMICS 30
5.1.2 The Helmholtz vortex theorems (1858)
In the case of inviscid uid in the presence of conservative body forces only,
1. the uid particles that lie on a vortex line (belong to a vortex tube)
at some instant continue to lie on a vortex line (tube). Equivalently,
vortex lines (tubes) are material lines (tubes): There is no uid inter-
change between line (tube) and surrounding uid.
2. The quantity
=
_
S
ndS (5.4)
is the same for all cross sections of a vortex tube. Furthermore, is
independent of time. A vortex tube cannot end within the uid.
Remark The rst part of statement 2 is a straightforward consequence of
div (curl v) = 0 and does not need the hypothesis, see [2] 5.3. The second
part of statement 2 can be demonstrated using statement 1 and Kelvins
circulation theorem.
5.2 The equation of vorticity
The vorticity equation can be obtained taking the curl of the momentum
equation in its form
v
t
+ v = grad
_
p
+
v
2
2
_

2
v (5.5)
Substitution of the vector identity (see [2], appendix)
curl (
f g) = (g grad )
f (
f grad )g +

f(divg) g(div

f) (5.6)
and div (curl

f) = 0 and also curl (grad ) = 0 in
curl
_
v
t
+ v
_
= curl
_
grad
_
p
+
v
2
2
_

2
v
_
(5.7)
gives
t
+ (v grad ) =
2
+ ( grad ) v
. .
vortex stretching
(5.8)
The vorticity transport equation is similar to the incompressible heat
convection equation (unsteady term, advection, diusion) except for the
vortex stretching term.
CHAPTER 5. VORTEX DYNAMICS 31
5.2.1 Vortex stretching
Dierential analysis When the diusive term is 0 compared to the
convective term and for

k, i.e. =
z
k. The projection along z of

equation (5.8) results in
D
z
Dt
=
z
v
z
z
(5.9)
Vorticity increases when uids elements undergo dilatation along the vortex
line (v
z
/z > 0). See Tritton [19].
Vortex tube analysis Vortex tubes are material (Helmholtz statement
1). For incompressible ows, the uid must conserve its volume and when
a vortex tube is stretched, its cross section will decrease. For Helmholtz
statement 2, when a vortex tube is stretched, its vorticity will necessarily
grow.
5.3 Examples
5.3.1 The tornado example
See [2] 5.3 for this.
Thunderclouds moving overhead give an illustration of Helmholtzs
rst theorem
Vortex stretching eect of thermal droughts
Pressure minimum The acceleration of uid particles in centripetal di-
rection is associated with a low pressure area in the center of the tornado.
Funnel cloud is a marker of a vortex tube. The air rapidly expands and
condenses in such regions of low pressure.
Chapter 6
Fundamentals of
Boundary-Layer theory
6.1 Introduction to the BLT
Denition The boundary layer is the area of the ow where the velocity
prole is non uniform in the wall-normal direction and the ow is rotational.
The boundary layer thickness is conventionally dened as the position
where u = 0.99u
; the border line does not correspond to any observable

ow feature like a streamline. Boundary layers are long and thin L .
Magnitude of A result of section 6 for laminar, two dimensional bound-
ary layers is

5x
Re
x
=
5x
_
ux
(6.1)
in RVAD applications one could set for simplicity u
= 18 m/s ( 65 km/h),
= 16 10
6
m
2
/s and x = 2 m

5 2
_
182
16
10
3
=
2
3
10
2
m (6.2)
The boundary layer is thin and long L.
Road to the Boundary Layer Equations
Start by dening a reference length L, reference velocity u
,
use the dimensionless continuity equation to nd out u = O(1),
x = O(1), v = O(/L), y = O(/L).
Write the dimensionless form of the x-momentum equation,
32
CHAPTER 6. FUNDAMENTALS OF BOUNDARY-LAYER THEORY33
obtain the BL equation along x using the following hypothesis:
1. local acceleration of the same order as the advective term
2. O(Re) = O(L
2
/
2
), as can be concluded from dimensional con-
siderations leading to L/
Re
L
(see Ref. [17] 6.5).
Results
In the x-momentum equation only the
2
u/x
2
term is neglected;
for the y-momentum, the same technique leads to p/y = 0.
6.2 Boundary Layer Equations
The resulting boundary layer equations in dimensionless form, for Cartesian
coordinates
u
x
+
v
y
= 0 (6.3)
u
t
+ u
u
x
+ v
u
y
=
dp
dx
+
1
Re
2
u
y
2
(6.4)
p
y
= 0 (6.5)
In a boundary layer, the gradient of pressure in direction normal to the wall
is negligible, p = p(x) only.
From White [20] 4-2. This splendid observation is due to Prandtl
(1904), showing that the pressure is a known variable in boundary-layer
analysis, with p(x) assumed to be impressed upon the boundary layer by an
inviscid outer ow analysis. That is, the freestream outside the boundary
layer u
e
= u
e
(x) is related to p(x) by Bernoullis theorem for incompressible
ow. For steady ow
dp
dx
= u
e
du
e
dx
(6.6)
so that specifying u
e
(x) is equivalent to specifying p(x) outside the boundary
layer.
The Blasius equation
In the case of a plate boundary layer of zero incidence (parallel to u
) the
pressure eld is assumed uniform (dp/dx = 0), the velocity of the potential
ow solution being uniform ([17] 6.5).
The two-dimensional, steady boundary layer equation for a at plate of
zero incidence is in the form
u
x
+
v
y
= 0
u
u
x
+ v
u
y
=
1
Re
2
u
y
2
u = 0, v = 0 for y = 0
u = u
for y
(6.7)
As described by Blasius in his doctoral thesis (1908), the solution to equa-
tions (6.7) can be reduced to the solution of a single third order ordinary dif-
ferential equation with appropriate boundary conditions, equations (6.12).
Road to the Blasius equation
Assume that velocity proles are self-similar. The similarity law is in
the form
u
u
= ( y) (6.8)
with y = y/(x) and ( y) independent of x.
it follows from dimensional considerations that (x) x/
Re
x
or
(x)
_
x
u
(6.9)
and y is conveniently dened as
y = y
_
u
2x
(6.10)
The continuity equation can be integrated introducing a stream func-
tion =
2xu
f( y)
the velocity components are computed as
_
_
u =

y
=

y
y
y
= . . .
v =
x
=
_
x
+

y
y
x
_
= . . .
(6.11)
the system reduces to
_
_
f
+ ff
= 0 (Blasius equation)
f = 0, f
= 0 for y = 0
f
= 1 for y
(6.12)
The solution of the nonlinear, third order ordinary dierential equation
(6.12) has to be obtained numerically subject to the transformed boundary
conditions. The agreement of experimental observations with the theoret-
ical prole is good, providing support for the various approximations and
assumptions made in the course of the theory [19]. This part comes from
Ref. [17] 6.5.
Results for plate boundary layer
Results deriving from the solution to the Blasius equation
Friction drag The local friction coecient is dened as
c
f
(x)

w
(x)
1
2
u
2
(6.13)
while the total friction coecient
1
C
f

1
L
_
L
0
c
f
(x)dx (6.14)
so that for q

1
2
u
2
the friction drag D

f
D
f
= C
f
Aq
(6.15)
where A is the area of the at plate A = bL and b the at plate width in z
direction.
Friction drag for a laminar BL The local friction drag coecient re-
sulting from the Blasius solution
c
f
(x)
0.664
Re
x
(6.16)
the total friction drag coecient
C
f

