LABORATORY MANUAL

EE0405 SIMULATION LAB

PREPARED BY
J.PREETHA ROSELYN
(AP/Sr.G/EEE)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
SRM UNIVERSITY, Kattankulathur 603 203
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
S.No. Name of the Experiments Page No.
1 Single phase half controlled converter using R and RL load
using MATLAB / SIMULINK
2 Single phase fully controlled converter using R and RL load
using MATLAB / SIMULINK
3 Three phase fully controlled converter using R and RL load
using MATLAB / SIMULINK
4 Single phase AC voltage regulator using MATLAB /
SIMULINK
5 Formation of Y bus matrix by inspection / analytical method
using MATLAB Software
6 Formation of Z bus using building algorithm using MATLAB
Software
7 Gauss Seidal load flow analysis using MATLAB Software
8 Newton Raphson method of load flow analysis using
MATLAB Software
9 Fast decoupled load flow analysis using MATLAB Software
10 Fault analysis using MATLAB Software
11 Economic dispatch using MATLAB Software
12 Load flow analysis using ETAP Software
13 Fault analysis using MIPOWER Software
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Syllabus
2. Mapping of Program Outcomes with Instructional Objectives
3. Mapping of Program Educational Objectives with Program Outcomes
4. Session plan
5. Laboratory policies & Report format.
6. Evaluation sheet
7. Each experiment should be prefixed with prelab questions
with answer key and suffixed with post lab questions with
answer key.
Syllabus
EE 0405 SIMULATION LAB L T P C
Prerequisite 0 0 3 2
EE 0302,EE 0308
PURPOSE
To enable the students gain a fair knowledge on the programming and simulation of Power
Electronics and Power Systems.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of course the students will be able to:
1. Acquire skills of using computer packages MATLAB coding and SIMULINK in power
electronics and power system studies.
2. Acquire skills of using ETAP software for power system studies.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1) Use of MATLAB for the following
1. Single phase half controlled converter with R and RL load.
2. Single phase fully controlled converter with R and RL load
3. Three phase fully controlled converter with R and RL load.
4. Single phase AC voltage controller with R and RL load.
2) Use of MATLAB coding for solving the following
1. Formation of YBus by inspection method/analytical method.
2. Formation of ZBus matrix.
3. Load flow analysis for GS, NR and FDLF methods
3) Use of ETAP software for the following
1. Load flow solution for GS, NR and FDLF
2. Symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault analysis
3. Transient stability analysis
TOTAL
REFERENCE
Laboratory Manual
Course designed by Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Program
outcomes
a B c d e f g h i j k
X X X X X
Category
General
(G)
Basic
Sciences
(B)
Engineering
Sciences
and
Technical
Arts(E)
Professional
Subjects(P)
X
Broad area (for Pcategory)
Electrical
Machines
Circuits
and
Systems
Electronics Power System
X X
Staff responsible for preparing the
syllabus
Mr.K.Vijayakumar
Date of preparation December 2006

