THE MORAL LIFE

1.

Mans way of being is rational. Man shares with animals a biological (material) life. Unlike animals man can free himself from the limitations imposed on him by matter because he has an intellect and a will which are spiritual powers (i.e. powers which are not material, yet mysteriously interwoven with matter). Aristotle defines man as rational animal in order to express the fundamental characteristic of human nature. Therefore it is proper for man to know and to know that he knows: man can reflect upon his operations. The first object/s of mans knowledge are things of the material world, and later, as a reflection, man knows himself as part of the material world. Mans knowledge though does not stop at material realities, but goes further to discover the existence of immaterial realities, the spirit and ultimately God. What does it mean to know? When man knows something he knows what that thing is, what it does and what causes it to be: in other words, man knows the nature of that thing and its causes. While knowing the nature of things man also discovers that things operate in view of a purpose. When man knows himself he also knows, in a reflexive way, the purpose of his actions. Unlike other things, he is aware of the purpose of his actions. In man purpose is enlightened by the intellect. The awareness of the purpose adds new elements to mans action: the capacity of choosing (he may decide to do or not to do a certain thing); the intention (inseparably present in any mans action)

2.

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Man discovers, then, that all things have a purpose (or end) in what they do: things move and act so as to achieve what is good for them. Good is that towards which all things strive. Good is that which perfects and keeps things in existence.

9.

Things move because they are not perfect, i.e. all the potentialities of their natures are not actualised. If that where so movement would not be there. 1

God who is perfection itself, is totally in act and therefore there is no movement in him. Man sees that things exist and all work in order to keep themselves in existence and to acquire new perfections under new circumstances. Man asks himself whether there is an ultimate purpose to existence itself. In other words is it the same for a cow to exist or not to exist? 10. Moreover, if the purpose of things is to pursue their good, their ultimate end must necessarily be their ultimate good. If God created all things, what is the purpose of this creation? In creating God is absolutely free - that is, nothing moves his will other than himself -. Therefore the purpose of creation is God Himself, therefore the ultimate purpose of all things is God Himself. Therefore God is the Ultimate Good of all things. Ultimately all things act and move attracted by their ultimate Good and End which is God. God is the Unmoved Mover. Moreover, God creates each being with specific capacities of being and operating (what one calls natures). In view of all this, one can conclude that all things, in doing what they are meant to do according to their way of being (their nature), work in synchrony with their ultimate Good (their ultimate end) which is God Himself. Do what you are meant to do and in this way you fulfil the purpose of your existence. 15. Irrational beings pursue ends which are necessarily in synchrony with their ultimate end. However, man as a rational being may pursue ends which are not in synchrony with his ultimate end owing to the fact that man is free to choose ends that are not good for him as a man. Moral life can be defined as the effort made by man to guide and direct all his actions so that they may be always human and therefore in synchrony with his ultimate end, by the exercise of his freedom. Because of freedom our acts can be either moral or immoral: they are moral if they pursue ends appropriate to mans nature and therefore in tune with mans ultimate end, immoral vice-versa. This is what our reason can achieve about man after our analysis in general of the concepts of good, nature and ultimate end, namely that God is mans 2

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18.

ultimate end because he is his ultimate Good, that man is free to pursue it or not to since he is free unlike other creatures, that man achieves his ultimate end by performing acts which are appropriate to his nature. 19. What are then the acts that are appropriate to mans nature? Are they the same as in the case of animals? Is man one more animal? These issues will be tackled in a better way when we consider the topic of Passions. For now it will be sufficient to say that mens actions aim at goods which are set beyond purely material bodily needs as it happens with animals, since man has a spiritual component whose good is necessarily superior to material goods. From what has been said, rules of moral behaviour are independent from culture, ethnicity, religion etc. They are rules valid for all men of all places and all times, because they refer to the nature of man that does not change. Intellect and will in man, are signs of the image of God in him. Because of the intellect man is made to know all that is, and because of the will he is made to want those things that the intellect knows as good for him as a man. Because of his intellect and his will man, unlike other creatures, is able to know God as his ultimate end and to love him as his ultimate good. We have seen how everything achieves its end driven by a force imprinted, so to say, within its nature. God is the one who ultimately directs everything to its end through His divine wisdom called eternal law. The eternal law can be actually understood as the instructions manual that God releases when He creates each being. In the case of man the providence of God acts differently from other beings: in the case of man God leads man to his ultimate end by co-operating with mans freedom, i.e. by making him able to know the eternal law and by letting him determine in a free manner whether to comply with it or not. The eternal law of God implanted in beings endowed with reason is called NATURAL MORAL LAW. It is called natural because it arises from human nature and, as such, can be known by mans natural power of reason as a command to do good and avoid evil. Therefore the light of reason enables man to discern good and evil, i.e. to discern what is and what is not in accordance with his ultimate end which is God Himself. (a) Properties of the natural moral law: 3

20.

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i) ii) iii)

It is universal: it applies to all men; It is immutable: because human nature is always the same; It is obligatory: in order for man to achieve his ultimate end.

(b) Characteristics of the Natural Moral Law: i) ii) iii) 28. It is inscribed in mans nature, hence it can be known by human reason, albeit imperfectly; It preserves the integrity of mans nature; It gives legitimacy to all the laws of the State.