1.328
Re
L
(6.17)
Boundary layer thickness The boundary layer thickness, dened as the
height where u = 0.99u
is given by
5.0
x
Re
x
(6.18)
the thickness grows parabolically with distance from the leading edge.
1
Coeciente dattrito
Displacement thickness The displacement thickness
1.7
x
Re
x
(6.19)
will be dened in section 6.5.1.
The steady, two dimensional solution is not anymore stable for Reynolds
numbers higher than a critical value, Re
c
= 5 10
5
to 10
6
.
6.3 Turbulent boundary layers
Turbulent ow features
wide range of scales
always 3D
always time dependent

x
= 0,
y
= 0,
z
= 0
coherent structures
. . .
Critical Reynolds number
Apart from the Reynolds number of the outer ow, the transition point
depends upon a number of parameters
x
c
= x
c
_
dp
dx
, I
, wall roughness, heating of the uid

_
(6.20)
where I
is the turbulence intensity of the freestream to be dened in section

6.3. Transition occurs sooner in adverse pressure gradients, for higher I
and rough walls.

In a ow you could have all the combinations laminar free stream and
laminar boundary layer; turbulent FS and laminar BL; laminar FS and
turbulent BL; turbulent FS and turbulent BL.
Physical signicance of the Reynolds number
The momentum equation can be set in its non dimensional form by introduc-
ing a reference length l
ref
and a reference speed u
ref
. For constant properties
ows the reference density is of course itself, the reference viscosity is
and p
ref
= u
2
ref
. The steady momentum equations (3.18) in terms of non
dimensional quantities
(v grad )v = grad p +
1
Re
2
v (6.21)
where
Re =
u
ref
l
ref
(6.22)
As long as the length and the velocity scales have been chosen as typical
quantities, then a general speed will be of the order 1, a general length of
order 1 and the terms (v grad )v = O(1),
2
v = O(1) hence the ratio of the
rst term (v grad )v to the third term
2
v/Re in equation (6.21) is Re. The
Reynolds number is also the ratio between the corresponding dimensional
terms. See Tritton [19] 8.1
Description of transition over at plates
The breakdown of laminar ow over a at plate arises from its instability
for Re > Re
c
. A picture of the transition process (see Ref. [20]) consists of
the following processes
1. Laminar ow. Stable, laminar ow is observed near the leading edge.
2. Tollmien-Schlichting waves. Two dimensional waves
2
predicted by the
linear stability theory (1929) and observed after deliberate introduc-
tion of a periodic disturbance, are indicated as the rst stage of the
transition process.
3. Appearance of three dimensional structures. Variations of the TSW in
spanwise direction are observed next, together with spanwise variation
of the velocity proles; hairpin vortices aka vortices appear.
4. Vortex breakdown. Then, vortex breakdown occurs at regions of high
localized shear.
5. Three dimensional uctuations. As a result of vortex breakdown into
smaller units, small scale, three dimensional uctuations are observed.
6. Turbulent spots. Formation of localized regions of fully turbulent mo-
tion.
7. Fully turbulent boundary layer
This part comes from references [17, 19, 20].
Movies Shown movies from [7]. Movie numbers: 484; 638; 3746; 4621.
Comparison between velocity proles
2
Tollmien-Schlichting waves are periodic uctuations in velocity and pressure
Figure 6.1: Velocity prole of the plate boundary layer close to the laminar-
turbulent transition, after measurements by G. B. Schubauer, P. S. Klebano
(1955). (1) laminar, Blasius prole. (2) turbulent prole, u
= 27 m/s.
Figure and caption come from [17] 15.1.2 p. 422.
Log-law Wall quantities are dened as
u
(6.23)
u
+
u
u
(6.24)
y
+
(6.25)
Velocity prole in the laminar sublayer
u
+
= y
+
(6.26)
velocity prole in the turbulent region
u
+
= B +
log y
+
k
(6.27)
where B = 5, k = 0.41. See gure 6.2.
Results Approximations for turbulent ow over a at plate. Boundary
layer thickness
=
0.37x
Re
1/5
x
(6.28)
turbulent values of grow more rapidly with distance along the surface;
x
4/5
for a turbulent ow in contrast to x
1/2
for a laminar ow; see
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
y
+
u
+
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
y
+
u
+
Figure 6.2: Turbulent velocity prole for
w
2.19 N/m
2
, logarithmic and
linear plot.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
x (m)
(m)
laminar regime
turbulent regime
Figure 6.3: Boundary layer thickness in air at standard conditions for u
=
30 m/s.
gure 6.3 for a comparison between laminar and turbulent . Friction drag
coecient
C
f
=
0.074
Re
1/5
L
(6.29)
the approximation for the friction coecient yields larger friction drag for
turbulent ow in comparison to the laminar ow, see gure 6.5.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.01
x (m)
c
f
laminar regime
turbulent regime
Figure 6.4: Local friction drag coecient c
f
as a function of the x coordinate;
u
= 30 m/s, standard air.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.01
L (m)
C
f
laminar regime
turbulent regime
Figure 6.5: Total friction drag coecient as a function of the at plate length
L; u
= 30 m/s, standard air.

Statistical analysis
The velocity vector can be decomposed into a time-averaged and a uctu-
ating part. The x-component of the vector
u = u + u
(6.30)
where the time averaged velocity component is
u
1
t
_
t+t
t
udt (6.31)
and, by denition
u
= 0 (6.32)
Turbulence intensity The turbulence intensity is dened as follows
I
_
u
2
+ v
2
+ w
2
3
_
1/2
(6.33)
often the relative quantity
i
I
u
(6.34)
is used in stead of I, see [17] p. 513. i 0.1% corresponds to moderate
intensity of turbulence.
Correlation The correlation between two uctuating quantities is dened
as
c = u
1
u
2
(6.35)
correlation coecient
R =
u
1
u
2
_
u
1
2
u
2
2
_
1/2
(6.36)
See Tritton [19] 19.1, 19.2, 19.3 . . .
6.4 Vorticity over a at plate
After the BL theory, for dimensionless velocities and lengths in a 2D bound-
ary layer u = O(1); x = O(1); v = O(/L); y = O(/L). The order of
magnitude estimates are derived from the divergence free constraint applied
to the two dimensional velocity eld.
This implies:
u
y

v
x
(6.37)
and
z
u/y over a at plate. The order of magnitude estimate gives
also
u
y

u
x
(6.38)
and du/dy can be regarded as a total derivative.
Line integral of the vorticity The integral of
z
performed in y direc-
tion
=
_