Mapping of Course Outcomes
with Instructional Objectives
Mapping of Program Instructional Objectives Vs Program Outcomes
Program Outcomes
Program Instructional objectives
Acquire skills
of using
computer
packages
MATLAB
coding in
Power
System
studies
Acquire skills of using computer
packages MATLAB /SIMULINK
in Power Electronics studies.
Acquire skills of
using ETAP software
for Power System
studies
a)An ability to apply
knowledge of
mathematics, science,
and engineering.
X X X
b) An ability to design
and conduct
experiments, as well as
to analyze and interpret
results.
X X X
c)An ability to design a
system, component, or
process to meet desired
needs within realistic
constraints such as
economic,environment
al,social, political,
ethical, health and
safety,
manufacturability, and
sustainability.
X X
e)An ability to identify,
formulate, and solve
engineering problems
X X
h)The broad education
necessary to understand
the impact of
engineering solutions
in a global perspective
X X X
Mapping of Program
Educational Objectives with
Program Outcomes
Mapping of Program Educational Objectives Vs Program Outcomes
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
1. Graduates are equipped with the fundamental knowledge of Mathematics, Basic sciences
and Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
2. Graduates learn and adapt themselves to the constantly evolving technology by pursuing
higher studies.
3. Graduates are better employable and achieve success in their chosen areas of Electrical
and Electronics Engineering and related fields.
4. Graduates are good leaders and managers by effectively communicating at both technical
and interpersonal levels.
The student outcomes are linked with the program educational objectives as shown below:
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
(ak OUTCOMES)
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES
1 2 3 4
(a) an ability to apply knowledge of
mathematics, science, and engineering X
(b) an ability to design and conduct
experiments, as well as to analyze and
interpret data
X
(c) an ability to design a system, component,
or process to meet desired needs within
realistic constraints such as economic,
environmental, social, political, ethical, health
and safety, manufacturability, and
sustainability
X
(d) an ability to function on multidisciplinary
teams
X X
(e) an ability to identify, formulate, and solve
engineering problems
X
(f) an understanding of professional and
ethical responsibility
X
(g) an ability to communicate effectively in
both verbal and written form.
X
(h) the broad education necessary to
understand the impact of engineering solutions
in a global perspective.
X
(i) a recognition of the need for, and an ability
to engage in life-long learning
X
(j) a knowledge of contemporary issues X
(k) an ability to use the techniques, skills, and
modern engineering tools necessary for
engineering practice.
X X
Academic Course Description
SRM University, Kattankulathur
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
COURSE : EE0405
TITLE : SIMULATION LAB
CREDIT : 02
LOCATION : ESB simulation lab
PREREQUISITES COURSES : EE0302-Power Electronics
EE0308-Power System Analysis
PREREQUISITIES BY TOPIC : Load flow studies, Fault analysis, Transient
stability analysis, Single phase and three
phase converters, AC voltage regulators.
Outcomes
Students who have successfully completed this course
Instructional Objective Program outcome
The students will be able to:
1. Acquire skills of using computer packages
MATLAB coding and SIMULINK in
Power Electronics and Power System
studies.
2. Acquire skills of using ETAP software for
Power System Studies.
a)An ability to apply knowledge of
mathematics, science, and engineering
b) An ability to design and conduct
experiments, as well as to analyze and
interpret results.
c)An ability to design a system,
component, or process to meet desired
needs within realistic constraints such
as economic,environmental,social,
political, ethical, health and safety,
manufacturability, and sustainability.
e)An ability to identify, formulate, and
solve engineering problems
h)The broad education necessary to
understand the impact of engineering
solutions in a global perspective
Text book(s) and/or required materials:
1. P.S.Bimbhra, Power Electronics
2. Nagrath and Kothari, Power System Analysis
3. B.R.Gupta, Power System Analysis and Design
Web Resources:
www.power-analysis.com
www.4shared.com/power system analysis
www.power-electronics.com
Professional component:
General - 0%
Basic Sciences - 0%
Engineering sciences & Technical arts - 0%
Professional subject - 100%
Session Plan:
WEEK NAME OF THE
EXPERIMENT
REFERENCE OBJECTIVE
I Single phase half controlled
converter using R and RL load
using MATLAB/ SIMULINK
Power electronics
P.S.Bimbhra
Acquire skills of
using computer
packages MATLAB
/SIMULINK in
power electronics.
II Single phase fully controlled
converter using R and RL load
using MATLAB/ SIMULINK
III Three phase fully controlled
converter using R and RL load
using MATLAB/ SIMULINK
IV Single phase AC voltage
regulator using MATLAB/
SIMULINK
V Formation of Y bus matrix by
inspection/analytical method
using MATLAB Software
Power system analysis-
Nagrath and Kothari
Acquire skills of
using computer
packages using
MATLAB in
power systems.
VI Formation of Zbus matrix using
building algorithm using
MATLAB Software
VII Gauss Seidal load flow analysis
using MATLAB Software
VIII Fast decoupled load flow
analysis using MATLAB
Software
IX Symmetrical Fault analysis
using MATLAB Software
X Economic Dispatch using
MATLAB Software
XI Load flow analysis using ETAP
Software
Acquire skills of
using ETAP
software for power
system studies
XII Fault analysis using MIPOWER
Software
Acquire skills of
using MIPOWER
software for power
system studies.
EVALUATION METHOD:
- Prelab Test - 5%
- Inlab Performance - 35%
- Postlab Test - 5%
- Attendance - 5%
- Record - 10%
- Model Exam - 15%
- Final Exam - 25%
- Total - 100%
LABORATORY POLICIES AND REPORT FORMAT:
1. Lab reports should be submitted on A4 paper. Your report is a professional
presentation of your work in the lab. Neatness, organization, and completeness will be
rewarded. Points will be deducted for any part that is not clear.
2. The lab reports will be written individually. Please use the following format for your lab
reports.
a. Cover Page: Include your name, Subject Code, Subject title, Name of
the university.
b. Evaluation Sheet: Gives your internal mark split up.
c. Index Sheet: Includes the name of all the experiments.
d. Experiment documentation: It includes experiment name, date,
objective, flowchart, algorithm, formulae used, Model calculation,
problem solution, simulated output and print outs.
e. Prelab and Postlab question should be written before and after
completing the experiments.
3. Your work must be original and prepared independently. However, if you need any
guidance or have any questions or problems, please do not hesitate to approach your staff
in charge during office hours. The students should follow the dress code in the Lab
session.
4. Labs will be graded as per the following grading policy:
- Prelab Questions - 5%
- Preparation of observation/Record 10%
- Model Calculation - 10%
- Execution - 15%
- Postlab Questions - 5%
- Attendance - 5%
- Model Exam - 25%
- University Exam - 25%
- Total - 100%
5. Reports Due Dates: Reports should be submitted immediately after next week of the
experiment. A late lab report will have 20% of the points deducted for being one day late.
If a report is 3 days late, a grade of 0 will be assigned.
6. Systems of Tests: Regular laboratory class work over the full semester will carry a
weightage of 75%. The remaining 25% weightage will be given by conducting an end
semester practical examination for every individual student. Prelab questions will be
asked at the beginning of each cycle as a viva-voce and the post lab questions should be
available in the observation and record after the completion of the experiment.
DEPT. OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
SRM UNIVERSITY, Kattankulathur 603203.
Title of Experiment :
Name of the candidate :
Register Number :
Date of Experiment :
Date of submission :
S.No: Marks split up Maximum Marks
(50)
Marks Obtained
1 Attendance 5
2 Preparation of observation/record 10
3 Pre viva questions 5
4 Model Calculation 10
5 Execution 15
6 Post viva questions 5
TOTAL 50
Signature of the staff
S.NO. 1
Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier with R & RL load
Aim:
To simulate the 1 half controlled rectifier circuit with R & RL load and obtain the
corresponding waveforms using MATLAB/SIMULINK.
Formulae used:
Average dc voltage, V
dc
=V
m
(1+coso) (volts)
t
Rms output voltage,V
rms
=V
m
((t-o)+sin2o/2)
1/2
(volts)
\2t
Average output current, I
dc
=V
dc
/R (Amps)
RMS output current, I
rms
=V
rms
/R (Amps)
Where,
V
m
is the maximum input voltage
o is the firing angle of the SCR.
Operation:
The phase controlled rectifiers using SCRs are used to obtain controlled dc output voltages from
the fixed ac mains input voltage. The circuit diagram of a half controlled converter is shown in
Figure 1. The output voltage is varied by controlling the firing angle of SCRs. The single phase
half controlled converter consists of two SCRs and two diodes. During positive half cycle, SCR1
and Diode 2 are forward biased. Current flows through the load when SCR1 is triggered into
conduction. During negative half cycle, SCR3 and D1 are forward biased. If the load is resistive,
the load voltage and load current are similar.
If the load is inductive, the current will continue to flow even when the supply voltage
reverses polarity due to the stored energy in the inductor. At the end of positive half cycle, D2 is
reverse biased and D1 is forward biased. As SCR1 is not turned off the freewheeling current due
to the stored energy in the inductor will flow through the diode D1 and SCR1. When SCR3 is
triggered, the current gets transferred from SCR1 to SCR3. Load current now flows from supply
via SCR3, load and D4. At the end of negative half cycle, the freewheeling current will flow
through the diode D2 and SCR3.
Circuit Diagram:
Model Graph:
Resistive Load
Inductive load:
Result:
Thus the Single Phase half controlled Rectifier with R & RL Load circuit is simulated using
MATLAB/SIMULINK and the corresponding waveforms are obtained.
S.NO.2
Single Phase Full Wave Rectifier with R & RL Load
Aim:
To simulate the 1 fully Controlled rectifier circuit with R & RL load and obtain the
corresponding waveforms using MATLAB/SIMULINK.
Formulae used:
Average dc voltage, V
dc
=V
m
(1+coso) (volts)
t
Rms output voltage,V
rms
=V
m
((t-o)+sin2o/2)
1/2
(volts)
\2t
Average output current, I
dc
=V
dc
/R (Amps)
RMS output current, I
rms
=V
rms
/R (Amps)
Where,
V
m
is the maximum input voltage
o is the firing angle of the SCR.
Operation:
The phase controlled rectifiers using SCRs are used to obtain controlled dc output voltages from
the fixed ac mains input voltage. The circuit diagram of a fully controlled converter is shown in
Figure 2. The output voltage is varied by controlling the firing angle of SCRs. The single phase
fully controlled converter consists of four SCRs. During positive half cycle, SCR1 and SCR 2
are forward biased. Current flows through the load when SCR1 and SCR2 is triggered into
conduction. During negative half cycle, SCR3 and SCR4 are forward biased. If the load is
resistive, the load voltage and load current are similar.
When the load is inductive, SCR1 and SCR2 conduct from o to t. The nature of the load
current depends on the values of R and L in the inductive load. Because of the inductance, the
load current keeps on increasing and becomes maximum at t. At t, the supply voltage reverses
but SCRs 1 and 2 does not turn off. This is because the load inductance does not allow the
current to go to zero instantly. Thus the energy stored in the inductance flows against the supply
mains. The output voltage is negative from t to t+o since supply voltage is negative.
Circuit Diagram:
Model Graph:
Resistive load
Inductive load :
Result:
Thus the Single Phase fully controlled Rectifier with R & RL Load circuit is simulated using
MATLAB/SIMULINK and the corresponding waveforms are obtained.
S.NO.3
Three Phase Fully controlled Rectifier with R & RL Load
Aim:
To simulate the 3 fully Controlled rectifier circuit with R & RL load and obtain the
corresponding waveforms using MATLAB/SIMULINK
Theory:
The three phase full bridge converter works as three phase AC-DC converter for firing angle
delay 0
0
<90
0
and as three phase line commutated inverter for 90
0
<<180
0
. The numbering of
SCRs 1, 3, 5 for the positive group and 2, 4, 6 for negative group. This numbering scheme is
adopted here as it agrees with the sequence of gating of six thyristors in a 3-phase full converter.
Here each SCR is conduct for 120
0
. At any time two SCRs, one from positive group and
other from negative group must conduct together and this combination must conduct for 60
0
.this
means commutation occurs for every 60
0
. For ABC phase sequence of three phase supply
thyristors conduct in pairs: T1 and T2, T2 and T3, T3 and T4, T4 and T5, T5 and T6, T6 and T1.
Period, range of 2 SCR Pair in conduction
+ 30 to + 90 S1 and S6
+ 90 to + 150 S1 and S2
+ 150 to + 210 S2 and S3
+ 210 to + 270 S3 and S4
+ 270 to + 330 S4 and S5
+ 330 to + 360 and + 0 to + 30 S5 and S6
Formulae used:
Average output voltage
RMS value of output voltage
RMS of the source current is
Each SCR conducts for 120
0
for every 360
0
. Therefore the RMS value of SCR current is
Circuit Diagram:
Model Graph:
Resistive load:
Inductive load:
Result:
Thus the three phase fully controlled Rectifier with R & RL Load circuit is simulated using
MATLAB/SIMULINK and the corresponding waveforms are obtained.
S.NO.4
SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Aim:
To simulate the 1 AC voltage regulator circuit and obtain the suitable waveforms using
MATLAB/SIMULINK
Theory:
AC regulators are used to get variable AC voltage from the fixed mains voltage. Some of the
important applications of AC regulators are: domestic and industrial heating, induction heating in
metallurgical industries, induction motor speed control for fan and pump drives, transformer tap
changers in utility systems, static reactive power compensators, lighting control etc., Earlier, auto
transformers, transformers with taps and magnetic amplifiers were employed in these
applications because of high efficiency, compact size, flexibility in control etc. Two thyristors in
anti parallel are employed for full wave control. In this case, isolation between control and power
circuit is most essential because of the fact that the cathodes of the two thyristors are connected
to the common point. For low power applications, a triac may be used. In this case isolation
between control and power circuitry is not necessary.
Formulae Used:
The triggering pulse is generated at the point at which the associated cosine wave becomes
instantaneously equal to the control voltage.
In other words,
\2V sin (t-et) = V
R
At this instant et=o and hence
\2V sin (t-o) = V
R
o= t- sin
-
(V
R
/\2V)
R
max
=2\2V/eCV
R
Where, V
R
- breakdown voltage of the Diac
o- firing angle delay
V- Supply voltage
Circuit Diagram:
Operation:
MT
2
MT
1
C
R
L
R
D
MT
1
MT
2
G
AC
line
R
Fig 1. Single phase ac regulator
A triac control circuit for lamp dimmers is shown in Fig.1. A diac is a gateless triac designed to
breakdown at a low voltage. During the positive half cycle, the triac requires a positive gate
pulse for turning it on. This is provided by the capacitor C. When its voltage is above the
breakdown voltage of the diac, the capacitor C discharges through the triac gate. When the triac
turns on, the capacitor Voltage will be reset to zero. A similar operation takes place in the
negative half cycles, and a negative gate pulse will be applied when the diac breaks down in the
reverse direction. Adjustment of series resistance, R determines the charging rate of capacitor C
and hence the value of the phase angle delay. The output power and thus light intensity are
varied by controlling the phase of conduction of the triac.
Model
Graph:
Result:
Thus the 1 AC Voltage regulator with R load circuit is executed with the help of MATLAB
software and the graph is plotted.
V
S
V
0
wt
wt
S.NO.5
Formation of Bus Admittance Matrix using MATLAB Software
Aim:
To develop a computer program to form the bus admittance matrix, Y
bus
of a power system.
Theory:
The Y
bus
/Z
bus
matrix constitutes the models of the passive portions of the power network. Y
bus
matrix is often used in solving load flow problems. It has gained widespread applications owing
to its simplicity of data preparation and the ease with which the bus admittance matrix can be
formed and modified for network changes. Of course, sparsity is one of its greatest advantages as
it heavily reduces computer memory and time requirements. In short circuit analysis, the
generator and transformer impedances must also be taken into account. In contingency analysis,
the shunt elements are neglected, while forming the Z-bus matrix, which is used to compute the
outage distribution factors.
This can be easily obtained by inverting the Y-bus matrix formed by inspection method or by
analytical method. The impedance matrix is a full matrix and is most useful for short circuit
studies. Initially, the Y-bus matrix is formed by inspection method by considering line data only.
After forming the Y-bus matrix, the modified Y-bus matrix is formed by adding the generator
and transformer admittances to the respective diagonal elements and is inverted to form the Z-
bus matrix.
The performance equation for a n-bus system in terms of admittance matrix can be
written as,
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

n nn n n
n
In
n
V
V
V
Y Y Y
Y Y Y
Y Y Y
I
I
I
.
.
....
. .
. .
....
....
.
.
2
1
2 1
2 22 21
12 11
2
1
(or)
I = Y
bus
.V
The admittances Y
11
, Y
12,
Y
1n
are called the self-admittances at the nodes and all other
admittances are called the mutual admittances of the nodes.
Formulae Used:
Main diagonal element in Y-bus matrix =
ij
n
j
ij
B Y +