Although knowable by the power of human reason the natural moral law cannot be perceived clearly and immediately by all men. This in fact depends on a persons good dispositions. Unfortunately mans nature has been wounded by original sin and weakened and blinded by personal sins. So that man can be mistaken. In mans present situation Revelation is necessary to know the moral truths for everyone and with facility, with certainty and without admixture of error. As a matter of fact God has not only inscribed the natural moral law in our nature, but He has also revealed it when He gave it to Moses on the Mount Sinai in the form of Ten Commandments. When God expresses a law in Revelation, this is called Divinepositive Law. Let us therefore say it again: that which is in accordance with mans rational nature is good, and an act which aims at freely obtaining that good is moral. Since man, like other beings, achieves his ultimate end by acting according to his nature, i.e. rationally, it follows that any of his acts aiming at achieving what is truly good for him (moral) is in tune with his ultimate end. The function of the natural law (the Ten Commandments) is therefore to preserve the integrity of mans human nature so that he may be able to live as a man and so to achieve his ultimate end with ease. Can anyone go to Heaven? Yes, and the condition is to abide by the Natural Law, that is to behave as a man. Because of his ultimate end mans immoral actions have a character of sin, i.e. refusal of complying with the law of God for us. At the level of pure human nature God is the highest object of mans intellect and will. However God has revealed that man was destined to an end which is not natural but supernatural. When man was created at the beginning he was 4

29.

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32. 33.

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also lifted to a supernatural order, which was possible only with an extraordinary help from God called Grace. By this gift which is a power man is not only meant to know God rationally, but to see him face-to-face. 37. In this new perspective mans good and bad actions (moral and immoral) become very important in cooperating or not with Grace in the achievement or loss of ones ultimate supernatural end. That is why in order to go to heaven, it is absolutely necessary for any man to abide by the Ten Commandments. The Ten Commandments are the expression of the Old Law of the Old Testament. Christ perfected the Old Law with the New Law of Grace (or of Love) because man can now keep the Ten Commandments not out of fear but out of Love, infused by the Holy Spirit. It is important to stress the fact that Our Lord Jesus Christ came to restore the possibility for man to achieve once again the ultimate supernatural end for which he was created. Mans ultimate end is not to be good but to be holy, i.e. to share in the divine life of God. This, man achieves by dint of good works here on earth made meritorious by Grace, and after death boosted, so to say, by another help of God called light of glory. Jesus Christ also told us that He is the way, i.e. the road to the achi evement of this final end. Therefore mans moral life is the continuous effort of trying to identify ones life with the one of Christs, so that each Christian becomes another Christ. The Ten Commandments define the limits of good and evil. Man experiences difficulties in abiding by them. The reason is the reality of original sin in each man. Original sin has created a fracture in our nature which involves not only our body but also, and more seriously, our spiritual powers. Because of original sin we not only die and suffer from pain and diseases but also have become unable to distinguish clearly what is and what is not in accordance with our ultimate end. Even when we have known it more or less clearly, we are unable many times to move to action, because what is good for us is arduous and our body rebels. Pride, love of comfort, sensuality gain the upper hand in our quest for good, our passions become inordinate and out of control. That is why Grace gives man that extra help for him to overcome the 5

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difficulties of his fallen nature. That is why prayer and the reception of Sacraments are very important to be able to cope with the dictates of the natural moral law. 47. It is important to stress that Grace does not only help us to avoid evil, but also to actually do good. If ones moral life consisted only in avoiding evil, sooner or later we would fall into evil. If we put all our effort in avoiding unlawful sexual unions just because of the evil involved, without looking at the beauty of the marital life as the way of cooperating in the divine power of creation, we would easily do evil things once married, such as contraceptive practices or even abortion! In practice we are requested to live the natural moral law in our everyday situations. These are made of so many tiny events and occurrences, many of which present us with a choice after a judgment of the situation. This judgment is called conscience.

48.

THE MORAL CONSCIENCE

49.

Conscience is a judgement of reason whereby a human person recognizes the moral quality of a concrete act that he is going to perform, is in the process of performing, or has already been completed, approving it as good or denouncing it as evil. It is through the judgement of his conscience that man perceives and recognizes the prescriptions of the divine law. Conscience can be looked at as a voice which indicates what is good and what is bad. In doing this, it applies the moral law to concrete acts. While the intellect knows the moral law, the conscience applies it to specific acts. Conscience reveals a fundamental fact: man is not the creator of the moral law. Rather the moral law is something that man finds given to him. In the act of conscience man applies it to specific acts. It follows that man has the grave obligation of following his conscience as an expression of his subjection to the will of God: conscience is the loudspeaker of God within man. One sins every time he acts against what his conscience tells him. Conscience implies freedom in action. If man is not free in his determination of carrying out or not his action, he is not morally responsible for his actions. This is what we call freedom of conscience. For a true or right conscience one needs to know the precepts of the moral law correctly. Conscience can be erroneous or false when it makes a false judgements. This could be due: a) b) c) either because of invincible ignorance (in which there is no moral guilt, or because of little trouble in finding out the truth, or because of a deeply rooted habit of committing sin.

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The last two are manifestations of culpable ignorance, and definitely do not excuse from sin, actually they may aggravate sin.

