STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS WITH STRAIN GAGE MEASUREMENTS

Experiment 1
The main objective of this experiment is to measure elastic strains by using strain
gages placed on different engineering structures. One experiment is designed to demonstrate
the arrangement of strain gages for the measurement of multi-axial strains; in another
experiment the Modulus of elasticity of the material is to be determined, for a beam where the
loading condition and developed stresses can be easily calculated.

Experiment 2
The main objective of this experiment is to determine the shear modulus of an 6061
aluminum alloy, by measurements on a twisted hollow shaft. In this experiment shear
modulus of the material will be calculated in two different ways: by using measured strains
and measured twist angles. Another purpose of this experiment is to show the arrangement of
strain gages for measuring strains on a shaft subjected to torsion loading.

Introduction
Strain gages are electro-mechanical measuring devices based on the principle that, for
a wire the resistance will effected if its dimensions are changed. The resistance of the wire is
directly proportional to its length, and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area:

A
l
R = (Eq. 1)
where is the resistivity constant specific to the material used, l is the length and A is the
cross-sectional area.
For a strain gage the following equation can be written,
c K
R
R
=
A
(Eq. 2)
The proportionally constant K is called the strain gage factor and is a characteristic
property of the gage. This value is proportional to l and A (Poisson ratio: ). Commercially
available strain gages have a K value between 2 and 4.
There are different types of strain gages such as; wire gage, foil gage and semiconductor gage.


Figure 1. Three types of resistance strain gages.
a) wire gage, b) foil gage, c) semiconductor gage

Strain gage transducers usually employ four strain gage elements electrically
connected to form a Wheatstone bridge circuit. A Wheatstone bridge is a divided bridge
circuit used for the measurement of static or dynamic electrical resistance. The output voltage
of the Wheatstone bridge is expressed in volts output per volt input. The difference between
input voltage and output voltage is proportional to elongation of strain gages.

Figure 2. Wheatstone bridge circuit Figure 3. Uni-axial strain gage (left)
and tri-axial strain gage rosette (right).

Uni-axial strain gages are commonly used for relatively simple structures where the
directions of elongations can be estimated. By using tri-axial strain gage rosettes, elongations
in three directions can also be measured. If there are multi-axial stresses on a structure and or
if the directions of elongations are difficult to estimate, then tri-axial strain gage rosettes can
be used (Figure 3).

Experimental Setup

In this experiment the structures to be examined are supported by a rigid frame.
Different test structures can be mounted on this frame such as; I-beam, tube (hollow shaft)
and an aircraft wing section.

Figure 4. Experimental setup
1.Rigid Frame: The frame of the system is a rigid steel structure which will provide the proper
strength to support the experimentation without deflection. It is designed to accommodate a
number of basic structural members for analysis.

2. Strain Bridge Controller (Data Box): This box houses a number of functions that allow you
to accomplish the task of measuring strain in your structure.

1
2
3
4


Figure 5. Front and rear views of data box.

3. Load cell: The forces applied in this experiment are measured by a load cell. Load cell is a
device that measures the applied force. It sends electronic signals to data box to display
applied the force.
The strains in this experiment are calculated with the help of a strain calculator, where the
measured voltages are inputs. An interface will be used to calculate strains with the help of
these voltage values measured in loaded and unloaded conditions. Calculator gives R/R
values (Eq. 2) and to obtain strain values, R/R values must be divided by the gage factor
value ( K= 2.09).

4. I beam(experiment1): This structure will be used in this experiment. A load will be
applied to this structure from one side to create pure bending stresses.

Figure 6. Loading and strain gage replacement on I-beam.

EXPERIMENT 1

Experimental Procedure
In this experiment I-beam will be used for structural analysis, before the experiment
the measurements will be demonstrated on the aircraft flap. After the demonstration follow
the instructions given below:

1. Install the I-beam to the frame.
2. Turn on the Strain Bridge Controller and let it stabilize. Allow it approx. 10 minutes to
warm up.
3. After the system is stabilized, record the at-rest voltage levels of each strain gage. This
is accomplished by turning the channel knob to each strain gage channel (A-G),
displaying the value of each channel in the lower panel meter. The location and
corresponding letter of each strain gage is labeled in the Figures 6 and 7.
4. Loosen the friction lock and slide the Load Cell Point Load Applicator until it is
positioned on the vertical axis of the beam. Tighten the friction lock.
5. Add a load to the system. This is accomplished by using crank handle, start cranking
clockwise to add a load to the free end of the profile. Choose a load between 50 to 75
lbs.
6. Record voltage levels of each strain gage in the loaded condition.