=1
where B
ij
is the half line shunt admittance in mho.
Y
ij
is the series admittance in mho.
Off-diagonal element in Y-bus matrix , Y
ij
= -Y
ij
where Y
ij
is the series admittance in mho.
Flowchart:
START
Enter the mutual admittance
between the buses
Calculate the diagonal term,
Y
ii
= sum of all admittances
connected to bus i.
STOP
Calculate the off-diagonal
term, Y
ij
=Negative sum of the
admittances connected from
bus i to bus j.
Enter the number of buses,n
and lines
Set the bus count i =1
Is i = n
i = i +1
Print Y bus and Z bus matrices
Compute Z bus matrix by
inverting Y bus matrix
Algorithm:
Step 1: Read the values of number of buses and the number of lines of the given
system.
Step 2: Read the self-admittance of each bus and the mutual admittance between the
buses.
Step 3: Calculate the diagonal element term called the bus driving point admittance, Y
ij
which is the sum of the admittance connected to bus i.
Step 4: The off-diagonal term called the transfer admittance, Y
ij
which is the negative
of the admittance connected from bus i to bus j.
Step 5: Check for the end of bus count and print the computed Y-bus matrix.
Step 6: Compute the Z-bus matrix by inverting the Y-bus matrix.
Step 7: Stop the program and print the results.
Sample Problem:
The bus and branch datas for a 3 bus system is given in table below. Form Y bus matrix by
inspection method.
Bus Code Impedance Bus Number Admittance
1 - 2 0.06 + j0.18 1 j0.05
1 3 0.02 + j0.06 2 j0.06
2 - 3 0.04 + j0.12 3 j0.05
Solution:
Formation of Y bus:
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ +
+ +

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+
+ +

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+
+
=
06 . 0 02 . 0
1
05 . 0
12 . 0 04 . 0
1
12 . 0 04 . 0
1
06 . 0 02 . 0
1
12 . 0 04 . 0
1
06 . 0
12 . 0 04 . 0
1
18 . 0 06 . 0
1
18 . 0 06 . 0
1
06 . 0 02 . 0
1
18 . 0 06 . 0
1
05 . 0
06 . 0 02 . 0
1
18 . 0 06 . 0
1
j
j
j j j
j
j
j j j
j j
j
j j
Y
bus
Theoretical output:
(
(
(

+ +
+ +
+ +
=
45 . 22 5 . 7 5 . 7 5 . 2 15 5
5 . 7 5 . 2 44 . 12 16 . 4 5 66 . 1
15 5 5 66 . 1 95 . 19 66 . 6
j j j
j j j
j j j
Y
bus
Result:
The Y bus matrix was formed for the given system by direct inspection method and the results
were verified using MATLAB program.
S.NO.6
Z-bus Building Algorithm using MATLAB Software
Aim:
To develop a computer program to obtain the building algorithm for bus impedance matrix of the
given power system.
Theory:
The Y
bus
/Z
bus
matrix constitutes the models of the passive portions of the power network. The
impedance matrix is a full matrix and is most useful for short circuit studies. An algorithm for
formulating [Z
bus
] is described in terms of modifying an existing bus impedance matrix
designated as [Z
bus
]
old
. The modified matrix is designated as [Z
bus
]
new
. The network consists of a
reference bus and a number of other buses. When a new element having self impedance Z
b
is
added, a new bus may be created (if the new element is a tree branch) or a new bus may not be
created (if the new element is a link). Each of these two cases can be subdivided into two cases
so that Z
b
may be added in the following ways:
1. Adding Z
b
from a new bus to reference bus.
2. Adding Z
b
from a new bus to an existing bus.
3. Adding Z
b
from an existing bus to reference bus.
4. Adding Z
b
between two existing buses.
Type 1 modification:
In type 1 modification, an impedance Z
b
is added between a new bus pand the reference bus as
shown in Figure 1
Let the current through bus pbe I
p
, then the voltage across the bus pis given by,
V
p
= I
p
Z
b
V
p
Ref. Bus
p
n
1
Network
Zb
Figure 1. Type 1 modification of Z
bus
The potential at other buses remains unaltered and the system equations can be written as,
| |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

p
n
b
old bus
p
n
I
I
I
I
Z
Z
V
V
V
V

2
1
2
1
0 0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0

Type 2 modification:
In type 2 modification, an impedance Z
b
is added between a new bus pand an existing bus kas
shown in Figure 2. The voltages across the bus kand p can be expressed as,
V
k(new)
= V
k
+ I
p
Z
kk

V
p
= V
k(new)
+ I
p
Z
p
= V
k
+ I
p
(Z
b
+ Z
kk
)
where, V
k
is the voltage across bus kbefore the addition of impedance Z
b
Z
kk
is the sum of all impedance connected to bus k.
The system of equations can be expressed as,
| |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

p
n
b kk k k
old bus
k
k
p
n
I
I
I
I
Z Z Z Z
Z
Z
Z
V
V
V
V

2
1
2 1
2
1
2
1

I
p
Ik + Ip
Ref. Bus
p
n
1
Network
Z
b
k
Figure 2.Type 2 Modification of Z
bus
Type 3 Modification:
In this modification, an impedance Z
b
is added between a existing bus k and a reference bus.
Then the following steps are to be followed:
1. Add Z
b
between a new bus pand the existing bus kand the modifications are done as in
type 2.
2. Connect bus pto the reference bus by letting V
p
= 0.
To retain the symmetry of the Bus Impedance Matrix, network reduction technique can be
used to remove the excess row or column.
Type 4 Modification:
In this type of modification, an impedance Z
b
is added between two existing buses j and k as
shown in Figure 3. From Figure 3, the relation between the voltages of bus kand j can be written
as,
V
k
V
j
= I
b
Z
b
(3)
The voltages across all the buses connected to the network changes due to the addition of
impedance Z
b
and they can be expressed as,
V
1
= Z
11
I
1
+ Z
12
I
2
+ - - - - - - - - + Z
1j
(I
j
+ I
b
) + Z
1k
(I
k
I
b
)+- - -
V
2
= Z
21
I
1
+ Z
22
I
2
+ - - - - - - - - + Z
2j
(I
j
+ I
b
) + Z
2k
(I
k
I
b
)+ - - -

V
j
= Z
j1
I
1
+ Z
j2
I
2
+ - - - - - - - - + Z
jj
(I
j
+ I
b
) + Z
jk
(I
k
I
b
) + - - - (4)
V
k
= Z
k1
I
1
+ Z
k2
I
2
+ - - - - - - - - + Z
kj
(I
j
+ I
b
) + Z
kk
(I
k
I
b
) + - - -

V
n
= Z
n1
I
1
+ Z
n2
I
2
+ - - - - - - - - + Z
nj
(I
j
+ I
b
) + Z
nk
(I
k
I
b
) + - - -
On solving the Equations (3) and (4), the system of equations can be rewritten as,
Ik - Ib
Ij + Ib
Ref. Bus
k
n
1
Network
Z
b
I
b
j
Figure 3.Type 4 Modification of Z
bus
| |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

p
n
bb kk jk k j
kk kj
old bus
k j
p
n
I
I
I
I
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z
Z
Z Z
V
V
V
V

2
1
1 1
1 1
2
1
) ( ) (
) (
) (
(5)
where,
Z
bb
= Z
jj
+ Z
kk
2 Z
jk
+ Z
b
Procedure for formation of Z
bus
matrix:
Step1: Number the nodes of the given network, starting with those nodes at the ends
of branches connected to the reference node.
Step2: Start with a network composed of all those branches connected to the
reference node.
Step3: Add a new node to the i
th
node of the existing network.
Step4: Add a branch between i
th
and j
th
nodes. Continue until all the remaining
branches are connected.
Sample problem:
Form bus impedance matrix using building algorithm:
Solution:
Step1: Add an element between ref (0) bus and a new bus (1).
Z = [j0.2]
Step2: Add an element between existing bus (1) to a new bus (2).
Z =
(

6 . 0 2 . 0
2 . 0 2 . 0
j j
j j
Step3: Add an element between existing (2) Bus to a ref (0) Bus.
Z=
(
(
(

8 . 0 6 . 0 2 . 0
6 . 0 6 . 0 2 . 0
2 . 0 2 . 0 2 . 0
j j j
j j j
j j j
New Z Bus:
Z11 = Z11-(Z31*Z13)/Z33
= j0.2 (j0.2*j0.2)/j0.8
Z11 = j0.05
Z12 =Z21= Z12-(Z32*Z13)/Z33
= j0.2 - (j0.6*j0.2)/j0.8
= j0.05
Z22 =Z22-(Z32*Z23)/Z33
=J0.6-(j0.6*j0.6)/j0.8
Z22 =j0.15
Z Bus =
(

15 . 0 05 . 0
05 . 0 05 . 0
j j
j j
Result:
The bus impedance matrix using building algorithm for the given system was formed and the
results were verified using MATLAB program.
S.NO.7
Gauss Seidal Load flow analysis using MATLAB software
Aim:
To develop a computer program to solve the set of non linear load flow equations using Gauss-
seidal load flow algorithm.