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Conscience can also be: a) certain: when it makes a judgement with a moral certainty that it is not mistaken; doubtful: if the probability of being mistaken is considered equal or greater than the probability of being correct; perplexed: when one does not dare to judge because one thinks that it would be a sin either to carry out the act or to omit it.

b)

c)

In practice one must never act with a doubtful conscience. It is important always to clear once conscience by studying and asking advice so as to act with true and certain conscience. 58. The formation of once conscience is very important and absolutely necessary when one is exposed to negative influence and tempted to prefer their own judgement rather than authoritative teaching. The formation of ones conscience is carried out by a) the training of the intellect in the knowledge of truth b) and by the training of the will by fostering its inclination to good through the exercise of virtues.

59.

THE MORALITY OF HUMAN ACTS

60.

We have already said that a human act, freely chosen, is moral when ordained to mans ultimate end, which is God Himself, his true Good. However the morality of an act depends on: a) b) c) the object chosen; the end in view (or intention) the circumstances of the action.

61.

62.

The Object Chosen: a) Only actions whose objects conform with the good of the person can be ordered to mans final end. 8

b)

There are acts which are intrinsically evil, i.e. they are always evil independently from the intentions or circumstances. For instance, murder, genocide, abortion, euthanasia, willful suicide, mutilation, physical and mental torture, undue psychological pressure, arbitrary imprisonment, deportation, slavery, prostitution, selling of women and children, degrading working conditions, etc.

63.

The Intention: a) It is the aim for which the action is persued and an essential element for the moral evaluation of the action. A good intention does not make a behaviour that is intrinsically disordered, such as lying and calumny, good or just: the end does not justify the means.

b)

Principle: It is never lawful to act in a bad way for a good end. c) A bad intention (e.g. vainglory) makes an act evil which, in and of itself, can be good (such as almsgiving).

64.

The Circumstances (are secondary elements in a moral act): They contribute to increasing or diminishing the moral goodness or evil of human acts (e.g. the amount of a theft, or the stealing in a church). They can also increase or decrease the agents responsibility when he acts, for instance, out of fear of death: circumstances cannot change evil into good. An act is morally good if the object, the end and the circumstances are also good at the same time.

a)

b)

65.

Indirectly voluntary acts:

a)

Many times one is careless about something that he should know, e.g. a driver who should know about the rules of the traffic and yet drives with ignorance about them. As a result he causes an accident. The accident was not directly wanted. What was directly wanted was the ignorance about the traffic rules which caused the accident. This accident is therefore an indirectly voluntary act. (This situation makes the person imputable from the moral point of view). This better expressed by saying 9

that the accident is voluntary in causa. Another similar situation is a person who does not guard his eyes, as he should, from obscene pictures and as a result he commits impurity with imagination and deeds. An indirectly voluntary act is one which results from negligence regarding something one should have known or done.

b)

Sometime a morally good action has two effects: one good and one evil. E.g. The medical treatment of the cancer of the ovary which indirectly kills the baby in the womb of the mother. In such cases the bad effect is not wanted as an end and therefore the treatment may be perfectly moral.

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***** SIN *****

66. Sin always means offense to God. Therefore, we may offend our fellowmen, but we do not speak of sin against men. Man offends God (he sins) by fundamentally disobeying his law. We have already seen that the natural moral law is the law of behaviour written in mans rational nature, which preserves its integrity so that man may achieve his supernatural end freely. Therefore, moral life is strictly related to our ultimate supernatural end (God Himself). We have also seen that the natural moral law has been positively revealed by God in the form of the 10 commandments (part of the divinepositive law). Anything immoral (against Gods law) is sinful, i.e. it is an offense to God. Sin is always an expression of a disordered will which prefers self to God, which loves self to the point of despising God. Sin entered into the world because of disobedience prompted by pride, and Jesus mended it by obedience out humility. Sin is always a bad human act: human act because it has to be voluntary and free; it is bad because it is something contrary to the law of God. In general we distinguish between: a) habitual sin (original sin) and actual sin (or personal); b) sin of thought, word, deed, omission; c) venial sin and mortal sin. 74. Mortal sin is a grave offense to God. For mortal sin to take place three conditions are required at the same time: a) its object is grave matter: this means that the object is gravely contrary to the law of God. Sins of impurity are always grave, whether committed in thought or in deed; full knowledge (or full advertence): one knows that the action being carried out is sinful, i.e. contrary to the law of God; deliberate (or perfect) consent of the will, i.e. one openly desires the action, knowing that it is contrary to the law of God.

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71. 72.

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b) c)

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If the matter is light, or the matter is grave but one of the two other conditions is missing, the sin is venial, i.e. it is a light offense to God. If there is neither advertence nor consent there is no sin at all. N.B. For mortal sin to take place it is not necessary to directly want to offend God: it is sufficient that one wants to do something contrary to what God wants. Mortal sin does not follow the law of allornothing: there is a degree of seriousness among mortal sins, and this depends on the gravity of matter, on the degree of advertence and on the degree of consent.