0
z
dy = = u() = u
e
(m/s) (6.39)
Global vorticity Over the top of the at plate
(t)
=
_
L
0
u()dx = u
e
L (m
2
/s) (6.40)
Conclusions Fluid ow realizations around a at plate are rotational,
unless u
= 0. More in general, viscous ows around a solid body are

rotational. Irrotational ows cannot satisfy the no slip condition at the wall
[17].
6.5 Iterative solution
6.5.1 Displacement thickness
For constant density cases
=
_
y
1
0
_
1
u
u
e
_
dy (6.41)
6.5.2 Eective body, actual body
6.5.3 Iterative procedure
1. Carry out an inviscid solution for the given body shape;
2. solve the boundary layer equations at various stations along the body,
using the velocity and pressure of the inviscid solution as BCs imposed
by the external ow (u
e
, p(x));
3. obtain
at these stations;
4. solve for the inviscid ow over an eective body = actual body +
;
5. go to number 2. until convergence.
6.6 Boundary layer over a non planar surface
If the solid surface is curved the Cartesian coordinates x and y are sub-
stituted with the curvilinear coordinates and , respectively parallel and
normal to the wall. In the curved surface case the pressure gradient in
wall-normal direction is balanced by the centripetal acceleration times the
density
dp
d

u
2
r
(6.42)
which is small and negligible for r. This comes from White [20] 4-2.1,
p.228.
The BL shows negligible dierence if the surface is curved, so long as
there are no sharp corners, i.e. r where r is the radius of curvature of
the surface.
6.7 Separation, attachment and wakes
6.7.1 Separation
Particles point of view In the book by Schlichting [17] 2.6 they report
that for a particle moving across a favorable pressure gradient, pressure is
transformed into kinetic energy, and in an adverse pressure gradient, kinetic
energy is transformed into pressure.
Tritton [19] states that when the pressure is increasing in the ow direc-
tion a uid particle is doing work against the pressure gradient and so loses
kinetic energy. When the pressure is decreasing it gains kinetic energy.
Acheson [2] reports that the adverse pressure gradient being the same
at all levels in the boundary layer is usually sucient to cause reversed ow
close to the boundary where the uid moves slowly on account of the no-slip
condition.
One could also use the momentum equation to speak of momentum loss
of low-speed particles.
Velocity proles and streamlines Good picture in [17] 2.6 p. 41
Denition The position of separation is given by the condition that the
velocity gradient perpendicular to the wall vanishes at the wall
u
y
(x
s
, y = 0) = 0 (6.43)
Conditions for separation
Flow separations can be spotted from the boundary layer equations them-
selves. The momentum equation at the wall, where u = v = 0
2
u
y
2
w
=
1
dp
dx
dp
e
dx
(6.44)
thus the curvature of the velocity prole has the sign of the pressure gradi-
ent. Prole curvature is an indicator of possible boundary layer separation.
Further out, the velocity prole has negative curvature when it merges with
the freestream. For negative (favorable) pressure gradient the curvature is
negative throughout and no ow separation can occur. For positive (ad-
verse) pressure gradient the curvature changes sign and separation occurs
for u/y 0. Condition
p
x
> 0 (6.45)
is only a necessary condition for separation. This comes from White [20]
4-2.2 p. 229.
Pressure gradient and ow regime eects
Occurrence of separation depends upon a number of parameters
x
s
= x
s
_
dp
dx
, ow regime, . . .
_
(6.46)
From Schlichting [17] 2.6 The ow separation is frequently quite sensitive
to small changes in the shape of the body [. . . ]. The shape of the body
dependence is included in dp/dx.
As pointed out in Ref. [17] p. 46 [. . . ] because of the turbulent mixing
motion, the energizing action of the outer ow on the turbulent boundary
layer is much greater than in the laminar case. Kinetic energy of the par-
ticles is larger in the turbulent BL. Turbulent BL can more easily overcome
adverse pressure gradients. See also Anderson [3] 15.2
The velocity of a uid particle inside the boundary layer is already re-
tarded by friction forces, a viscous ow (low Reynolds) is therefore more
prone to separation ([3] 4.12.4 p. 367)
Favorable, adverse pressure gradient Outside the boundary layer,
where the steady, inviscid ow hypothesis holds
u
e
du
e
dx
=
1
dp
dx
(6.47)
as can be derived from the Bernoulli equation.
Favorable pressure gradient:
dp
dx
< 0 and
due
dx
> 0
1. BLs are relatively thin
2. The instability leading to turbulence is delayed
Adverse pressure gradient:
dp
dx
> 0 and
due
dx
< 0
1. BLs are relatively thick
2. Instabilities leading to turbulence are promoted
3. The ow is prone to separation
This comes from Tritton [19] 11.3.
Example diusers in race cars. The aft part of a car underbody is where
a diuser is located. It works by accelerating the velocity of the airow
underneath the car.
During pre-season testing 2011, F1 teams had exhaust-blown diusers,
which blow hot air over the diuser, thus increasing downforce. After com-
plains the FIA bans changes to engine mapping between qualifying and
racing, preventing teams from running an aggressive blown diuser setup
for qualifying.
Injecting the exhaust into the rear diuser can help extract the air from
below the car and delay separation as well. The fast-moving air helps evac-
uate the diuser more quickly, which contributes to lowering the pressure at
the underbody.
Example Multi-Deck Diusers. In 2009, the Double-Decker Diuser
was rst introduced in F1 by Brawn GP, Williams F1, and Toyota Racing,
and then put into use by every team. A loophole in the rules allowed for
more volume in the diuser. The rules stated that the diuser must start at
a point aligned with the centerline of the rear wheels. The loophole allowed
for holes in the underbody, perpendicular to the reference plane that fed a
diuser channel that was above the main diuser. For 2011, the Formula 1
Technical Working Group has decided to ban multi-deck diusers.
Movie movies to show.
6.7.2 Attachment
Separated ow can give place to dierent phenomena
Re-attachment
Formation of a wake
All this section 6.7.2 comes from Tritton [19] 11.5.
Coanda eect The tendency for ows to attach to wall or to one an-
other is known as the Coanda eect. Example: car with blowing for a late
separation.
Separation bubble There is a tendency for separation to be followed by
re-attachment, unless the adverse pressure gradient continues long enough
to prevent it. The result is a localized separation bubble.
Flows away from boundaries are much more prone to become turbulent
than alongside a boundary. The usual sequence is
transition to turbulence occurs soon after separation
this promotes reattachment
there is a range of Re (3 10
5
3 10
6
) in which this sequence of events
occurs on a circular cylinder. See also Houghton and Carpenter [8].
6.7.3 Wakes
The uid that has become rotational in a BL retains his property as it travels
downstream thus forming a wake.
near wake the structure of a wake immediately behind a streamlined
obstacle is given by the thickness of the two layers.
far wake far enough downstream the wake structure becomes much less
dependent on the particular obstacle.
6.8 The starting vortex
As the ow over an airfoil is started, the large velocity gradients at the
sharp trailing edge result in the formation of a region of intense vorticity
which rolls up downstream of the trailing edge, forming the starting vortex
[. . . ]. See the starting vortex theory from Anderson [3].
The stagnation point moves toward the trailing edge, the circulation
around the wing and therefore its lift increases progressively as the stagna-
tion point moves back [. . . ]. (This comes from [8] 5.1.1)
For each uid element of an inviscid, two dimensional ow,
D
z
Dt
= 0 (6.48)
holds, therefore the starting vortex is a consequence of viscous eects, see
Acheson [2] 1.7. This does not contradict the inviscid approach of the
theory which is meant to explain the presence of two areas of opposite cir-
culation.
Vorticity and viscous forces at time t after the start will be conned to a
thin boundary layer on the airfoil, a thin wake and the core of the starting
vortex (See Acheson [2] p. 158)
6.9 Drag of slender and blunt bodies
Denition of drag Drag is the component in the ow direction . . .
6.9.1 Types of drag
Drag = skin friction + pressure drag
Skin friction Friction drag is dened
D
f