Theory:
Load flow analysis is the most frequently performed system study by electric utilities. This
analysis is performed on a symmetrical steady-state operating condition of a power system under
normal mode of operation and aims at obtaining bus voltages and line/transformer flows for a
given load condition. This information is essential both for long term planning and next day
operational planning. In long term planning, load flow analysis helps in investigating the
effectiveness of alternative plans and choosing the best plan for system expansion to meet the
projected operating state. In operational planning, it helps in choosing the best unit
commitment plan and generation schedules to run the system efficiently for them next days load
condition without violating the bus voltage and line flow operating limits.
The Gauss seidal method is an iterative algorithm for solving a set of non- linear
algebraic equations. The relationship between network bus voltages and currents may be
represented by either loop equations or node equations. Node equations are normally preferred
because the number of independent node equation is smaller than the number of independent
loop equations.
The network equations in terms of the bus admittance matrix can be written as,
| |
bus bus bus
V Y I = (1)
For a nbus system, the above performance equation can be expanded as,
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

n
p
nn np n n
pn pp p p
n p
n p
n
p
V
V
V
V
Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y
I
I
I
I

2
1
2 1
2 1
2 2 22 12
1 1 12 11
2
1
(2)
where nis the total number of nodes.
V
p
is the phasor voltage to ground at node p.
I
p
is the phasor current flowing into the network at node p.
At the p
th
bus, current injection:

=
= =
+ = =
+ + + + =
n
p q
q
q pq p pp
n
q
q pq
n pn p pp p p p
V Y V Y V Y
V Y V Y V Y V Y I
1 1
2 2 1 1
... .......... .. ..........
(3)
n p V Y I
Y
V
n
p q
q
q pq p
pp
p
,.... 2 ;
1
1
=
(
(
(
(

=

=
=
(4)
At bus p, we can write P
p
jQ
p
=
p p
I V
-
Hence, the current at any node pis related to P, Q and V as follows:
-

=
p
p p
p
V
jQ P
I
) (
( for any bus p except slack bus s) (5)
Substituting for I
p
in Equation (4),
n p V Y
V
jQ P
Y
V
n
p q
q
q pq
p
p p
pp
p
..... , 2 ;
1
1
*
=
(
(
(
(

=

=
=
(6)
I
p
has been substituted by the real and reactive powers because normally in a power system these
quantities are specified.
Algorithm:
Step 1: Read the input data.
Step 2: Find out the admittance matrix.
Step 3: Choose the flat voltage profile 1+j0 to all buses except slack bus.
Step 4: Set the iteration count p = 0 and bus count i = 1.
Step 5: Check the slack bus, if it is the generator bus then go to the next step otherwise go to
next
step 7.
Step 6: Before the check for the slack bus if it is slack bus then go to step 11 otherwise go to
next
step.
Step 7: Check the reactive power of the generator bus within the given limit.
Step 8: If the reactive power violates a limit then treat the bus as load bus.
Step 9: Calculate the phase of the bus voltage on load bus
Step 10: Calculate the change in bus voltage of the repeat step mentioned above until all the bus
voltages are calculated.
Step 11: Stop the program and print the results
Flowchart:
Yes
Read the input data values
Start
Form Y Bus matrix
Set flat voltage profile 1+j0 except slack bus
Set iteration count, p=0
Set the bus count, i = 1
Check for
slack bus
Check for
Gen bus
It is a load bus
calculate
(

=

+

=
+
n
j
k ik
j
k
k ik
i
i i
ii
p
ical
V Y V Y
V
jQ P
Y
V
1
1
1
*
1
1
Calculate
| |
p
k
n
i k
ik
p
k
i
k
ik
p
i
V Y V Y Q
ip
V

=
+

=
+
+ =
1
1
1
*
1
Im
Check
min
1
Q Q
p
i
(
+
Set
Qi=Qi min
Check
max
1
Q Q
p
i
)
+
Set
Qi=Qi max
A
Y
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
D
E
C
B
Sample Problem:
The load flow data for a 3 bus system is given in tables below. The voltage magnitude at bus 2
is to be maintained at 1.04 p.u. The maximum and minimum reactive power limits for bus 2 are
0.5 to 0.2 respectively. Taking bus 1 as slack bus, determine voltages of the various buses at
the end of first iteration starting with flat voltage profile for all buses except slack bus using
Gauss-Seidal method with acceleration factor of 1.6.
Treat this as gen bus & calculate V
pi
(

=

+ =

=
+ +
n
i k
p
k ik
i
k
p
k ik
i
i
ii
p
i
V Y V Y
V
jQ P
Y
V
1
1
1
1
*
1
1
Calculate the change in voltage
1 +
A
p
i
V
Increment the bus count
Check
n i)
Check
( A
+1 p
i
V
Print the result
Stop
Increment
iteration count
P = P+1
Yes
Yes
No
No
B
E
D
C
A
Bus Code Impedance Bus Number Admittance
1 2 0.06 + j0.18 1 j0.05
1 3 0.02 + j0.06 2 j0.06
2 3 0.04 + j0.12 3 j0.05
Bus Code Assumed
Voltage
Generation Load
MW MVAr MW MVAr
1 1.06 + j0 0 0 0 0
2 1 + j0 0.2 0 0 0
3 1 + j0 0 0 0.6 0.25
Solution:
Formation of Y
bus
:
(
(
(

+ +
+ +
+ +
=
45 . 22 5 . 7 5 . 7 5 . 2 15 5
5 . 7 5 . 2 44 . 12 16 . 4 5 66 . 1
15 5 5 66 . 1 95 . 19 66 . 6
j j j
j j j
j j j
Y
bus

Calculation of Q
2
:
Q
2
=
(

=
n
q
q pq
V Y V
1
*
2
Im
= | | ) 5 . 7 5 . 2 ( 04 . 1 ) 5 . 12 16 . 4 ( ) 06 . 1 )( 5 66 . 1 ( 04 . 1 Im j j j + + + +
= | | ) 5 . 7 5 . 2 ( 04 . 1 ) 5 . 12 16 . 4 ( ) 30 . 5 763 . 1 ( 04 . 1 Im j j j + + + +
= | | 14 . 0 07 . 0 Im j
Q
2
= 0.14, it violates the limits of the reactive power.
Q
2
= Q
min
= 0.2 as
min 2
Q Q s
[ If suppose, Q
2
> Q
max
then Q
2
= Q
max
]
Calculation of Bus voltages:
) 1 (
2
V = 0.075
(

Z + + +

Z )) 0 1 )( 5 . 7 5 . 2 ( ) 06 . 1 )( 5 66 . 1 ((
04 . 1
2 . 0 2 . 0
63 . 71 j j
j
Volts
= 0.075 | | 99 . 12 452 . 4 63 . 71 j Z
) 1 (
2
V = 1.047+j 0.007 volts
Accelerated voltage,
) 1 (
2
V = 1.04+ 1.6(1.047+j0.007 -1.04)
= 1+0.048-j0.048
) 1 (
2
V =1.0512+j0.0112 Volts
) 1 (
3
V =0.0423 | | )) 0112 . 0 0512 . 1 )( 5 . 7 5 . 2 ( ) 06 . 1 )( 15 5 (( 25 . 0 6 . 0 49 . 71 j j j j + + + + + Z
) 1 (
3
V = 1.041 j 0.017 Volts
Accelerated voltage,
) 1 (
3
V = 1+1.6(1.041 j 0.17- 1 )
) 1 (
3
V = 1.0656-j0.272 Volts
Theoretical Output:
V1=1.06+j0 Volts,
) 1 (
2
V =1.0512+j0.0112 Volts,
) 1 (
3
V = 1.0656-j0.272 Volts
Result:
The given set of load flow equations for a given power system were solved using Gauss-Seidal
method.
S.NO.8
Newton Rapshson load flow analysis using MATLAB software
Aim:
To develop a software program to obtain real and reactive power flows, bus voltage magnitude
and angles by using N R method.
Theory:
Load flow study in power system parlance is the steady state solution of the power system
network. The main information obtained from this study comprises the magnitudes and phase
angles of load bus voltages, reactive powers at generator buses, real and reactive power flow on
transmission lines, other variables being specified. This information is essential for the
continuous monitoring of current state of the system and for analyzing the effectiveness of
alternative plans for future system expansion to meet increased load demand.
Newton-Raphson method is an iterative method that approximates the set of non linear
simultaneous equations to a set of linear simultaneous equations using Taylors series expansion
and the terms are limited to first approximation. The rate of convergence is fast as compared to
the FDLF program and also it is suitable for large size system. So we go for N-R method.
The non-linear equations governing the power system network are,

e
=
q p
p pq p
p all for V Y I
where I
p
is the current injected into bus p.
The complex power in p
th
bus is given by,
. ........ .......... , 2 ;
1
* *
1
*
n p V Y V V Y V
I V S
n
q
q pq p
n
q
q pq p
p p p
=
(

=
(

=
=

=
-
=
(1)
pq j
pq pq
q p pq
q j
q q
p j
p p
e Y Y
e V V
e V V Let

=
=
=
= ,
and
In polar co-ordinates, the power on p
th
bus is given as,
pq j
pq
q p j
n
q
q p p p p
e Y e V V jQ P S

| |
1

=
= + = (2)
Separating the Real and Imaginary parts we get,
) cos(
1
q pq p pq
n
q
q p p
Y V V P + =

=

) sin(
1
q pq p pq
n
q
q p p
Y V V Q + =

=
(3)
The Newton Raphson method requires that a set of linear equations be formed expressing the
relationship between the changes in real and reactive powers and the components of the bus
voltages as follows:
) 4 (
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
) (
) (
2
) (
) (
2
) ( ) (
2
) (
2
) (
2
) (
2
) (
2
2
) (
2
) (
2
2
) ( ) (
2
2
) ( ) (
2
) (
2
) (
2
2
) (
2
) (
2
2
) (
) (
2
) (
) (
2
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

A
A

A
A
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c

c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

A
A

A
A
r
n
r
r
n
r
r
n
n
r
n
r
n
r
n
r
n
r r
n
r
r
n
n
r r
n
n
r
n
r
n
r r
n
r
r
n
r
r
n
r
V
V
V
Q
V
Q Q Q
V
Q
V
Q Q Q
V
P
V
P P P
V
P
V
P P P
Q
Q
P
P

where, the coefficient matrix is known as Jacobian matrix.
In the above equation, bus 1 is assumed to be the slack bus. The Jacobian matrix gives
the linearized relationship between small changes in voltage angle
) (r
i
A and voltage magnitude
( ) r
i
V A with the small changes in real and reactive power
( ) r
i
P A and
( ) r
i
Q A . Elements of the
Jacobian matrix are the partial derivatives of (2) and (3) evaluated at
( ) r
i
A and
( ) r
i
V A .
The above relationship can be written in a compact form as,
(

A
A
(

=
(

A
A
V J J
J J
Q
P

22 21
12 11
(5)
The elements of Jacobian matrix are defined as,
All
quantit
ies in
the
linear
Equati
on (4)
pertai
n to
iterati
on r.
The
linear
equati
on when solved for Ao, V gives the correction to be applied to |V| and o, i.e.
|V|
(r+1)
= |V|
(r)
+ A|V|
(r)
(14)
o
(r+1)
= o
(r)
+ Ao
(r)
(15)
Next we get a new set of linear equations evaluated at (r+1)
th
iteration and the process is
repeated. Convergence is tested by the power mismatch criteria. This method converges to high
accuracy nearly always in 2 to 5 iterations from a flat start (|V| = 1 p.u. and =0 ) for all buses
where |V|, are unknown, independent of system size.
At PV bus at the end of an iteration and if it violates the limits, the PV bus is switched to
a PQ bus. When Q is within limits, then it is switched back to PV bus.
) 7 ( ) sin(
) 6 ( ) sin(
:
1
11
q pq p pq q
n
p q
q
p
p
p
q pq p pq q p
q
p
Y V V
P
p q Y V V
P
J