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Mortal sin produces the following effects: a) loss of charity and privation of Sanctifying Grace: this practically means separation from God and incapacity of achieving our ultimate end (we cannot do it without God). Hence the only alternative is Hell unless repentance, followed by forgiveness, takes place. (It is not lawful to receive Holy Communion in a state of mortal sin); loss of the merits man has acquired, and incapacity of acquiring new ones. Let us remember that one is able to merit (to obtain a reward) for his good actions in view of his ultimate end, precisely because he has Grace, principle of merit; weakening of his union with the Church, the mystical body of Christ as a sick member which does not benefit from nor can produce benefit to the other members.

b)

c)

79.

Mortal sins are forgiven in the Sacrament of Confession where one is supposed to confess each of them, how many times for each, and the circumstances in which they were committed. Venial sins do not separate us from God totally, nevertheless they cool our love of God (Charity) since we start bending slightly towards creatures. Venial sins may be forgiven in the Sacrament of Confession, but also outside confession, e.g. with repentance followed prayers, mortification, reception of the Holy Communion, etc. A large number of venial sins does not add up to a mortal sin; however, carelessness with venial sins may induce a habit with which it becomes more easy to commit a mortal sin. Carelessness with venial sins leads to lukewarmness in spiritual matters which is one of the capital sins. 12

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The Church has the power to forgive any sin. In Mk 3:2829 it seems though that there are certain sins (against the Holy Spirit) which may not be forgiven. The Church has always understood this in those cases in which may deliberately reject Gods mercy and remain obstinate in not repenting of his sins, thus rejecting the salvation offered by the Holy Spirit. There are certain personal sins which especially lead to other sins: these are called capital sins because at the head of other sins, and are: pride, avarice, envy, anger, lust, gluttony, sloth. Sin creates proclivity to sin: every action performed by man affects the same man. If the action is good it makes man better, if evil it makes man worse. The repetition of good act engenders virtues, while the repetition of bad acts engenders vices in man. The repetition of evil act (sins) engenders perverse inclinations which cloud the conscience and corrupt the right judgement about good and evil. It nevertheless cannot destroy the moral sense at its roots. Sin has social consequences: it engenders lack of order, injustice, lack of solidarity, mistrust and ultimately lack of peace in all spheres of society. Social evils are the result of personal sins. We may also be responsible for the sins committed by others by participating directly in them, by ordering, advising, praising or only approving them, by not disclosing or not hindering them when we have an obligation to do so, by protecting evildoers.

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TEMPTATIONS
89. The root of all sins lies in mans heart. Temptations try to lead man to sin, but they cannot ever be so strong as to oblige one to sin. God gives us always grace to conquer any temptation. Causes of temptation: a) the world: not as Gods creation, which is good in this sense, but insofar as through the disorder brought about by sin it entices one to direct our attention to creatures through a materialistic and pagan environment;

90.

b) c)

the devil: his influence can be repulsed by prayer, holy water, etc.; the flesh (or concupiscence) which inclines to sin but which can be overcome by mortification and penence.

91.

Temptations first tries to provoke internal sin (without need of any external act) Internal sins can be divided into: a) morose delight: generally called bad thoughts, the imaginary representation of sinful act without the desire to carry it out. It is a mortal sin if it is a question of grave matter and one seeks or consents to pleasure in it; bad desire: a desire for a bad act with the intention to commit it. It is worse than the previous insofar as it includes a greater willingness; sinful enjoyment: the deliberate taking of pleasure in an evil action already carried out by oneself or by others. It renews the sin in the soul.

92.

b)

c)

93.

In matters of internal acts one should distinguish between feeling and consenting. Only when the will consents can one speak of sin (if the matter is sinful). In the struggle against internal sins it is very important to avoid giving in to scruples. In these circumstances one should ask himself: Have I consented at any stage?. A possible measure of consent can be whether, at realizing the sinfulness of the internal act, I have continued thinking and enjoying it. 14

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95.

To struggle against internal sins we are helped by: Sacraments, prayer and mortification, humility, sincerity.

96.

At a moment of danger we should always divert our mind, for instance by reciting a prayer that we keep always prepared in these circumstances. In order to overcome temptation we have to learn how to flee occasions of sin. It is important to realize that it is not sufficient to want to overcome temptations: it is also necessary to realize that we are made of clay and we have to behave always prudently in spotting beforehand anything or any situation which may create an inconvenience from the moral point of view.

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MAN THE SAINT

A.

CHARACTER BUILDING

98.

As it has already been seen, mans ultimate end is God Himself to be known, loved and served here on earth with our intellect enlightened by Faith and our will empowered by Grace, and enjoyed forever in heaven with our spiritual powers boosted by the light of glory. Please note that at natural as well as at supernatural level man achieves his ultimate end freely, i.e. by the use of his intellect and will, which characterize his nature.

99.

100. Therefore, there is a very close connection and interdependence between the integrity of our rational nature and Grace, the latter being a supernatural gift which empowers man to achieve his ultimate supernatural end. In other words:

For man to achieve sanctity (supernatural end) his human nature needs to be well prepared and well looked after.