F
f
(6.49)
where
F
f
=
_
S
w
dS (6.50)
Pressure drag The net eect of a pressure distribution over the body
results in a force in the ow direction i.e. a drag
D
p

F
p
(6.51)
where

F
p
is the force due to pressure
F
p
=
_
S
pndS (6.52)
Vector n in equation (6.52) is the outward normal. Pressure drag has three
dierent origins
D
p
= D
p,f
+ D
p,i
+ D
p,w
(6.53)
where
D
p,f
: form drag
D
p,i
: induced drag (or vortex drag)
D
p,w
: wave drag (associated with the formation of shock waves)
This part comes from [8], see also examples of pressure drag origins for
a at plate, normal at plate, cylinder (where 5% is friction) in 1.5.5.
Remarks
Both D
p,f
and D
f
are eects of viscosity; inviscid ows do not sepa-
rate, their velocity not being decreased by the presence of a solid wall
([3] p. 367).
D
p,f
+ D
f
prole drag for a 2D body
Blunt (or blu) and slender (or streamlined) bodies
Denition: when the size of the wake is of the same order of magnitude
of the body itself . . .
Blunt bodies: most of the drag is pressure drag
Streamlined bodies: most of the drag is skin friction
Examples (car, race car, aircraft)
6.9.2 Drag coecient
C
D

F
x
2
u
2
A
(6.54)
for a car A is the projected frontal area ( 0.8 widthheight); for an aircraft
A is the wing plan area. For a blunt body C
D
varies little over a wide range
of high Re numbers, this is because p u
2
. In two dimensions:
c
D
=
F
2
u
2
l
y
(6.55)
where F
x
= F
x
/l
z
.
Cylinder and laminar airfoil The comparison between cylinder and a
NACA airfoil drag, see Schlichting 2.6.
ref. length c
D
Re range
NACA laminar airfoil chord l 0.006 10
6
to 10
7
circular cylinder diameter d 1 10
4
to 10
5
Table 6.1: Drag on an airfoil and a circular cylinder.
The ratio of the chord of the airfoil to the diameter of the cylinder which
have the same drag at equal free stream velocities is l/d = 1.0/0.006 = 167.
Because of suitable shaping, the boundary layer around the airfoil remains
laminar for almost the entire length.
6.9.3 Drag and wake
. . . , ideas from [8] 7.12 p. 468. Well done in Anderson [3] 2.6 p. 127.
Laminar or turbulent Is laminar or turbulent ow preferable? See [17]
p. 423 In general designers try at rst to decrease the larger source of drag.
6.9.4 Pressure coecient
Friction drag versus pressure (form) drag. Friction drag coecient and
pressure coecient
c
p

p p
1
2
u
2
(6.56)
Max c
p
= 1 from Bernoulli equation
Min (real ows) c
p
4
Plot of c
p
around a cylinder, see Schlichting [17] p. 39. Plot of c
p
around
a car, see Barnard [4] p. 72.
Figure 6.6: Reduction of pressure peaks in the development of the Audi 100.
Audi 100 II C
D
= 0.42; Audi 100 III C
D
= 0.30. The gure comes from [9]
4.4.3, p. 162.
Chapter 7
Circulation theory of lift
7.1 Introduction
Potential ow results and real life
1. Real ows over blu bodies separate while potential ows do not.
2. Steady, potential ow around a body produces no drag.
Role of friction Circulation around a lifting body and lift itself are con-
sequences of viscous eects, (Acheson [2] 1.7) recall the persistence of
irrotational ow for = cost, inviscid ow. However, since lift is due to
surface pressure distribution better than shear stress, an inviscid theory can
correctly predict lift.
7.2 KuttaJoukowsky theorem
For incompressible, irrotational ow uniform at innity past a two dimen-
sional body of any size or shape the lift per unit span
L
= u
_
N
m
_
(7.1)
where the circulation is evaluated over a curve enclosing the body.
Role of circulation The true physical sources of aerodynamic force on a
body are the pressure and shear stress distribution on the surface of the body.
Circulation is instead only a quantity determined by the same pressures
1
in
inviscid, incompressible ow ([3] 3.16). Circulation is more easy to evaluate
as compared to pressure distributions.
Kutta stated (1909):
1
Lift is primarily due to surface pressure distribution and shear stress has virtually no
eect on lift over airfoil shapes for example.
51
CHAPTER 7. CIRCULATION THEORY OF LIFT 52
On the upper surface the circulatory motion increases the
translatory one, therefore there is high velocity and consequently
low pressure, while on the lower surface the two movements are
opposite, therefore there is low velocity with high pressure, with
the result of a thrust upward.
See Anderson [3] 4.15 p. 385.
Circulation and ow deection There is a relation between the de-
ection of the airstream (lift) and circulation, see Acheson [2] 4.12 very
important.
7.3 Kutta condition
For irrotational ow, when the ow has to pass around the trailing edge, the
ow speed becomes innite, this cannot represent the physical reality (see
the potential ow around an expansion corner 4.5.9). The only position for
the rear stagnation point that leads to a nite ow is in the trailing edge. In
real ows, only with the rear stagnation point at the trailing edge the ow
leaves the upper and lower surfaces smoothly [8].
Imposing the Kutta condition gives a unique way of choosing the circu-
lation for an airfoil and thereby determining the lift.
7.4 The vortex sheet
Straight vortex lament As a consequence of Helmholtz statement 2,
is constant along the lament.
The vortex sheet Strength of a vortex sheet per unit length in the edge
view is () so that
d = () d (m
2
/s) (7.2)
Induced velocity Velocity induced in