+ =
c
c
= + =
c
c

=
=
) 9 ( ) sin( sin 2
) 8 ( ) sin(
:
1
22
q pq p pq
n
p q
q
q pp pp p
p
p
q pq p pq p
q
p
Y V Y V
V
Q
p q Y V
V
Q
J


+ + =
c
c
= + =
c
c

=
=
) 11 ( ) cos( cos 2
) 10 ( ) cos(
:
1
12
q pq p pq
n
p q
q
q pp pp p
p
p
q pq p pq p
q
p
Y V Y V
V
P
p q Y V
V
P
J


+ + =
c
c
= + =
c
c

=
=
) 13 ( ) cos(
) 12 ( ) cos(
:
1
21
q pq p pq q
n
p q
q
p
p
p
q pq p pq q p
q
p
Y V V
Q
p q Y V V
Q
J

+ =
c
c
= + =
c
c

=
=
Algorithm:
Start
Read bus data, line data, bus power & tolerance
Form [Y bus ] matrix
Initialize all bus voltages
Set iter count = 0
Iter = Iter +1
Calculate real power & reactive power
mismatch [P] [Q] using the current values
of | | V & c A taking Q limit violations in to
account
Update voltage
magnitude and phase
angles
| | | |
| | V
V V
old new
A + =
| | | |
| | c A + =
c c
old new
at
all buses except slack
bus
Ptol
Qtol
Calculate real & reactive
line flows in all the lines
Print the result
Stop
Solve the equation
(

A
A
(

=
(

A
c A
Q
P
V
4 3
2 1


Solve the equation
(

A
c A
(

=
(

A
A
V L N
M H
Q
P
To find | | | | V A c A &
Yes
No
Flowchart:
The computational procedure for Newton-Raphson method using polar coordinate is as follows:
Step 1: Form Y
bus
matrix.
Step 2: Assume initial values of bus voltages
p
V
o
and phase angles
o
p
for load buses
and phase angles for PV buses. Normally we set the assumed bus voltage
magnitude and its phase angle equal slack bus quantities
1
V = 1.0,
1
=0
o
.
Step 3: Compute P
p
and Q
p
for each load bus from the Equations (2) and (3).
Step 4: Compute the scheduled errors
p
P A and
p
Q A for each load bus from the
following relations:

n p Q Q Q
n p P P P
k
cal p
sp p
k
p
k
cal p
sp p
k
p
..... 3 , 2
..... 3 , 2
= = A
= = A
For PV buses, the exact value of
p
Q is not specified, but its limits are known. If
the calculated value of
p
Q is within limits, only
p
P A is calculated. If the
calculated value of
p
Q is beyond the limits, then an appropriate limit is imposed
and
p
Q A is also calculated by subtracting the calculated value of
p
Q from the
appropriate limit. The bus under consideration is now treated as a load on
(PQ) bus.
Step 5: Compute the elements of the Jacobian matrix using the estimated
p
V and
p

from step2.
Step 6: Obtain A and
p
V A from Equations (4) and (5).
Step 7: Using the values of
p
A and
p
V A calculated in step 6, modify the voltage
magnitude and phase angle at all loads by the Equations (14) and (15). Start the
next iteration cycle at step 2 with these modified
p
V and
p
.
Step 8: Continue until scheduled errors
k
p
P A and
k
p
Q A for all load buses are within a
specified tolerance, ie,
k
p
P A < c,
k
p
Q A < c
where, c denotes the tolerance level for load buses.
Step10: Calculate line flows and power at the slack bus exactly in the same manner as in
the Gauss Seidal method.
Sample Problem:
The load flow data for a 3-bus system is given in tables 1 and 2. The voltage magnitude at bus 2
is to be maintained at 1.0 p.u. The maximum and minimum reactive power limits for bus 2 are
0.3 and 0 p.u. respectively. Taking bus 1 as slack bus, determine the voltages of the various
buses at the end of first iteration starting with a flat voltage profile for all buses except slack bus
using N-R method.
Table 1: Impedance for sample system
Bus code Impedance Line charging
admittance y
pq
/2
1-2 0.06+j0.18 j0.05
1-3 0.02+j0.06 j0.06
2-3 0.04+j0.12 j0.05
Table 2: Assumed bus voltages, Generation and loads
Bus code Voltages

p.u
Generation
MW MVAR
p.u p.u
Load
MW MVAR
p.u p.u
1 1.06 0 0 0 0
2 1 0.2 0 0 0
3 1 0 0 0 0.25
Solution:
Formation of Y
bus
:
Y
bus
=
(
(
(

33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
Y Y Y
Y Y Y
Y Y Y
Y
12
= -
18 . 0 06 . 0
1
j +
=-(1.667-j5)
= 5.27
0
4 . 108 Z
Y
13
= -
06 . 0 02 . 0
1
j +
=-(5-j15)
= 15.81
0
4 . 108 Z
Y
23
= -
12 . 0 04 . 0
1
j +
=-(2.5-j7.5)
= 7.906
0
4 . 108 Z
Y
11
=
18 . 0 06 . 0
1
j +
+
06 . 0 02 . 0
1
j +
+ j0.05+j0.06 =6.667-j19.89
=21.97
0
5 . 71 Z
Y
22
=
18 . 0 06 . 0
1
j +
+
12 . 0 04 . 0
1
j +
+ j0.05+j0.05 =4.167-j12.4
=13.08
0
5 . 71 Z
Y
33
=
06 . 0 02 . 0
1
j +
+
12 . 0 04 . 0
1
j +
+ j0.06+j0.05=7.5-j22.39
=23.61
0
5 . 71 Z
Y
bus
=
(
(
(
(

Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
5 . 71 61 . 23 4 . 108 906 . 7 4 . 108 81 . 15
4 . 108 906 . 7 5 . 71 08 . 13 4 . 108 27 . 5
4 . 108 81 . 15 4 . 108 27 . 5 5 . 71 97 . 21
Flat start profile:
Given V
1
= 1.06+ j0 ;
1
= 0
0
; V
3
= 1
0
0 Z
Choose V
2
0
=1+j0 and

2
0
=
3
0
= 0
Calculation of change in real and reactive powers:
AP
p
= P
p(specified)
P
p(calculated)
AQ
p
= Q
p(specified)
Q
p(calculated)

=
=
+ =
+ =
n
q
q pq p pq q p p
n
q
q pq p pq q p p
Y V V Q
Y V V P
1
1
) sin(
) cos(




P
2(cal)
= |V
2
|
2
|Y
22
|cos
22
+ |V
2
||V
1
||Y
21
|cos(
2
+
21
-
1
) + |V
2
||V
3
||Y
23
|cos(
2
+
23

3
)
= 1 13.08 cos(-71.5) + 1 1.06 5.27cos(108.4) + 1 7.906cos(108.4)
= -0.11p.u

P
3(cal)
= |V3|
2
|Y33|cos
33
+|V
3
||V
1
||Y
31
|cos(
3
+
31

1
) + |V
3
||V
2
|Y
32
|cos(
32
+
3
-
2
)
= 1 23.61 cos(-71.5) + 1 1.06 15.81cos(108.4) + 1 7.906cos(108.4)
=- 0.3 p.u
Q
2(cal)
= |V
2
|
2
|Y
22
|sin
22
+ |V
2
||V
1
||Y
21
|sin(
2
+
21

1
) + |V
2
||V
3
||Y
23
|sin(
2
+
23

3
)
= 1 13.08 sin(-71.5) + 1 1.06 5.27sin(108.4) + 1 7.906sin(108.4)
= 0.4 p.u
Q
3(cal)
= |V
3
|
2
|Y
33
|sin
33
+ |V
3
||V
1
||Y
31
|sin(
3
+
31

1
) + |V
3
||V
2
||Y
32
|sin(
3
+
32

2
)
= 1 23.61 sin(-71.5) + 1 1.06 15.81sin(108.4) + 1 7.906sin(108.4)
= 1.02 p.u.
Calculation of specified quantities :
P
2(specified)
= P
G2
- P
D2
= 0.2 0.0 = 0.2 p.u
Q
2(specified)
= Q
G2
- Q
D2
= 0 p.u
P
3(specified)
= P
G3
- P
D3
= 0.0 p.u
Q3
(specified)
= Q
G3
- Q
D3
= -0.25 p.u
The change in real and reactive powers are,
P
2
0
= P
2(specified)
P
2(calculated)
= 0.2 + 0.11 = 0.31 p.u.
P
3
0
= 0 +( - 0.3) = -0.3 p.u.
Q
2
0
= 0- 0.4 = -0.4 p.u.
Q
3
0
= -0.25 -1.02 = -1.27 p.u.
Calculation of Jacobian matrix elements :
Elements of J
1
:
2
2
2
=
c
c
V
P
|V
2
||Y
22
|cos
22
+|V
1
||Y
21
|cos(
2
+
21
-
1
) + |V
3
||Y
23
|cos(
3
+
23

2
)
= 2 1 13.08 cos(-71.5) + 1.06 5.27cos(108.4) + 1 7.906cos(108.4)
= 4.04
=
c
c
3
2
V
P
|V
2
||Y
23
|cos(
2
+
23

3
)
= 1 7.906 cos(108.4)
= -2.5
=
c
c
2
3
V
P
|V
3
||Y
32
|cos(
32
+
2
-
3
)
= 1 7.906 cos(108.4)
= -2.5
=
c
c
3
3
V
P
2|V
3
||Y
33
|cos
33
+|V
1
||Y
31
|cos(
1
+
31

3
) + |V
2
||Y
32
|cos(
32
+
2
-
3
)
= 2 1 23.61 cos(-71.5) + 1.06 15.81cos(108.4) + 1 7.906cos(108.4)
= 7.2
Elements of J
2
:
=
c
c
2
2