101. Let us see, therefore, what man needs to do in order to look after his nature so that this may be well prepared to receive, preserve and increase Grace. This will take us around man to understand his way of being in a better way. 102. Man shares with animals a sentient type of life. This means that man, like animals, perceives stimuli from the environment through appropriate organs called external senses. Traditionally 5 of these organs are always mentioned (vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell) but there are other sense organs which perceive stimuli from the internal environment such as the propioceptors in the muscles and tendons which relay information to the cerebellum for adjustments of body posture. 103. Sense organs work in the following way: Example of sugar: sugar is sweet (taste does not perceive sugar, it perceives sweetness), sugar is whitish (vision does not perceive sugar, it perceives whiteness). 16

From this consideration it follows that sugar as such is not perceived by individual external senses. What then perceives sugar as such? There must be another sense able to coordinate the various pieces of information coming from the various external senses. This sense, which is an internal sense, is called common sense or coordinating sense. Common sense unifies the data of experience into a single experience which is an image of the real lump of sugar before us.

104. Common sense is not the only internal sense:

a)

imagination: is another internal sense. It causes images of material things to be formed in the brain. Imagining is not thinking! Imagination does not work with ideas, thinking does. Imagination re presents pictures of individual material things we have experienced. We cannot imagine what we have not experienced. Imagination can represent the unthinkable (flying elephants); memory: is another internal sense. Memory remembers past experiences. Memory retains the temporal succession of ones living. Thanks to the memory the person possesses his past and experiments the continuity of his own living. In memory his subjective identity is formed and preserved. Thanks to the memory, one can enjoy music as a temporal sequence of different notes. instinct: is another internal sense. It enables to distinguish, somehow automatically, what is favourable or not to ones preservation as individual and as species.

b)

c)

105. It is worth repeating that external as well as internal senses can do no more than establishing a link between man and the material reality. The material reality is always singular, therefore the objects of the senses are individual material realities. 106. As the external senses correspond to specific sense organs, the internal senses as well have an organic base and, as such, they can become sick manifesting this sickness, many times in mental disorders.

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PASSIONS
107. Passions are animal drives and they also belong to the sentient type of life. 108. Passions follow the perception of the senses; they drive the body towards what senses perceive as good and away from what the senses perceive as evil. This works well in animals in which the only concern is the preservation of the individual and of the species in their material constitution. 109. But what is good and what is bad for man goes beyond the pure materiality, and therefore passions are unable, by themselves alone, to judge on what is good and bad for man. Nevertheless passions in themselves are neither good nor bad, they need to be subjected to the direction of the intellect and of the will. 110. Since the times of ancient Greek philosophers eleven passions have been identified: six are called concupiscent and five are called irascible. 111. Three of the six concupiscent passions drive the body towards pleasure, i.e. sentient love, desire or attraction, delight or pleasure. 112. Three of the six concupiscent passions drive the body away from pain, i.e. sentient hatred or dislike, aversion, sadness or sorrow. 113. The irascible passions drive the body towards, or away from, difficulty as perceived by the senses i.e., sentient hope, sentient despair, courage, fear, anger.

THE PASSIONS EXPLAINED

Concupiscible passions

Love:

is a yearning for union with a person or a thing that pleases us; we thereby crave possession of it; eagerness to rid ourselves of what displeases us in the sense that we love the opposite, e.g. we hate disease because we love health. quest for an absent good; makes us shun or repel approaching evil; 18

Hatred:

Desire: Aversion:

Delight: Sadness:

satisfaction arising from a present good; makes us grieve over and shrink from a present evil

Irascible (or aggressive) passions

Courage:

makes us strive after union with the object loved, the acquisition of which is difficult; prompts us to shrink from an evil difficult to avoid; eagerly bears us towards the thing loved the acquisition of which is possible, though difficult; arises in the soul when the acquisition of the object loved seems impossible; violently repels what hurts us, and incites the desire of revenge.

Fear: Hope:

Despair:

Anger:

114. Let us repeat that passions are drives of the sentient type of life which refer to goods to be attained or evils to be avoided only in relation to the material aspects of our life and therefore they are in common with animals. 115. Man is not only matter but also spirit, intellect and will, freedom, and therefore passions need to be submitted to the control of the spiritual powers. 116. The example of LOVE: love, as passion, makes a man attracted to a woman (in this there is no difference between a man and a bull). This attraction is ordained to procreation (the bull does not know it, man does!). The knowledge of the end of this attraction makes man responsible towards it. Man does not only know the end of this attraction, he also knows that God has wanted that end to be accomplished within marriage. 117. The example of FEAR: animals avoid anything that may endanger their life indiscriminately. Man may overcome that fear of death because of superior reasons, such as defense of their family, their country, of God when one gives up his life in martyrdom.

118. A well-ordered passion is one which is subjected to the right reason. The subjection of the passions to the right reason is performed by the will. 19

119. At this point we should mention the difference between temperament and character: a) temperament: is the result of the interplay of the passions with the inherited influences of the visceral, muscular and nervous systems of a person, in other words, with the genetic constitution of a person. Personality: is the inner unity resulting from consciously directing all ones thoughts, words and actions towards one single end, or failing to do so. In the first instance we have a strong personality, while in the second we have a weak one.

b)

120. A strong personality is always characterized by unity of life, and is developed and acquired by: a) training the mind into accepting truth, discarding falsehood and acquiring a state of conviction whenever possible;

training the will into dominating the passions, so as to discard vice and acquire virtue. 121. The acquisition of a strong personality is accessible to all types of temperament (though facilitated by some types of them) since a strong personality is practically based on acquisition of virtue, and the latter is achieved by personal struggle.

b)

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THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE

122. Intellectual life is the life of the mind which is a spiritual and not material power. The spirituality of the mind can be deduced by the fact that man is able to form concepts: conceptualization is a process whereby man can speak of things in a general universal way without thinking about any particular item, i.e. about things independently of their materiality and individuality. This characteristic is further reflected on the fact that man not only knows things but he also knows that he knows: now, to know an operation is not to know something material and this implies a faculty that is not material.