P by the distribution ()d in

Q
is given by
dv =
k r
2r
2
() d (7.3)
where r =

P

Q
CHAPTER 7. CIRCULATION THEORY OF LIFT 53
Velocity jump The local jump in tangential velocity across the vortex
sheet is equal to the local sheet strength (See Anderson [3] 4.4)
= u
s
u
n
(7.4)
where the velocity components tangential to the top and the bottom of the
rectangular path are u
n
and u
s
respectively.
Equation (7.4) results from the limit for d 0 and d 0 in local,
curvilinear coordinates of
d = (u
s
u
n
) d + (v
w
v
e
) d (7.5)
which is the circulation around a rectangular path enclosing a section of the
sheet of length d.
Kutta condition in terms of The statement of the Kutta condition
in terms of the vortex sheet is as follows. At the trailing edge (TE), from
equation (7.4) we have
(TE) = 0 (7.6)
7.5 Prandtl-Munk method
Consider an airfoil of arbitrary shape and thickness in a freestream of u
.
Replace the airfoil surface with a vortex sheet of variable strength ().
Calculate the variation of as a function of such that the induced velocity
eld added to the freestream will make the vortex sheet a streamline of the
ow (See Anderson [3] 4.4 p. 310).
The resulting lift is given by the Kutta-Joukowski theorem
L
= u
_
() d (7.7)
The concept of replacing the airfoil with a vortex sheet is more than a
mathematical device, it also has physical signicance . . . (See Anderson [3]
4.4 p. 311).
No general analytical solution for () exists for an airfoil of arbitrary
shape; rather, the strength of the vortex sheet must be found numerically.
The above philosophy is the foundation of the modern vortex panel method
(See again Anderson [3] 4.4 p. 311).
7.6 Vortex panel method
See Anderson [3] p. 342.
Chapter 8
Thin airfoil theory
8.1 Airfoil nomenclature
leading edge bordo di attacco/entrata LE -
trailing edge bordo di uscita TE -
airfoil chord corda c (m)
chord line corda - -
camber curvatura y
c
(m)
camber line linea media - -
thickness spessore . . . (m)
maximum thickness spessore massimo t (m)
ap ipersostentatore - -
slot fessura - -
The chord line is drawn between points (LE, TE) where the curvature is
greatest ([8] p. 18). Thickness is measured perpendicular to the chord. The
maximum distance between chord and camber line (measured perpendicular
to the chord) is the camber.
The shapes of all standard NACA
1
airfoils are generated by specifying
the shape of the camber line and then wrapping a symmetrical thickness
distribution. Part of this nomenclature comes from [15].
Four digits NACA series NACA XYZZ
X maximum camber in hundredths of chord (X = 100 y
c,max
/c)
Y location of maximum camber in tenths of chord (Y = 10 x
c,max
/c)
ZZ maximum thickness in hundredths of chord (ZZ = 100 t/c)
Example: NACA 2412
1
NACA = National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.
54
CHAPTER 8. THIN AIRFOIL THEORY 55
Five digits NACA series NACA XYYZZ
X design lift coecient (X = 20 c
L
/3)
YY location of maximum camber (YY = 200 x
c,max
/c)
ZZ maximum thickness in hundredths of chord (ZZ = 100 t/c)
Example: NACA 23012
8.2 Thin airfoil theory
A thin airfoil can be simulated by a vortex sheet placed on the chord. The
variation of (x) has to be calculated such that the camber line becomes a
streamline of the ow and such that the Kutta condition is satised at the
trailing edge (x = c) = 0. Once the particular (x) is found
=
_
TE
LE
(x) dx (8.1)
the lift L
is evaluated via the K-J theorem. (This part comes from Anderson
[3] p. 320)
8.2.1 Symmetric airfoils
For a thin symmetrical airfoil, (x) such that the camber line ( = chord in
this case) is streamline and (TE) = 0 gives
L
= 2 c q
_
N
m
_
(8.2)
therefore
c
L
= 2 (8.3)
The lift slope
a
0

dc
L
d
= 2
_
rad
1
_
= 0.11
_
deg
1
_
(8.4)
Agreement with experiments is good provided that is only a few degrees
( < 6 12 deg.) mostly because the approximation tan() is used.
8.2.2 Cambered airfoils
For a thin cambered airfoil the vorticity distribution (x) making the camber
line a streamline and (TE) = 0 gives a lift per unit span
L
= 2 c q
(
L=0
)
_
N
m
_
(8.5)
For cambered airfoils a
0
= 2 is still true, the lift at zero angle of attack is
nite while
L=0
2 to 3 deg. The zero-lift angle of attack is a function
of the amount of camber, with
L=0
becoming more negative as the camber
is increased.
In the inviscid case and to a good extent also for real airfoils the lift
slope a
0
is not inuenced by Re.
8.3 Real airfoil behavior
8.3.1 Airfoil stall
As is increased: (1) the stagnation point progressively moves downstream
of the leading edge over the bottom surface ([3] p. 370); (2) for > 10 12
deg separation can be observed on the prole.
Under separated ow at high angle of attack conditions, the airfoil is said
to be stalled ([3], p. 302). In stalled conditions a drop in lift is associated
with a raise of (form) drag.
Separation does not aect the bottom surface pressure distribution. In
the case of separated ow, near the leading edge the pressure is larger on the
top surface causing a reduction in lift; near the trailing edge the pressure is
smaller thus increasing pressure drag, giving place to stall conditions.
The maximum lift coecient c
L,max
is dependent upon Re because sep-
aration is a viscous eect ([3] p. 303).
Figure 8.1: Comparison between attached ow (potential ow calculation)
and partially separated (experimental) pressure distribution under the same
conditions ( = 20.5) on a GAW-1 airfoil. The gure comes from [12]
15.4.1, p. 509.
8.3.2 Drag
For real ows drag is not anymore zero. Viscosity acts through skin friction
drag and pressure drag due to ow separation (= form drag), the so called
prole drag. The drag coecient is sensitive to Re.
In a streamlined body 85% of the drag is skin friction, 15% pressure drag
due to ow separation, see Anderson [3] p. 362.
Estimating form drag
Form drag is dened as the pressure drag due to ow separation.
Estimating skin friction drag
Laminar ow From the Blasius solution to the BL equations
C
f,l