P
|V
2
||V
1
||Y
21
|sin(
2
+
21

1
) - |V
2
||V
3
||Y
23
|sin(
3
+
23

2
)
= 1 1.06 5.27sin(108.4) 1 1 7.906 sin(108.4)
= -12.8
=
c
c
3
2

P
- |V
2
||V
3
||Y
23
|sin(
2
+
23

3
)
= - 1 1 7.906 sin (108.4)
= -7.5
=
c
c
2
3

P
- |V
3
| |V
2
||Y
32
|sin(
3
+
32

2
)
= - 1 1 7.906 sin (108.4)
= -7.5

=
c
c
3
3

P
-|V
3
||V
1
||Y
31
|sin(
3
+
31

1
) - |V
3
||V
2
||Y
32
|sin(
3
+
32

2
)
= - 1 1.06 15.81sin(108.4)-1 17.906sin(108.4)
= - 23.4
Elements of J
3
:
=
c
c
2
2
V
Q
{2|V
2
||Y
22
|sin
22
+ |V
1
||Y
21
|sin(
2
+
21

1
) +|V
3
||Y
23
|sin(
2
+
23

3
) }

= {2113.08 sin(-71.5) + 1.065.27sin(108.4) + 17.906sin(108.4)}
= - 12.01
{
3
2
=
c
c
V
Q
|V
2
||Y
23
|sin(
2
+
23

3
) }
={ 1 7.906sin(108.4)}
= 7.5
{
2
3
=
c
c
V
Q
|V
3
||Y
32
|sin(
2
+
32

3
)}
= { 1 7.906sin(108.4)}
= 7.5
{
3
3
=
c
c
V
Q
2|V
3
||Y
33
|sin
33
- |V
1
||Y
31
|sin(
3
+
31

1
) - |V
2
||Y
32
|sin(
3
+
32

2
)
= {2 1 23.61 sin(-71.5) +1 1.06 15.81sin(108.4) + 1 7.906 sin (108.4)}
= 21.4
Elements of J
4
:
{
2
2
=
c
c

Q
|V
2
||V
1
||Y
21
|cos(
2
+
21
-
1
)+ |V
2
||V
3
||Y
23
|cos(
2
+
23

3
) }
= 11.065.27cos(108.4) + 17.906cos(108.4)
= -4.26
{
3
2
=
c
c

Q
|V
2
||V
3
||Y
23
|cos(
2
+
23

3
) }
= - { 17.906cos(108.4)}
= 2.5
{
3
3
=
c
c

Q
|V
3
||V
1
||Y
31
|cos(
3
+
31

1
) + |V
3
||V
2
||Y
32
|cos(
3
+
32

2
)
= 11.0615.81cos(108.4) + 17.906cos(108.4)
= - 7.8
The general matrix formof load flow equation is,
(

A
A
(

=
(

A
A

V
J J
J J
Q
P
22 21
12 11
(
(
(
(

A
A
A
A
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

3
2
3
2
8 . 7 5 . 2 4 . 21 5 . 7
5 . 2 26 . 4 5 . 7 01 . 12
4 . 23 5 . 7 2 . 7 5 . 2
5 . 7 8 . 12 5 . 2 04 . 4
27 . 1
4 . 0
3 . 0
31 . 0

v
v

Result:
The load flow study of the given power system using Newton-Raphson method was conducted
using MATLAB and results was verified.
S.NO.9
Fast Decoupled Load Flow Analysis using MATLAB Software
Aim:
To become proficient in the usage of software in solving load flow problems using Fast
decoupled load flow method.
Theory:
Load flow study is useful in planning the expansion of power system as well as determining best
operation of the system. The principle obtained from load flow study is the magnitude and phase
angle of the voltage at each bus and real and reactive power flowing in each line. Load flow
analysis may be performed using A.C. network analyzer and also by digital computer. But now-
a-days digital computer oriented load flow analysis is a standard practice.
The fast decoupled load flow method is a very fast method of obtaining load flow
solutions. This method requires less number of arithmetic operations to complete an iteration
consequently. This method requires less time per iterations. In N-R method, the elements of
Jacobian are to be computed in each iteration .So the time per iteration is considerably more in
N-R method than in FDLF. The rate of convergence in FDLF method is slow requiring
considerably more number of iterations to obtain a solution than in the case of N-R method.
However accuracy is same in both the cases. In this method both the speeds as well as the
sparsity are exploited. This is an extension of N-R method formulated in polar co-ordinates with
certain approximation which results into a fast algorithm for load flow solution.
In practice, transmission system operating under steady state possesses strong
interdependence between active powers and bus voltages, angles, similarly there is strong
interdependence between bus voltage and reactive power


m
k
km
P
H
c
c
= ;
m
m k
km
E
E P
N
c
c
=

m
k
km
Q
J
c
c
= ;
m
m k
km
E
E Q
L
c
c
=

q
p
pq
P
H
c
c
= ;
q
q P
pq
E
E Q
L
c
c
=
The equation for power flow are again expressed below for calculating elements of Jacobian (ie
H & L)
( )

= =
+ + =
n
p q
q p pq pq q p pp pp q p p
Y E E Y E E P
, 1
cos cos
( )

+ + =
q p pq pq q p pp pp q p p
Y E E Y E E Q sin sin
Therefore the elements of Jacobian (ie H & L) can be calculated as from the equations above of
power. OFF diagonal element of H is
( )
q p pq
q
p
PQ
P
H

+
c
c
= sin
Start
Read the input data
Form the Y bus matrix
Form B and B matrix
Set flat voltage profile except for slack bus
Set convergence criterion
Set iteration count p=0
Calculate real & reactive power
Calculate
(
(

A
(
(

A
V
Q
V
P
,
Are
s
(
(

A
(
(

A
V
Q
V
P
,
Calculate real & reactive line
flow, bus powers
Print the results
Stop
(

A
A
(

=
(

A
A
V L N
M H
Q
P
Find | | | | V A A & by solving the
equations:
(

A
A
(

=
(

A
A
Q
V
V
4 3
2 1


Uptate voltage magnitude t phase
angles
| | | |
| | V
V V
old new
A + =
| | | |
| |

A + =
old new
C
C
No
Yes
Flowchart:
Algorithm:
Step 1: Read the slack bus voltages, real bus powers and reactive bus powers, bus
voltage magnitudes and reactive power limits.
Step 2: Form the Y bus matrix without line charging admittance and shunt admittance.
Step 3: Form B matrix, form Y bus matrix obtained in step 2.
Step 4: Form Y bus matrix with double the line charging admittance.
Step 5: Form B matrix from Y bus matrix obtained in step 4.
Step 6: Calculate the inverse of B & B matrices.
Step 7: Initialize the bus voltage.
Step 8: Calculate [P/|V|] , [Q/|V|]
Step 9: If P/ |V| & Q/|V| are less than or equal to tolerance limit, solution has convergence
and go to step 12 otherwise increase iteration count and go to step 10.
Step 10: Calculate [] = [B]
-1
[P/ |V|]
[|V|] = [B]
-1
[Q/|V|]
Step 11: Update [] & [|V|] for all buses except slack bus.

[]
new
= []
old
+ [ ]; [|V|]
new
= [|V|]
old
+ [|V|]
Step 12: Compute slack bus power, line flows, real power loss, reactive power loss etc.
Sample Problem:
For the system shown in Figure 4.4 determine the voltage at the end of the 1
st
iteration by FDLF
method. The line reactances are marked in the figure.
j 0.2
j 0.2
j 0.1
1
2
3
Figure 4.4
Bus specifications:
Bus
code
Assumed volt. Generation Load
P Q P Q
1 1 - - - -
2 1.1 5.52 0Q
G2
5.5 0.7 0.1
3 - - - 3.65 0.53
Solution:
P
2
= P
G2
-P
D2
= 4.82 p.u
P
3
=P
G3
-P
D3
= -3.65 p.u
Q
3
= Q
G3
-Q
D3
= -0.53 p.u
| |
| | | | 10
10 5
5 15
90 10 90 5 90 5
90 5 90 15 90 10
90 5 90 10 90 15
10 5 5
5 15 10
5 10 15
' '
'
=
(

=
(
(
(

Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
=
(
(
(

=
B
B
j j j
j j j
j j j
Y
bus
Flat voltage profile:
0 0
3
0 0
2
0 0
1
0 0 . 1 0 1
0 1 . 1 0 1 . 1
0 0 . 1 0 1
Z = + =
Z = + =
Z = + =
j V
j V
j V
Calculation of P and Q:
) cos(
1
q pq p pq
n
q
q p p
Y V V P + =

=
0
0
0
, 3
0
, 2
=
=
cal
cal
P
P

=
+ =
n
q
q pq p pq q p p
Y V V Q
1
) sin(
= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 23 33 3 2 22 22 2 2 2 1 21 21 1 2
sin sin . . sin . . + + + + Y V V Y V V Y V V
= -1.65
As 0Q
G2
5.5
Q
2
= Q
G2
-Q
D2
Q
G2
=-1.65+0.1
= -1.55
Hence it is not within the specified limits.
Q
3
= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
33 33 3 3 3 2 32 32 2 3 3 1 31 31 1 3
sin sin . . sin . . Y V V Y V V Y V V + + + +
= 0.5
Calculation of change in power:
03 . 1 5 . 0 53 . 0
65 . 3 0 65 . 3
82 . 4 0 82 . 4
. 3 . 3 3
. 3 . 3 3
. 2 . 2 2
= = = A
= = = A
= = = A
cal spec
cal spec
cal spec
Q Q Q
P P P
P P P
Find the largest value of P
2
, P
3
, Q
3
Let the largest change of E= 4.82
E E; 4.820.01
Find and V A :
| | | |
| | | |
(
(

