Logical And Physical Database Design

1. 2. Jeffrey A. Hoffer, Mary B. Prescott, Fred R. McFadden. Modern Database Management. 4th Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:Prentice Hall (Pearson Educational, Inc), 2005 A. Silberschatz, H.F. Korth, S. Sudarshan. "Database System Concepts (4th Edition). McGrawHill, 2002.

KRISNA ADIYARTA PASCA SARJANA (MAGISTER KOMPUTER) UNIVERSITAS BUDI LUHUR JAKARTA

Objectives

Definition of terms List five properties of relations State two properties of candidate keys Define first, second, and third normal form Describe problems from merging relations Transform E-R and EER diagrams to relations Create tables with entity and relational integrity constraints Use normalization to convert anomalous tables to well-structured relations

Objectives

Definition of terms Describe the physical database design process Choose storage formats for attributes Select appropriate file organizations Describe three types of file organization Describe indexes and their appropriate use Translate a database model into efficient structures Know when and how to use denormalization

Relation

Definition: A relation is a named, two-dimensional table of data Table consists of rows (records) and columns (attribute or field)

Requirements for a table to qualify as a relation:

It must have a unique name Every attribute value must be atomic (not multivalued, not composite) Every row must be unique (cant have two rows with exactly the same values for all their fields) Attributes (columns) in tables must have unique names The order of the columns must be irrelevant The order of the rows must be irrelevant

NOTE: all relations are in

1st Normal form

Correspondence with E-R Model

Relations (tables) correspond with entity types and with many-to-many relationship types Rows correspond with entity instances and with many-to-many relationship instances Columns correspond with attributes NOTE: The word relation (in relational database) is NOT the same as the word relationship (in E-R model)

Key Fields

Keys are special fields that serve two main purposes:

Primary keys are unique identifiers of the relation in question. Examples include employee numbers, social security numbers, etc. This is how we can guarantee that all rows are unique Foreign keys are identifiers that enable a dependent relation (on the many side of a relationship) to refer to its parent relation (on the one side of the relationship)

Keys can be simple (a single field) or composite (more than one field) Keys usually are used as indexes to speed up the response to user queries

Schema for four relations (Pine Valley Furniture Company)

Primary Key Foreign Key

(implements 1:N relationship between customer and order)

Combined, these are a composite primary key (uniquely identifies the order line)individually they are foreign keys (implement M:N relationship between order and product)

Integrity Constraints

Domain Constraints
Allowable

values for an attribute. Entity

Integrity No primary key attribute may be null. All primary key fields MUST have data

Domain definitions enforce domain integrity constraints

Integrity Constraints

Referential Integrityrule states that any foreign key value (on the relation of the many side) MUST match a primary key value in the relation of the one side. (Or the foreign key can be null) For example: Delete Rules

Restrictdont allow delete of parent side if related rows exist in dependent side Cascadeautomatically delete dependent side rows that correspond with the parent side row to be deleted Set-to-Nullset the foreign key in the dependent side to null if deleting from the parent side not allowed for weak entities

Referential integrity constraints

Referential integrity constraints are drawn via arrows from dependent to parent table

Referential integrity constraints are implemented with foreign key to primary key references

Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations

Mapping Regular Entities to Relations

1. 2. 3.

Simple attributes: E-R attributes map directly onto the relation Composite attributes: Use only their simple, component attributes Multivalued AttributeBecomes a separate relation with a foreign key taken from the superior entity

Mapping a regular entity

(a) CUSTOMER entity type with simple attributes

(b) CUSTOMER relation

Mapping a composite attribute (a) CUSTOMER entity type with composite attribute

(b) CUSTOMER relation with address detail

Mapping an entity with a multivalued attribute (a)

Multivalued attribute becomes a separate relation with foreign key

(b)

Onetomany relationship between original entity and new relation

Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations (cont.)

Mapping Weak Entities

Becomes

a separate relation with a foreign key taken from the superior entity Primary key composed of:
Partial

identifier of weak entity Primary key of identifying relation (strong entity)

Example of mapping a weak entity

a) Weak entity DEPENDENT

Example of mapping a weak entity (cont.) b) Relations resulting from weak entity

NOTE: the domain constraint for the foreign key should NOT allow null value if DEPENDENT is a weak entity Foreign key

Composite primary key

Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations (cont.)