1.328
Re
x=c
(8.6)
and
D
f
2SC
f
q
(8.7)
clearly the friction drag is due to the shear stress integrated over both the
top and the bottom surfaces.
Turbulent ow Equation for C
f
in turbulent boundary layers
C
f,t
=
0.074
Re
1/5
x=c
(8.8)
the boundary layer is still laminar before x
c
therefore:
D
f
= 2q
[x
c
C
f,l
+ (c x
c
) C
f,t
] (8.9)
equation (8.9) includes the friction of both top and bottom surfaces. The
critical Re number being approximately Re
c
= 5 10
5
to 5 10
6
. 1
Friction drag estimate on a road vehicle
Means for decreasing skin friction drag
Laminar BL extended (body shape, surface smoothness)
Decrease of turbulent skin friction using passive devices, e.g. riblets.
8.4 Quality of an airfoil
Lift to drag ratio
Maximum lift coecient
Lift to drag ratio L/D is a direct measure of aerodynamic eciency.
c
L
/c
D
ratios might be as large as 100 for an airfoil; for real airplanes are
on the order 10 to 20.
Note that c
D
is sensitive to Re, see a (c
D
, ) plot in Anderson [3] 4.3,
p. 305.
Maximum lift coecient The maximum value of c
L
, denoted by c
L,max
is one of the most important aspects of airfoil performance. The higher is
c
L,max
, the lower is the stalling speed.
The value of c
L,max
is dependent on Re and the airfoil shape. As the
thickness ratio (t/c) increases, c
L,max
rst increases reaches a maximum
value ( 1.5) at a thickness ratio of about 12% and then decreases (Anderson
[3] p. 373). The maximum lift coecient c
L,max
is always increasing with
Re.
8.5 High lift devices
Trailing edge ap Flaps increase camber, angle of incidence and in some
cases wing area. When the ap is deected the lift coecient is increased
because of an eective increase in the camber of the airfoil (see gure 4.54,
Anderson p. 375 [3], Houghton [8] 8.3).
Leading edge slat Thin, curved surface deployed in front of the lead-
ing edge. The slat modies the pressure distribution over the top surface,
mitigating the adverse pressure gradient. The slat eect is explained in [8]
8.3.1 p. 495 by replacing the slat with a counterclockwise vortex but the
explanation is not enough clear. The reduction in pressure over the upper
surface is counter-balanced by the rise in pressure on the lower surface.
A leading edge slat increases the stalling angle of attack provided that
they are appropriately designed. (See Anderson [3] p. 377, Houghton [8]
8.3)
Slot A slot is an air passage in a wing for modifying lift.
8.5.1 Multi-element airfoil
Modern aircraft use combinations of these devices in the form of multi ele-
ment wings. Thanks to a fresh boundary layer eect, wings can withstand
a much greater pressure dierence than a comparable single-element airfoil
(See [8] 8.3.3).
Fresh boundary layer eect The boundary layer in each element devel-
ops largely independent from those on the others. This has the advantage of
ensuring a fresh boundary layer at the start of the adverse pressure gradient
on each element (See [8] 8.3.4).
Chapter 9
Wings of nite span
9.1 Finite wing nomenclature
span apertura alare b (m)
planform area supercie alare S (m
2
)
sweep-back angle angolo di freccia
LE
,
TE
(deg)
aspect ratio allungamento AR b
2
/S (-)
wing tip estremit` a -
wing root attacco -
taper ratio rastremazione c
t
/c
r
(-)
angle of attack angolo dattacco (deg)
induced angle angolo indotto
i
(deg)
eective angle angolo ecace
e
(deg)
downwash componente di deessione w (m/s)
horseshoe vortex vortice a staa -
free trailing vortex vortice libero -
bound vortex vortice aderente -
lifting line linea portante -
geometric twist svergolamento geometrico -
aerodynamic twist svergolamento aerodinamico -
Many of those come from [15]. Geometric angle of attack is the same as
angle of attack. Geometric twist means that the angle of attack changes
along the span = f(y); aerodynamic twist
L=0
= f(y).
9.2 Induced drag
Trailing vortex
Local relative wind
60
CHAPTER 9. WINGS OF FINITE SPAN 61
Downwash
Induced drag Winglets for reducing the induced drag see Airbus A340
(from 8.7 [8]).
Induced drag coecient, total drag coecient
C
D
= C
D,i
+ c
D
=
D
p,i
1
2
u
2
S
+
D
f
+ D
p,f
1
2
u
2
S
(9.1)
9.3 Prandtl classical lifting-line theory
9.3.1 Introduction
Single horseshoe vortex Downwash distribution along the y axis for a
single vortex lament
w(y) =

4
_
1
b
2
+ y
+
1
b
2
y
_
(9.2)
Equation (9.2) is derived using the Biot-Savart Law
1
Lifting line When a large number of horseshoe vortices are superimposed,
each with a dierent length of the bound vortex, then all the bound vortices
form the lifting line. The nite wing is replaced with the model of a lifting
line along which the circulation (y) varies continuously. The calculation of
(y) still remains to be addressed.
Slope of the circulation distribution Using the Helmholtz theorem,
statement 2 (see 5.1.2), it is easy to show that the change in circulation
d
b
dy
(y) =
t
(y) (9.3)
equals the (variable) strength per unit length of the trailing vortex system.
See [8] p. 216, g. 5.6. The subscript b stands for bound, t for trailing; the
axis of bound vortex is in the spanwise direction y, free trailing vortices are
in the axial direction x.
1
For a vortex lament in three dimensions:
dv =

4
d
l r
|r|
3
9.3.2 Downwash velocity induced in y
Downwash velocity induced in y by the semi-innite trailing vortex at y
dw =

t
( y)d y
4(y y)
=
d
b
dy
( y)d y
4(y y)
(9.4)
Total velocity w induced at y by the entire trailing vortex sheet
w(y) =
1
4
_ b
2
b
2
d
b
dy
( y)
(y y)
d y (9.5)
9.3.3 Induced angle of attack in y
i
= arctan
_
w
u
_

w
u
(9.6)
then
i
(y) =
1
4u
_ b
2
b
2
d
b
dy
( y)
(y y)
d y (9.7)
9.3.4 Fundamental equation of the lifting line theory
The fundamental equation of the lifting line theory is an expression of
(y) =
e
(y) +
i
(y) (9.8)
in terms of
b
(y) and its y-derivative. Equation (9.7) provides the sought
expression for
i
. The eective angle of attack is the angle of attack actually
seen by the local airfoil section and the (two dimensional) thin airfoil theory
provides
L
(y) = 2 [
e
(y)
L=0
(y)] c(y)q
(9.9)
after the K-J theorem
L
(y) = u
b
(y) (9.10)
The fundamental equation of Prandtls lifting line theory takes the form
(y) =

b
(y)
u
c(y)
+
L=0
(y) +
1
4u
_ b
2
b
2
d
b
dy
( y)
(y y)
d y (9.11)
Solution
b
(y) to equation (9.11) provides:
1. Lift distribution L
(y) through the K-J theorem