123. The object of the mind is to know everything that is (or exists): a flying elephant is the object of imagination and not of the mind, since a flying elephant does not exist. 124. The mind therefore can issue a judgement of truth and falsehood about things: a thing is true insofar as it is. It is correct to say therefore that the object of knowledge is the contemplation of truth.

THE MORAL LIFE

125. Moral life is the life of the will which is also a spiritual power. Because of the will man has a capacity of possessing himself and dominating all his other powers and drives. 126. Because of his will man can pursue what is good and therefore achieve his ultimate end freely. This means that he can also refuse to achieve it. 127. Because of his will man is free but this also entails responsibility, merit and punishment. 128. The highest act of the will is to love. Here love is not to be confused with the corresponding passion or feeling: these have more to do with liking rather than loving and always have connotation with material aspects of the object of liking. One may love someone else without liking him/her. 129. True love means identification of two wills: of the loved one and of the one who loves. It implies generosity, self-sacrifice regardless of the feelings which come and go, like in animals. 21

130. Because of original sin even the spiritual powers of the intellect and will have been affected: the intellect experiences difficulty in attaining the truth and the will finds it hard to pursue what is really good for him. On the other hand the superior spiritual powers have lost grip over the passions, feelings and emotions. 131. The result is: difficulty for man to pursue his ultimate end. Man needs to struggle in order to put order in all the pieces of his nature and make them work properly. Man carries out this struggle by trying to acquire virtue.

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VIRTUES
132. To understand virtue it is necessary to understand the concept of habit. When we get up in the morning we usually jump from bed always from the same side, and we start dressing always in the same way and we tighten our shoelaces always starting with the same shoe, etc. 133. Habits make our life easier because somehow they introduce an element of automatism in our life, and we do not have to think too much about what we are doing. 134. Man, though, can develop good habits and bad habits. Good habits are the ones that bring to perfection the powers of man, while bad habits hinder them preventing their full development. An example, if the object of the intellect is truth, the power of the intellect with be brought to perfection by the good habits of truthfulness and sincerity, while willful ignorance and deceitfulness (their contrary bad habits) will prevent the intellect from achieving its objective. 135. Considering that the powers of man have to be ultimately directed towards the achievement of his ultimate end, it is understandable how bad habits may work effectively against this quest. 136. Good habits are called virtues, bad habits are called vices. 137. To fall into a life of vice is easier than leading a life of virtue owing to the havoc created in our powers by the original sin: actually we can talk about vice and virtue because of the original sin we are in. 138. A virtuous life is therefore the result of a personal struggle against the unnatural mans tendency to vice. 139. We have already seen how the ultimate end of man is supernatural. Therefore, no matter how hard we try, the achievement of our ultimate end is first and foremost an initiative of God and then our correspondence to this divine initiative. 140. God helps us with his Sanctifying Grace accompanied by the supernatural virtues such as Faith, Hope and Charity (which are theological) and the supernatural cardinal one (which are moral).

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141. These Supernatural Virtues, in order to work properly in man, need to find an adequate human ground: this is prepared by man when he struggles in order to acquire a virtuous life. E.g. The supernatural virtue of Faith will not be able to take root in a life of a person if he/she has not tried to live truthfulness and sincerity in his daily affairs. The truths revealed by God will not be easily accepted. The supernatural virtue of Hope will also remain quite sterile if a man has not fostered in his life the virtue of optimism and fortitude in facing hardship. Similarly the virtue of Charity will not produce fruits if a man has not tried to live generosity and altruism, etc. 142. A virtue, as well as a vice, is the result of a repetition of acts, at the beginning carried out with difficulty but progressively more and more easily. 143. A virtue is to be found half way between two vices: excess and defect, e.g. Faith between despair and presumption, docility between gullibility and stubbornness, fortitude between foolhardiness and cowardice, etc. 144. Natural virtues may be described in four groups:

a) b) c) d)

those of the mind those of the will those of the irascible appetite those of the concupiscent appetite

145. Not all virtues are moral, i.e. not all virtues bear direct relation to the ultimate end of man.

VIRTUES OF THE MIND

146. The speculative virtues of the mind are good habits which relate to truth. These are: a) b) c) Knowledge: Understanding: Wisdom: which deals with facts; which deals with true relations between things and facts already known; which deals with ordering of things according to their purpose.