A
= A
(
(

A
= A

V
Q
B V
V
P
B
1
' '
1
'

| |
1
1
'
10 5
5 15

= B
=
(

12 . 0 04 . 0
04 . 0 08 . 0
| | | | 1 . 0 10 / 1
1
' '
= =

B
| |
(
(

A
(

= A
V
P
12 . 0 04 . 0
04 . 0 08 . 0

=
(

A
A
65 . 3
38 . 4
12 . 0 04 . 0
04 . 0 08 . 0
3
2

2
=0.2045

3
=-0.2627
| | | |
(
(

A
= A
V
Q
V 1 . 0
103 . 0
3
= AV
Find the new values of phase angle and magnitude of the voltage:
p
i
p
i
p
i
p
i
p
i
p
i
V V V A + =
A + =
+
+
1
1

p =0; i=2,3
0 0
3
0
3
1
3
0 0
2
0
2
1
2
05 . 15 2627 . 0
71 . 11 2045 . 0
= = A + =
= = A + =
rad
rad


p =0; i=3
897 . 0 103 . 0 1
0
3
0
3
1
3
= = A + = V V V
New values are:
) ( 05 . 15 897 . 0
) ( 0 1 . 1
) ( 0 1
0 '
3
'
3
'
3
0 '
2
'
2
'
2
0 '
1
'
1
'
1
bus Load V V
bus Generator V V
bus Slack V V
Z = Z =
Z = Z =
Z = Z =

Result:
The load flow study on the given power system using Fast decoupled method was conducted
using MATLAB and results was verified.
S.NO.10
Symmetrical Fault Analysis using MATLAB Software
Aim:
To develop a computer program to carry out simulation study of a symmetrical three phase short
circuit on a given power system.
Theory:
Short circuits and other abnormal conditions often occur on a power system. Short circuits are
usually called faults by power system engineers. Some defects, other than short circuits are
also termed as faults.
Faults are caused either by insulation failures or by conducting path failures. The failure
of insulation results in short circuits which are very harmful as they may damage some
equipment of the power system. Most of the faults in transmission and distribution lines are
caused by over voltages due to lightning or switching surges, or by external conducting objects
falling on overhead lines. Overvoltages due to lightning or switching surges cause flashover on
the surface of insulators resulting in short circuits. Short circuits are also caused by tree branches
or other conducting objects falling on the overhead lines.
The fault impedance being low, the fault currents are relatively high. The fault currents
being excessive, they damage the faulty equipment and the supply installation. Also, the system
voltage may reduce to a low level, windings and busbars may suffer mechanical damage due to
high magnetic forces during faults and the individual generators in a power station or group of
generators in different power stations may loose synchronism
The symmetrical fault occurs when all the three conductors of a three-phase line
are brought together simultaneously into a shortcircuit condition as shown in Figure 1.
This type of fault gives rise to symmetrical currents i.e. equal fault currents with 120
0

displacement. Thus referring to Figure 5.1, fault currents I
A
, I
B
and I
C
will be equal in magnitude
with 120
0
displacement among them. Because of balanced nature of fault, only one phase needs to
be considered in calculations since condition in the other two phases will also be similar.
I
A
I
B
I
C
Short circuit
A
B
C
Figure 1 Symmetrical Fault on Three-Phase system
A three-phase short circuit occurs rarely but it is most severe type of fault involving largest
currents. For this reason, the balanced short-circuit calculations are performed to determine these
large currents to be used to determine the rating of the circuit breakers.
Flowchart:
Start
Read line data, Bus data,fault impedance etc
Compute Y
bus
matrix & modified Y
bus
matrix
I = 0
Find the bus at which fault occurs I = I+1
Compute fault current at faulted bus and
bus voltage at all buses
Compute all line current at unfaulty
area & gen currents
Is
I < nb
Print the Result
Stop
Compute Z
bus
matrix by inverting modified bus
Yes
No
Formula Used:
i) Fault Current, I
f
=
pp f
Z Z
V
+
ii) Fault Voltage, V
f
= ) 1 (
pp f
bus
Z Z
Z
V
+

where Z
f
Fault impedance
Z
pp
Line impedance
Algorithm:
Step 1: Read line data, machine data, transformer data, fault impedance etc.
Step 2: Compute [Y
bus
] matrix and calculate [Y
bus
]
modi.
Step 3: Form [Z
bus
] by inverting the [Y
bus
] modified.
Step 4: Initialize count I = 0.
Step 5: Find the bus at which fault occurs I=I+1.
Step 6: Compute fault current at faulted bus and bus voltage at all buses.
Step 7: Compute all line and generator currents.
Step 8: Check if I< number of buses, if yes go to step 5 else go to step 9.
Step 9: Print the results and stop the program.
Sample problem:
For a simple power system as shown in figure, find with the help of bus-impedance matrix
method the post fault currents in all the branches and post-fault voltages at all buses, if a three
phase dead short circuit occurs at bus-3. The pre- fault currents are neglected.
Solution:
Formation of bus impedance matrix:
Y
11
= 19 . 24
08 . 0
1
13 . 0
1
25 . 0
1
j
j j j
= + +
Y
22
= 02 . 46
03 . 0
1
13 . 0
1
20 . 0
1
j
j j j
= + +
Y
33
= 83 . 45
08 . 0
1
03 . 0
1
j
j j
= +
Y
12
=Y
21
== 69 . 7
13 . 0
1
j
j
=

Y
13
=Y
31
== 5 . 12
08 . 0
1
j
j
=

Y
23
=Y
32
== 33 . 33
03 . 0
1
j
j
=

We can formulate the bus admittance matrix

I
f
=0
S
1
E
1
=1.0 E
2
=1.0
j0.25 j0.2
j0.13
j0.08 j0.03
2
3
Single line diagram
Y
bus
=
(
(
(

83 . 45 33 . 33 5 . 12
33 . 33 02 . 46 69 . 7
5 . 12 69 . 7 19 . 24
j j j
j j j
j j j
By inversion of Y
bus
, we get
Z
bus
=
(
(
(

1343 . 0 1150 . 0 1059 . 0

1150 . 0 1214 . 0 0979 . 0
1059 . 0 0979 . 0 1270 . 0
j j j
j j j
j j j
Fault current, I
f
= . . 462 . 7
1343 . 0
0 . 1
33
0
u p j
j Z
V
k
= =
Bus voltages during the fault are,
V
1
f
=
0
33
13 33
k
V
Z
Z Z
(

= . . 2114 . 0
1343 . 0
1059 . 0
1 u p
j
j
=
(

V
2
f
=
0
33
23 33
k
V
Z
Z Z
(

= . . 143 . 0
1343 . 0
1150 . 0
1 u p
j
j
=
(

V
3
f
= 0
Short circuit currents in the lines are,
I
12
f
= . . 69 . 0
0979 . 0
143 . 0 2114 . 0
12
2 1
u p j
j Z
V V
f f
=

=
(

I
13
f
= . . 999 . 1
1059 . 0
0 2114 . 0
13
3 1
u p j
j Z
V V
f f
=

=
(
(

I
23
f
= . . 2434 . 1
115 . 0
0 143 . 0
23
3 2
u p j
j Z
V V
f f
=

=
(
(

Result:
The program to carry out the simulation study of a symmetrical three phase short circuit on a
given power system was developed and the results were verified.
S.NO.11
Economic Dispatch using MATLAB Software
Aim:
To develop a program for solving economic dispatch problem without transmission losses for a
given load condition using direct method and Lambda-iteration method.
Theory:
A modern power system is invariably fed from a number of power plants. Research and
development has led to efficient power plant equipment. A generating unit added to the system
today is likely to be more efficient than the one added some time back. With a very large number
of generating units at hand, it is the job of the operating engineers to allocate the loads between
the units such that the operating costs are the minimum. The optimal load allocation is by
considering a system with any number of units. The loads should be so allocated among the
different units that every unit operates at the same incremental cost. This criterion can be
developed mathematically by the method of lagrangian multiplier.
Statement of Economic Dispatch Problem:
In a power system, with negligible transmission losses and with N number of spinning thermal
generating units the total system load PD at a particular interval can be met by different sets of
generation schedules.
PG
1
(K)
, PG
2
(K)
. PG
N
(K)
; k =1,2,.NS
Out of these NS sets of generation schedules, the system operator has to choose that set
of schedule which minimizes the system operating cost which is essentially the sum of the
production costs of all the generating units. This economic dispatch problem is mathematically
stated as an optimization problem. Given the number of available generating units N
s
their
production cost function, their operating limits and the system load P
D
.
To determine the set of generating schedule P
G
,
Min F
T
= ( )

=
N
i
Gi i
P F
1
. (1)

=
=
N
i
D Gi
P P
1
=0 (2)
max min Gi Gi Gi
P P P s s (3)
The unit production cost function is usually approximated by a quadratic function.
( )
i Gi i Gi i Gi i
c P b P a P F + + =
2
i=1,2N (4)
where a
i
, b
i
and c
i
are constants.
The ED problem is given by the equations (1) to (4). By omitting the inequality constraint the
reduced ED problem may be restated as an unconstrained optimization problem by augmenting
the objective function with the constraint function multiplied by Lagrange multiplier to
obtain the Lagrange function L as,
Min: L(P
G1
,..P
GN,
)= ( ) | |

= =

N
i
N
i
D Gi Gi i
P P P F
1 1
(5)
The necessary conditions for the existence of solution to (5) are given by,
= =
c
c
0
Gi
P
L ( )

Gi
Gi i
dP
P dF
; i=1,2..N (6)

=
= =
c
c
N
i
D Gi
P P
L
1
0

(7)
The solution to ED problem can be obtained by solving simultaneously the necessary conditions
(6) and (7) which state that the economic generation schedules not only satisfy the system power
balance equation (8) but also demand that the incremental cost rates of all the units be equal to
which can be interpreted as incremental cost of received power when the inequality constraints
(3) are included in the ED problem the necessary condition (6) gets modified as
( )
i
i i
dPG
PG dF
= for PG
i,min s
PG
i s
PG
i, max
s
for PG
i
= PG
i,max
>
for PG
i
= PG
i, min
(8)
Methods of Solution for ED without Loss
The solution to the ED problem with the production cost function assumed to be a quadratic
function, equation (4), can be obtained by simultaneously solving (6) and (7) using a direct
method as given below,
i
i i
dPG
PG dF ) (
= 2a
i
PG
i
+ b
i
= ; i = 1,2, .......... N (9)
From Equation (9) we obtain
PG
i
= ( b
i
) /2a
i
; i = 1,2,............N (10)
Substituting Equation (10) in Equation (7) we obtain