2. Total lift
3. Induced drag D
i
= L
tan
i
9.4 Elliptical circulation distribution
When the circulation distribution is elliptical
(y) =
0
1
_
2y
b
_
2
(9.12)
also the lift distribution is elliptical.
Downwash From equations (9.12) and (9.4) and some work,
w =
0
2b
(9.13)
for an elliptical lift distribution, downwash is constant over the span.
Induced angle of attack For elliptical circulation distribution, also the
induced angle is uniform along the span
i
=
C
L
AR
(9.14)
and the same is true for the induced drag coecient
C
D,i
=
C
2
L
AR
(9.15)
Equation (9.15) provides a relation between C
D,i
, C
L
. Remarks:
in conventional airplanes AR = 6 8
C
D,i
is large during take o (and landing)
F1 cars have very small AR
true only for wings, still an indication for cars (. . . the Audi A2 case)
For general circulation distribution
C
D,i
=
C
2
L
AR
(1 + ) (9.16)
the variation of between dierent wing shapes is only a few percent (0
0.08) and can be ignored, see gure 9.1.
Birds Selection of longer wings (AR). Formation ight: a positive down-
wash can decrease drag.
0 0.5 1 1.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
i
(deg.)
C
L
= 0
= 0.08
0 0.5 1 1.5
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
C
D,i
C
L
= 0
= 0.08
Figure 9.1: Induced angle of attack and induced drag coecient as function
of C
L
for dierent aspect ratios AR = 6, 8, 10, 20
9.4.1 Lift slope for a nite wing
The lift slope for an airfoil is dened as
a
0

dc
L
d
(9.17)
for a nite wing
c
L
(y) = a
0
(
e
L=0
) = a
0
(
i
L=0
) (9.18)
Consider an elliptic wing
i
= f(y) with no geometric twist = f(y) nor
aerodynamic twist
L=0
= f(y), then the lift slope is independent of y
C
L
= f(y) (9.19)
therefore c
L
= C
L
and
a
dC
L
d
(9.20)
gives
a =
a
0
_
1 +
a
0
AR
_ (9.21)
For general circulation distribution
a =
a
0
_
1 +
a
0
AR
_
(1 + )
0.05 0.25 (9.22)
9.4.2 Wings of elliptical shape
. . .
9.5 Delta wings
The length of a delta wing in x direction is given by b tan()/2 and its aspect
ratio
AR =
4
tan
(9.23)
see [12] p. 522 and the denition of sweep-back angle in [8] 1.3.1. Unity
aspect ratio AR = 1 corresponds to 76 deg.
Description of the ow above a delta wing When the leading edge is
sharp, the location of separation is xed along the leading edge [12] 15.4.3.
The leading edge vortices are large and stable and create a secondary ow
Figure 9.2: Primary and secondary vortex pattern in the crossow plane
on the upper surface of the wing, giving place to a (smaller and weaker)
secondary vortex, see gure 9.2.
Pressure coecient on a cross-ow plane Negative on the upper sur-
face, positive (0 < c
p
< 1) on the lower surface. The eect of the vortical
ow is given by two large suction peaks on the upper surface of the wing.
Very good picture in [12] 15.4.3, g. 15.42, p. 517.
Lift coecient versus Lift coecient values depend on the aspect
ratio of the wing besides the angle of attack. Lift is not linear with
anymore because of the vortex lift eect, see gure 9.3, comes from [12]
g. 15.44. The leading edge shape has an eect on the lift of a delta wing,
see gure 9.4, comes from [12] g. 15.46.
Leading edge vortex breakdown Besides the angle of attack, the onset
of vortex burst depends on the aspect ratio as well. For a AR = 1 wing, a
gradual increase of angle of attack will cause the vortex burst behind the
trailing edge to move forward. At about 35-40 deg the vortex burst will pass
forward of the trailing edge and initiate the wing stall [12] p. 522. Stalling
angles decrease with AR, see [12] g 15.49.
Figure 9.3: Lift coecient for a delta wing
Drag coecient versus Friction drag also for = 0; same magnitude
of C
L
, smoother than C
L
before = 20 deg larger slope for > 20 deg, see
gure 9.5, comes from [12] g 15.51. For large enough and <
stall
tan
C
D
C
L
(9.24)
Figure 9.4: Eect of the leading edge on lift
Figure 9.5: Lift and drag coecients versus angle of attack
Chapter 10
Blunt bodies
Flow separation over blunt bodies
Wake
Base of a blunt body
10.0.1 Base pressure
The region of separation is often referred to as base region. In the base
region, a uniform pressure eld is very often encountered.
c
p,s
= 1
u
2
s
u
2
(10.1)
For a larger pressure recovery on the downstream part of the body, u
s
has
to be small.
Volkswagen van The Volkswagen van, see [9] 1.2.7 p. 41 and g-
ure 1.5.3. A non-dimensional radius of r/b = 0.045 where b is the spanwise
width of the van is sucient to keep the ow attached. Accordingly the c
D
decreases from 0.76 to 0.42 (Moeller, 1951).
10.1 Energy in the wake of a blunt body
For negligible heat transfer eects and potential energy changes,
(K + I) = W (10.2)
where W is the work done by drag in a time interval, K is the kinetic energy
and I the internal energy of the ow. Work done by drag
W = Du
t (10.3)
68
CHAPTER 10. BLUNT BODIES 69
equals the energy increase in the ow eld
E = Du
t (10.4)
where E = (K + I). See Buresti [6]. The energy content in the wake
per unit length equals drag (from Ref. [18])
E
0
= D (N) (10.5)
Estimate of form drag about a blunt body . . .
10.2 Kinetic energy content of the wake vortices
Four parameters for evaluating the energy content of a wake (from Ref. [18])
1. Strength of the vortices: for a Rankine
1
vortex:
_
_
u
= r r a
u
=
a
2
r
r > a
(10.6)
the angular velocities
1
,
2
of two vortices of equal size (a
1
= a
2
)
but dierent strength (
2
= 2a
2
2
2
= 2ka
2
1
1
= k
1
) is linearly
dependent on their strength (
2
= k
1
).
(10.7)
2. Vortex size: The ratio between the angular velocities of two Rankine
vortices having the same strength ( = 2a
2
1
1
= 2a
2
2
2
) but dierent
radius (a
2
= ka
1
) shows a quadratic increase
1/k
2
(10.8)
The ratio between velocity maxima is instead linear
v
1,max
v
2,max
= k (10.9)
smaller vortices of equal strength have larger velocity maxima.
3. Distance between the two rows: the kinetic energy content of
two symmetric, counter-rotating vortices increases with their mutual
distance.
4. Vortex coherence: the energy level in the wake behind a blu body
is larger for highly organized ows.
1
The strength of a Rankine vortex for r > a does not grow anymore.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
1
2
3
4
k
x
Figure 10.1: Kinetic energy of two counter-rotating vortices as a function
of their distance x. All quantities are non dimensional, a
1
= a
2
= 0.05,
u
max
= 10, the domain is a square box [0 1] [0 1], see the script available.
10.3 Strategies for form drag reduction
1. Low speed in the separation region:
=
_