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Vice against knowledge: Vice against understanding: Vice against wisdom:

ignorance dullness foolishness

147. The practical virtues of the mind are good habits which are related to action. Mans action, which follows knowledge, is expressed in English with two verbs: to make and to do and in Swahili with kutengenesa and kufanya. 148. Making always results with the production of things which are different from the subject who makes, while doing produces effects which directly affect the subject who does. 149. Therefore there are two virtues which relate to these two different actions of man, i.e.: a) the virtue of Art which is the good habit of making; b) the virtue of Prudence which is the good habit of doing. 150. As you will recall, Prudence is one of the four cardinal virtues (together with Justice, Temperance and Fortitude), it is therefore a virtue that bears importance for ones moral life. 151. Prudence is the virtue that leads all the other virtues, like a charioteer who controls the horses pulling a chariot. Do not forget that Prudence is virtue related to action which nevertheless presupposes knowledge, hence prudence is an intellectual virtue. 152. With prudence one takes decisions according to reason, i.e. according to what is true/false, good/evil, removing the possibility of being driven by passions. Prudence enhances the mastery of self. 153. The steps in acting prudently: a) b) c) Seeking advice Judging Making a decision

154. Seeking advice develops two additional virtues allied to prudence, i.e. humility (the acknowledgment of ones limitations) and docility (or the ability of being taught). In this way two vices are avoided, i.e. gullibility (or excessive docility, by which one believes everything one is told) and stubbornness (by which one refuses to be taught at all).

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155. Judging develops the following virtues: foresight (or the ability to see the long-term consequences of the action), sagacity (or the ability of making correct judgments), circumspection (the ability to consider the circumstances), precaution (the ability to spot the possible obstacles). The lack of judgment is a vice called thoughtlessness. 156. Finally the decision is made for action; to carry it out all the available means should be used. To hesitate is to practice the vice of fickleness or indecision. 157. Minor virtues related to prudence are: recollection (by which one recalls the past, learning mistakes to be avoided), empathy (or the capacity of understanding other peoples point of view), sympathy (or the ability to share other peoples feelings, passing over their defects. This virtue implies the refrain from judging other peoples intentions, and listening to what they have to say).

VIRTUES OF THE WILL JUSTICE AND CONTRARY VICES

158. Justice is the constant will to give everyone their due. It is an eminent social virtue because it can be practiced only towards the others. This virtue implies the fact that others have rights while I have the duty of respecting these rights. 159. Human rights are relative to duties, while only God has absolute rights. 160. In certain cases what is due is beyond the possibilities of the one who owes it, e.g. how can one repay ones parents, or God, for all those things he has received from them? 161. Piety is the name of the virtue to be lived in these cases. Piety occurs at three levels, i.e.: a) towards God, who has not only created us, but also keeps us in existence. Piety at this level is called religion; towards ones parents, who, acting as Gods stewards, have given us life and brought us up. Piety at this level is called filial devotion;

b)

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c)

towards ones community/country/nation, which has given us our outlook on life. Piety at this level is called patriotism. (Distinguish between patriotism and nationalism) The only way of repaying all those above is through gratefulness, obedience, loyalty, etc.

162. In society justice is practiced at different levels, i.e.: a) by the government in respect of their subjects when it rewards lawabiders and punishes law-breakers. This type of justice is called distributive; by the subjects in respect of the State authority. This consists in obeying all just laws and in paying taxes. This type of justice is called legal; by all the members of the society towards each other. It consists in honoring contracts and in not doing to others what we would not wish to be done to ourselves. This type of justice is called commutative; by all in respect of the common good. Organs of government do not need to be the channels for acts of social justice such as running dispensaries for the poor or school. All citizens can be responsible for such acts. This type of justice is called social or community justice.

b)

c)

d)

VIRTUES ALLIED TO JUSTICE Gratitude: Punishment: Truthfulness: to acknowledge a good received to give retribution for injury received. justice towards truth, and towards those who have the right to know it. or truthfulness in promises (it is the foundation of commutative justice). truthfulness in words truthfulness in action to think of others more than of self is to apply the spirit of law rather than the letter 27

Faithfulness:

Sincerity: Simplicity: Generosity: Equity:

SOME VICES AGAINST JUSTICE Atheism: denying the debt owed by creatures to their Creator Idolatry, superstition: acknowledging divine powers to creatures Disobedience: ingratitude towards parents Nationalism: excessive appreciation of ones own country Ingratitude: not to reward the good doers Leniency: to leave wrongs unpunished Etc..

THE VIRTUE OF FORTITUDE AND THE IRASCIBLE DRIVES

163. Human endeavors always imply difficulties. The virtue of fortitude consists in facing such difficulties with the spirit of enterprise, and in overcoming them by persevering effort. Two enemies always lurk around, i.e. fear and discouragement. Fortitude toughens against them. 164. Virtues allied to fortitude: Magnanimity: Magnificence: means to set worthwhile goals in life means to use all the available means to carry out worthwhile enterprises. Magnificence implies generosity the ability to identify the positive aspects of a problem

Optimism:

Patience, Perseverance and Constancy: the determination of overcoming obstacles

SOME VICES AGAINST FORTITUDE Foolhardiness Cowardice Pusillanimity Presumption

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TEMPERANCE AND THE CONCUPISCENT DRIVES

165. The vegetative functions of the body are usually accompanied by pleasure. Temperance consists in submitting these functions to reason, while all the vices against it stem from seeking pleasure as an end in itself and not as a means. Temperance fosters the health of body and soul. 166. Virtues allied to temperance Avoids excessive eating and drinking, and also guides ones life in the use of only those things which are needed. regulates the use of reproductive powers according to reason. moderates the desire for vengeance is modesty in the pursuit of self esteem modesty in the acquisition of knowledge. (as opposed to shallow erudition)