=

N
i
i
b
1
) ( / 2a
i
= PD

= =
=
N
i
N
i
i
PD a b a
1 1
1 1
) 2 / ( ) 2 / 1 (

= =
+ =
N
i
i
N
i
i i
a a b PD
1 1
) 2 / 1 ( / ) ) 2 / ( ( (11)
Flowchart:
Yes
Read the data co-efficients a
i
,b
i
,c
i
and P
D
Find Pg
i
=
3
- b
i
/2a
i
Is PG
i
<
PD
No
Find P
gi
= - b
i
/2a
i ;
i= 1,2,.NG
Assume
2
>
1
Value
Assume
2
<
1
Value
Stop
Start
Find Pg
i
=
2
-b
i
/2a
i
Calculate
3
=
2
+ ( )
2
1 2
1 2
PG Pd
PG PG

Assume initial value of Lagrangian,
1
Check
Pg
i
= Pd
Print the generator real power
as output
No
Yes
The method of solution involves computing using equation (11) and than computing the
economic schedules PG
i
; i=1,2,........N using equation (10). In order to satisfy the operating limits
(3) the following iterative algorithm is to be used.
Algorithm for ED without loss (For quadratic production cost function)
Step 1: Compute using Equation (11)
Step 2: Compute using Equation (10) the economic schedules, PG
i
; i = 1,2,........N
Step 3: If the computed PG
i
satisfy the operating limits
PG
i, min s
PG
i s
PG
i, max
; i = 1,2,.........N
Then stop, the solution is reached. Otherwise proceed to step 4
Step 4: Fix the schedule of the NV number of violating units whose generation PG
i
violates the operating limits (12) at the respective limit, either PG
i,max
or PG
i,min
Step 5: Distribute the remaining system load PD minus the sum of the fixed generation
schedules to the remaining units numbering NR (= N-NV) by computing using
Equation (11) and the PG
i
;
NR
i using equation (10) where
NR
is the set of
remaining units.
Step 6: Check whether optimality condition (8) is satisfied. If yes, stop the solution
Otherwise, release the generation schedule fixed at PG
i,max
or PG
i,min
of
those generators not satisfying optimality condition (8), include these units in the
remaining units, modify the sets
NR NV
, and the remaining load. Go to step 5.
Sample Problem:
Economic Dispatch without loss:
A power plant has three units with the following cost characteristics:
Rs/h 9000 P 160 P 0.7 C
h / Rs 5000 P 270 P 1.0 C
h / Rs 5000 P 215 P 0.5 C
3
2
3 3
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
where
s
i
P are the generating powers in MW. The maximum and minimum loads allowable on
each unit are 150 and 39 MW. Find the economic scheduling for a total load of i) 320 MW
ii) 200 MW
Solution:
Knowing the cost characteristics, incremental cost characteristics are obtained as
MWh / Rs 160 P 1.4 IC
MWh / Rs 270 P 2.0 IC
MWh / Rs 215 P 1.0 IC
3 3
2 2
1 1
+ =
+ =
+ =
Using the equal incremental cost rule
160 P 1.4
270 P 2.0
215 P 1.0
3
2
1
= +
= +
= +
Case i) Total load = 320 MW Since P
1
+ P
2
+ P
3
= 320 we have
320
1.4
160
2.0
270
1.0
215
=

i.e. 320
1.4
160
2.0
270
1.0
215
]
1.4
1
2.0
1
1.0
1
[ + + + = + +
i.e. 2.2143 = 784.2857
This gives = 354.193 RM / MWh
Thus P
1
= ( 354.193 - 215 ) / 1.0 = 139.193 MW
P
2
= ( 354.193 - 270 ) / 2.0 = 42.0965 MW
P
3
= ( 354.193 -16.0 ) / 1.4 = 138.7093 MW
All s P
'
i
lie within maximum and minimum limits. Therefore, economic scheduling is
P
1
= 139.193 MW
P
2
= 42.0965 MW
P
3
= 138.7093 MW
Economic Dispatch without loss using Lamda Iteration method:
The fuel cost equations are given by,
F
1
= 0.035 P
1
2
+ 15P
1
+ 20 Rs / hr
F
2
= 0.04 P
2
2
+ 10P
2
+ 30 Rs / hr
Assuming both the units are operating at all time then total load varies from 40 to 200 MW and
that the maximum and minimum load of each unit is 100 and 20 MW respectively. Find the
Incremental Production Cost and allocation of load between two units for minimum overall cost
the given load.
P
1
= 20 MW
P
2
= 80 MW

4 . 16 10 ) 80 ( 08 . 0
4 . 16 15 ) 20 ( 07 . 0
2
2
1
1
= + =
= + =
dP
dF
dP
dF
= =
2
2
1
1
dP
dF
dP
dF
= 16.4
Solving the above Equations, we get
F
1
= 0.035 (20)
2
+ 15(20) + 20 = 334 Rs / hr
F
2
= 0.04 (80)
2
+ 10(80) + 30 = 1086 Rs / hr

F
T
=F
1
+ F
2
=1420 Rs / hr
Result:
The economic dispatch problem without transmission losses for a given load condition using
direct method and Lambda-iteration method was studied by developing a MATLAB program.
S.NO 12
Load Flow analysis using ETAP Software
Aim:

To conduct the load flow analysis by using an ETAP power station.
Theory:
ETAP power station is a fully graphical electrical transient analyzer program that can operate
under the Microsoft windows 98, NT4-0, 2000 and XP environments. The Windows 2000 and
XP Professional platforms provide the highest performance level for demanding applications,
such as large network analysis requiring intensive computation and online monitoring and
control applications. PowerStation allows us to work directly with graphical one-line diagrams,
underground cable raceway systems, ground grid systems and cable pulling systems. Power
station combines the electrical, logical, mechanical and physical attributes of system elements in
the same data base.
ETAP can simulate various power system problems like load flow analysis, short circuit
analysis, Harmonic analysis, Transient Stability analysis, Optimal power flow analysis, motor
acceleration analysis, Battery sizing discharge, DC load flow and DC short circuit analysis.
Power station organizers and accesses its database using Microsoft open database connectivity
(ODBC)
General steps for ETAP Simulation:
Step 1: (To create a new project)
1. To start power station, double click on the power station icon on desktop. This will
open the window.
2. To create a new project, select the file menu option from the start up menu Bark click
on the first button on the project tool bar
3. The user information dialog box comes up after you click on ok from the create
project file.
4. Enter the user name, full name and description and password click on ok in dialogue
box.
Step 2: (Project Properties)
Under the project menu there are some options as follows to give or edit the properties. The
information and standard of the projects can be edited from this menu.
Step 3: (Edit a one line diagram)
One line diagram menu bar contains a comprehensive collection of menu options. This menu bar
is displayed when a one line diagram is active. In the one line diagram presentation (OLV1), we
can graphically construct our electrical system by connecting the buses, branches motors etc.
from the one line diagram Edit tool bar.
Step 4: (For adding Components)
Click on the required symbol on the edit tool bar which changes the cursor shape to the elements
picture.
Step 5: (Rotation)
For this right click to bring up the menu and select one of the orientation
Edit Properties of the elements:
To change or edit properties of an element right click and select the properties to get the editor.
Relocate elements:
Select an element and move the cursor on top of it, the cursor becomes a move symbol. Now
drag the element to a new position and release the left button.
Load Flow Analysis:
The PowerStation Load Flow Analysis program calculates the bus voltages, branch power
factors, currents, and power flows throughout the electrical system. The program allows for
swing, voltage regulated, and unregulated power sources with multiple utility and generator
connections.
Run Load Flow Studies:
Select a study case from the Study Case Editor. Then click on the Run Load Flow Study icon to
perform a load flow study. A dialog box will appear to specify the output report name if the
output file name is set to Prompt. The study results will then appear on the one-line diagram and
in the output report.
Update Cable Load Current:
Selecting the Update Cable Load Current icon will transfer cable load current data from the
previously run load flow study. The data is transferred to the Operating Load Current in the
Cable Editor for each cable associated with the load flow study.
Load Flow Display Options
The results from load flow studies are displayed on the one-line diagram. To edit how these
results look, click on the Load Flow Display Options icon.
Alert View:
After performing a load flow study, you can click on this button to open the Alert View, which
lists all equipment with critical and marginal violations based on the settings in the study case.
Load Flow Report Manager:
Load flow output reports are provided in two forms: ASCII text files and Crystal Reports. The
Report Manager provides four pages (Complete, Input, Result, and Summary) for viewing the
different parts of the output report for both text and Crystal Reports. Available formats for
Crystal Reports are displayed in each page of the Report Manager for load flow studies.
Choosing any format other than Text Report in the Report Manager activates the crystal reports.
Result:
The results obtained for load flow analysis using ETAP power station was verified.
S.NO 13
Fault analysis using MiPower Software
Aim:
To conduct fault analysis using Mipower software.
Theory:
POWERSCS module is designed to perform the short circuit study for the given system. Short
circuit studies are performed to determine the magnitude of the currents flowing throughout the
power system at various time intervals after a fault occurs. The magnitudes of current flowing
through the power system after a fault vary with time until they reach steady state condition. This
behavior is due to system characteristics and dynamics. The short circuit information is used to
select fuses, breakers and switchgear ratings in addition to setting protective relays. The short
circuit program computes the steady state fault current for the impedance considered.
Procedure to enter data for performing studies using Mipower:
1. Draw single line diagram and enter data simultaneously in database manager.
2. Open power system network editor. Select menu option Database-configure.
Configure database dialog box is popped up. Click browse button.
3. The elements can be selected from the power system tool bar.
4. The element ID can be selected by double click the element in the file. Enter the
details of the elements in detailed form.
5. Save and close the library screen.
6. To solve short circuit studies choose menu option solve-short circuit analysis.
7. Select the suitable fault in the fault type and select the bus no.
8. Click execute and short circuit study will be executed.
9. Click on report to view the report.
Result:
The results obtained for fault analysis using Mipower software was verified.