0
z
dy u() (10.10)
2. Turbulent boundary layer
3. Reduced wake dimension
4. Discourage occurrence of separation along a straight line
10.4 Flow past a circular cylinder: the real case
10.4.1 Low speed open loop wind tunnel
10.4.2 Flow features for dierent ow conditions
Stokes ow Re 1
Asymmetry grows Re < 4
Stable vortices between Re = 4 and Re = 40
Von Karman vortex street 40 < Re < 200
Transition of the wake 200 < Re < 400
Subcritical Drag crisis Supercritical
Re . . . . . . . . .
c
D
. . . . . . . . .
BL . . . . . . . . .
sep
. . . . . . . . .
wake . . . . . . . . .
vortices . . . . . . . . .
row distance . . . . . . . . .
Table 10.1: Description of the ow about a circular cylinder.
Subcritical region Re < 3 10
5
Drag crisis 3 10
5
< Re < 3 10
6
Supercritical region Re > 3 10
6
Surface roughness eect
Pressure coecient Pressure coecient around a circular cylinder for
the ideal case, subcritic regime, supercritic regime.
Strouhal number Plot of the Strouhal number as function of Re for the
ow around a circular cylinder.
St =
fD
u
(10.11)
Antennas and noise, not drag.
10.5 Drag coecient of bodies with sharp corners
For blu bodies with sharp corners, where separation is xed, C
D
is almost
independent of Re. Bodies with rounded ends display a dependence of C
D
with Re, see gure 10.2. In the sharp corner case, separation takes place
before the horizontal part of the body; in the rounded corner case, the ow
remains attached there. A drag crisis is observed due to transition taking
place after separation.
Figure 10.2: Drag coecient as a function of Re for a square cylinder with
sharp and rounded edges. The gure comes from [6].
10.6 Interference eects
Interference drag
D = D
1+2
(D
1
+ D
2
) (10.12)
interference may give positive (D < 0) or negative (D > 0) eects.
Circular disks normal to the ow
1. Being the pressure rise in front of the second disk only moderate,
the drag on the rst disk is hardly altered.
2. The oncoming ow of the second disk is made by the wake of
the leading disk. The drag on the second disk is reduced (lee-
side eect) Around x/d = 3/2 the drag on the second disk has a
negative peak. The thrust on the second disk is generated by a
lower pressure in the wake of the leading disk than the pressure
in its own wake.
Circular cylinders, subcritical ow
1. For subcritical Reynolds number the BL on the rst cylinder is
laminar and its wake is wide. The pressure rise in front of the
second cylinder has a (limited) eect only for x/D < 3
2. The BL on the second cylinder goes turbulent and therefore, dif-
ferent from the disks the drag of the second cylinder remains low
and constant. Double C
D
minima for x/D 0 and x/D 2.
Slender bodies
1. The drag of the leading body is reduced with a single negative
minimum for x/l 0: due to the stagnation of the ow in front
of the second body the pressure in the rear part of the rst is
raised. This is true as long as the pressure raise in the aft part
of the body does not cause the ow to separate.
Figure 10.3: Interference between circular disks normal to the ow and cir-
cular cylinders in subcritical ow. The gure comes from Hucho [9] 2.3.4.2
p. 81.
2. The drag of the second body is increased by a greater friction
drag due to a turbulent BL.
For larger distances (x/l > 2) the drag of both bodies is the same as
for the single body.
This part comes from Hucho [9] 2.3.4.2 p. 81.
Small aps at zero incidence In the subcritical regime a small, symmet-
ric ap with = 0 behind a circular cylinders lowers the c
D
drag coecient
from c
D
1 to c
D
0.9.
10.7 Aerodynamics of three-dimensional blunt bod-
ies
Two-dimensional vs three-dimensional bodies Three-dimensional body
have lower drag coecients as respect their two-dimensional counterparts.
Cylinder (Re=10
4
3 10
5
) C
D
1
Sphere (Re=10
4
10
6
) C
D
0.5
Square cylinder (Any Re) C
D
2
Cube (Subcritical ow) C
D
1
Figure 10.4: Interference between slender bodies. The gure is taken from
Hucho [9] 2.3.4.2 p. 81.
Forebody drag Drag Coecients of the forebody pressure drag for a series
of cylindrical bodies evaluated from measurements of the pressure distribu-
tion.
Streamlined bullet shape C
D,f
= 0.05
Rounded front edge C
D,f
= 0.2
Cone-shaped front edge C
D,f
= 0.2 to 0.4
Flat front face C
D,f
= 0.8
Sharpened shapes have larger drag than rounded shapes. See [4], gure 5.4
for this.
10.8 Road Vehicle Aerodynamics (RVAD)
Slides are being prepared on the topic. Many [1, 4, 9, 11] and [18].
Bibliography
[1] In J. Anthoine and L. L ofdal, editors, Road Vehicle Aerodynamics, Lec-
ture Series 2005. von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, Rhode
Saint Genèse, Belgium, 2005.
[2] D. J. Acheson. Elementary Fluid Dynamics. Oxford University Press,
Oxford, 1990.
[3] J. D. Anderson. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics. Mc Graw-Hill, 4th
edition, 2007.
[4] R. H. Barnard. Road Vehicle Aerodynamic Design. MechAero Publish-
ing, St. Albans, England, 2nd edition, 2001.
[5] G. K. Batchelor. An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, Cambridge, 2000. First published 1967.
[6] G. Buresti. Blu-body aerodynamics. Dipartimento di Ingegneria
Aerospaziale, Universit` a di Pisa, 2000. Available on the web.
[7] G. M. Homsy. Multimedia Fluid Mechanics. Cambridge University
Press, 2007.
[8] E. L. Houghton and P. W. Carpenter. Aerodynamics for Engineering
Students. Butterworth-Heinemann, 5th edition, 2002.
[9] W. H. Hucho, editor. Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles. SAE interna-
tional, Warrendale USA, 4th edition, 1998.
[10] F. P. Incropera and D. P. De Witt. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer. Wiley, 5th edition, 2002.
[11] J. Katz. New Directions in Race Car Aerodynamics: designing for
speed. Bentley Publishers, Cambridge, USA, 1995.
[12] J. Katz and A. Plotkin. Low-Speed Aerodynamics. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 2nd edition, 2001.
75
BIBLIOGRAPHY 76
[13] L. D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz. Fluid Mechanics Course of Theoret-
ical Physics, volume 6. Butterworth-Heinemann Elsevier, 2nd edition,
1995.
[14] L. E. Malvern. Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium.
Prenctice-Hall, Englewood Clis, New Jersey, 1969.
[15] G. Marolli. Technical Dictionary English-Italian/Italian-English.
Hoepli, Milano, 13th edition, 1996.
[16] S. B. Pope. Turbulent ows. Cambridge University Press, New York,
2000.
[17] H. Schlichting and K. Gersten. Boundary Layer Theory. Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, 8th edition, 2000. The rst edition of this book was
published in the German language in 1951.
[18] A. Talamelli. Lezioni del corso di Aerodinamica. Universit` a di Modena
e Reggio Emilia, Facoltà di Ingegneria, 2007.
[19] D. J. Tritton. Physical Fluid Dynamics. Oxford University Press, Ox-
ford, 2nd edition, 1988.
[20] F. M. White. Viscous Fluid Flow. Mc Graw-Hill, 2nd edition, 1991.

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Lecture notes

kinetic energy of the freestream q

angular velocity vector of a uid element (rad/s)

< 108 m/s,

< 34 m/s, corresponding to 123 km/h.

density eld, referential description

velocity eld, referential description

k. The projection along z of

; the border line does not correspond to any observable

the friction drag D

, wall roughness, heating of the uid

is the turbulence intensity of the freestream to be dened in section

and rough walls.

= 30 m/s, standard air.

= 30 m/s, standard air.

= 0. More in general, viscous ows around a solid body are

(y) through the K-J theorem

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