Presentation of the Results and Discussion
1. Calculate the strains at all strain gage locations by using the measured voltages.
2. Measure the dimensions of the I-beam, calculate the area moment of inertia and
calculate the theoretical stress for the applied loading.
3. Can you predict the elasticity modulus of the material?.
4. Discuss your results.



EXPERIMENT 2

Theory/Background
Torsional loads are created by propellers on aircraft, transmissions in cars, or by highway
signs that are twisted by wind. Torque results from the product of a force applied at a
distance.
The Modulus of Rigidity (or shear modulus), G, is a measure of the stiffness of a material
under shear loading. The modulus of rigidity is defined as:

t
= G

where: is the applied shear stress
is the resulting shear strain.


Figure 4. Torsion of a shaft.

In this experiment, a torque, T, is applied to the specimen as shown in Figure 4. To relate
the applied torque, T, to the resulting shear stress, , the elastic torsion formula is used. This
formula assumes that:

The shaft is straight and of constant cross-section.
Plane sections remain plane and a diameter line remains straight during twisting.

The elastic torsion formula is:
J
T
t =
where: T is the applied torque
is the distance from the axis of the shaft to where the stress is acting
J is the polar moment of inertia with respect to the longitudinal axis

For a solid circular shaft and a hollow shaft,
32
4
d
J
t
=
(solid)
32
) (
4 4
d D
J

=
t
(hollow)

where: D and d inner and outer diameters of the hollow shaft.

In pure torsion, the maximum shear stresses develop in the longitudinal (axial) and
transverse directions; there will be no normal stress on either the longitudinal or transverse
plane on which the maximum shearing stress acts.
The maximum tensile stress and the maximum compressive stresses are equal in magnitude to
the shear stress, and they are on the planes at 45 degrees, Figure 5. Likewise, there will be no
shearing stress on the planes at 45 degrees.

Figure 5. Developed stresses on a shaft due to pure torsion.

Strain gages can only measure normal strains in the proper orientations. For this reason 45
degrees gages are placed on the shaft used in this experiment. A three-strain gage rosette has
been placed onto each side of the hollow shaft. The rosettes are oriented such that the three
gages measure strains at 0, -45 and +45 with respect to the longitudinal axis of the
specimen. (Figure)

Figure 6. Arrangement of strain gages for torsion test.

If the normal strains
x
,
y
and the shear strain
xy
are known in a given coordinate system, the
normal strain

in any direction can be calculated with the following given formula.(See

Figure 6.)
) 2 sin(
2
) 2 cos(
2 2
u

u
c c c c
c
u
xy y x y x
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=


In our case

is known for =45 (cos(2)=0 and sin(2)=1). So the equation becomes:

2 2
45
xy y x
c c
c +
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=


For the case of pure torsion,
x
=
y
= 0, and therefore
x
=
y
= 0. So the final equation
becomes:
45
2c =
xy

45
2

= c
xy


Or better, the shear strain,
xy
, may be determined from the help of both values
45
and
45

as a combination of the two strain readings using previous equations.

45 45
= c c
xy





Experimental Procedure

Measure the dimensions (outer diameter and length) of shaft and length of the
moment arm (thickness of hollow shaft is 3,175 mm)
Install the aluminum hollow shaft, yoke and moment arm to the frame.
Turn on the Strain Bridge Controller and let it stabilize. Allow it approx. 10 minutes
to warm up.
After the system is stabilized, record the at-rest voltage levels of each strain gage.
This is accomplished by turning the channel knob to each strain gage channel (A-H),
displaying the value of each channel in the lower panel meter. The location and
corresponding letter of each strain gage is labeled in the Figure 8.
Loosen the friction lock and slide the Load Cell Point Load Applicator until it is
positioned just under the end of the arm. Tighten the friction lock.
Add different loads to the system by turning crank handle clockwise. It is
recommended to make 2 measurements (approx. 25 and 50 lbs).
Record the displacement of the moment arm after each loading. (This value will be
used to calculate twist angle.)
Record voltage levels of each strain gage in the loaded condition.

Presentation of the Results and Discussion
1. Calculate the shear modulus G by using the given equations.
2. Find the same G by using the measured twist angle.

GJ
TL
=
T: applied torque
L: length of the shaft
G: shear modulus
J: the polar moment of inertia with respect to the longitudinal axis

3. Compare these two G values and comment.


Strain
Gage
Unloaded
Voltage
Loaded lbs
Voltage
Loaded lbs
Voltage
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H