Sobriety: Chastity: Clemency: Humility: Studiousness:

SOME VICES AGAINST TEMPERANCE Intemperance Fearfulness Gluttony Drunkenness Lust Anger Cruelty Idle curiosity Frivolity Shabbiness

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SUMMARY 167. In his letter to the Ephesians St. Paul tells us Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places, even as he chose us in him before the foundation of the world, that we should be holy and blameless before him (Eph. 1,3-4). 168. We have seen how the integrity of our nature is preserved by the 10 Commandments. These are the summary of the natural law inscribed in our nature, which can be known, although with difficulty, by reason. 169. The integrity of our human nature, which is rational, has to be preserved since our ultimate destiny is supernatural; therefore, in helping us achieve our supernatural end, God expects to find in us a well prepared material. 170. Living up to the demands of the natural law is a difficult task, owing to the wounds inflicted to our nature by the Original Sin. The struggle engaged consists in pursuing a virtuous life; this struggle is made easier by the same help of God through his Grace and infused virtues. 171. It should therefore be very clear that no personal effort in moral life can be 100% effective without the help of God. He wants us to achieve our ultimate end (i.e. salvation, sanctity), and He gives us his help in order for us to struggle effectively. 172. This also means that moral efforts, without prayer, Sacraments and interior life, will produce relative fruits. And even those fruits may eventually be subjected to deterioration owing to discouragement and human weakness. 173. Moral life is not the end of Christian Life. Moral life is the instrument by which we prepare ourselves to receive divine life in us, by which we are made like Christ.

Christian Life is identification with Christ.

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SPECIAL MORAL ISSUES

ABORTION, (5th C) STERILIZATION, (5th C) BIRTH CONTROL, (6th C) FORNICATION, (6th C) RELIGIOUS INDIFFERENCE, (1st C) ABUSE OF DRUGS AND ALCOHOL, (5th C) EUTHANASIA, (5th C) WHITCHDOCTORS, (1st C) PORNOGRAPHY, (6th C) USURY AND MANIPULATION OF MARKETS FOR PERSONAL GAIN, (7th C) BRIBERY, (7th C) FRAUD, (7th C) EXPLOITATION OF THE POOR AND REFUSING TO PAY WAGES, THEFT OF PUBLIC LAND AND OTHER RESOURCES. (7th C)

USE AND ABUSE OF SEX

1.

In order to appreciate sexuality as a good in all its grandeur, one has to look at it in its global relationship with other goods: marriage, family, society, common good. Sex is a personal good which has to be subjected to the common good of society. Sexuality in man, as well as in animals, is ordained to procreation, i.e. the generation of offspring. This is what the right reason understands as a fact flowing from the nature of sex. Pleasure accompanies the exercise of the sexual powers, as it does with other vital functions of the body, so as to facilitate that function. The attraction between opposite sexes is a natural phenomenon which is also directly related to procreation. Sexuality in man differs essentially from the one of animals in that a spiritual element is introduced: the will that desires the good of the other (true love). Since in the process two wills enter into play we understand how the union of the two human bodies is the physical expression of the union of two spirits. 31

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

A further analysis reveals that in a human sexual intercourse the two persons involved are actually giving themselves to each other in their totality that is, body and soul. This is a fact, and this is what makes the function a fully human one. If this was not so, then the function would have all the characteristics of an animal union. Two people who are in love want to share everything they have and are. The sharing of the bodies is one aspect, albeit important, of this will of sharing. This total self-giving is gratuitous, it is a gift, and as any other gift it presupposes faithfulness to it (it cannot be called back), and since it is total it cannot be shared with others. The total gift of self makes the union permanent and exclusive. Also the procreative aspect of the sexual act implies the generation of beings which, because of their rational nature, are image and likeness of God. Beings provided with a spiritual immortal soul which is immediately created by God in each generative act. It is because of this reason that God has wanted the sexual act to be formed within the institution of marriage, and the offspring brought up in a family atmosphere. Marriage protects sexuality against abuses. Because of all this marriage is one and indissoluble. The unitive and procreative aspects of the sexual act in marriage have to be always respected and never separated. When separation is either intentionally or actually wanted two sets of illicit practices appear: a) the choice for the unitive without the procreative leads to contraceptive practices such as the use of condoms, spirals, pills, sterilization, etc. Abortion is a sad consequence of a contraceptive mentality. The choice of the procreative without unitive leads to such evil practices as in vitro fertilization (IVF), surrogate mothers, etc. in other words, the right to children at all costs.

8.

9.

10. 11.

12.

b)

13.

Practices mentioned in a) and b) above are grave attacks to marital chastity and sources of infidelity between the two partners. They are a grave offence to God and his law. Sexual drive, being as strong as anyone knows, need to be controlled and directed by the spiritual powers towards the ends of the sexual act. This means to struggle in order to live a chaste life. 32

14.

15.

A chaste life is achieved by: a) b) avoiding anything that may arouse sexual impulses, i.e. readings, films, TV programs, conversations, shady jokes etc; avoiding proximate occasions of impurity, i.e. girl friends, places which are inappropriate, such as discos, parties, lonely places in company with girls, bad companies, etc; controlling ones imagination and curiosity; having a time-table and being industrious; being generous and thinking about others; praying, and frequenting the Sacraments.

c) d) e) f)

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