Mapping Binary Relationships

One-to-ManyPrimary

key on the one side becomes a foreign key on the many side Many-to-ManyCreate a new relation with the primary keys of the two entities as its primary key One-to-OnePrimary key on the mandatory side becomes a foreign key on the optional side

Example of mapping a 1:M relationship a) Relationship between customers and orders

Note the mandatory one

b) Mapping the relationship

Foreign key

Again, no null value in the foreign keythis is because of the mandatory minimum cardinality

Example of mapping an M:N relationship a) Completes relationship (M:N)

The Completes relationship will need to become a separate relation

Example of mapping an M:N relationship (cont.) b) Three resulting relations

Composite primary key

Foreign key Foreign key

New intersection relation

Example of mapping a binary 1:1 relationship a) In_charge relationship (1:1)

Often in 1:1 relationships, one direction is optional.

Example of mapping a binary 1:1 relationship (cont.) b) Resulting relations

Foreign key goes in the relation on the optional side, Matching the primary key on the mandatory side

Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations (cont.)

Mapping Associative Entities

Identifier
Default

Not Assigned

primary key for the association relation is composed of the primary keys of the two entities (as in M:N relationship)

Identifier
It

Assigned

is natural and familiar to end-users Default identifier may not be unique

Example of mapping an associative entity

a) An associative entity

Example of mapping an associative entity (cont.) b) Three resulting relations

Composite primary key formed from the two foreign keys

Example of mapping an associative entity with an identifier

a) SHIPMENT associative entity

Example of mapping an associative entity with an identifier (cont.) b) Three resulting relations

Primary key differs from foreign keys

Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations (cont.)

Mapping Unary Relationships

One-to-ManyRecursive

foreign key in the

same relation Many-to-ManyTwo relations: One for the entity type One for an associative relation in which the primary key has two attributes, both taken from the primary key of the entity

Mapping a unary 1:N relationship

(a) EMPLOYEE entity with unary relationship

(b) EMPLOYEE relation with recursive foreign key

Mapping a unary M:N relationship

(a) Bill-of-materials relationships (M:N)

(b) ITEM and COMPONENT relations

Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations (cont.)

Mapping Ternary (and n-ary) Relationships

One

relation for each entity and one for the associative entity Associative entity has foreign keys to each entity in the relationship

Mapping a ternary relationship a) PATIENT TREATMENT Ternary relationship with associative entity

Mapping a ternary relationship (cont.) b) Mapping the ternary relationship PATIENT TREATMENT

Remember that the primary key MUST be unique

This is why treatment date and time are included in the composite primary key

But this makes a very cumbersome key

It would be better to create a surrogate key like Treatment#

Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations (cont.)

Mapping Supertype/Subtype Relationships One relation for supertype and for each subtype Supertype attributes (including identifier and subtype discriminator) go into supertype relation Subtype attributes go into each subtype; primary key of supertype relation also becomes primary key of subtype relation 1:1 relationship established between supertype and each subtype, with supertype as primary table

Supertype/subtype relationships

Mapping Supertype/subtype relationships to relations

These are implemented as one-to-one relationships

Data Normalization

Primarily a tool to validate and improve a logical design so that it satisfies certain constraints that avoid

unnecessary duplication of data

The process of decomposing relations with anomalies to produce smaller, well-structured relations

Well-Structured Relations

A relation that contains minimal data redundancy and allows users to insert, delete, and update rows without causing data inconsistencies Goal is to avoid anomalies

Insertion Anomalyadding new rows forces user to create duplicate data Deletion Anomalydeleting rows may cause a loss of data that would be needed for other future rows Modification Anomalychanging data in a row forces changes to other rows because of duplication

General rule of thumb: A table should not pertain to more than one entity type

Example

QuestionIs this a relation? QuestionWhats the primary key?

AnswerYes: Unique rows and no multivalued attributes AnswerComposite: Emp_ID, Course_Title

Anomalies in this Table

Insertioncant enter a new employee without having the employee take a class Deletionif we remove employee 140, we lose information about the existence of a Tax Acc class Modificationgiving a salary increase to employee 100 forces us to update multiple records
Why do these anomalies exist? Because there are two themes (entity types) in this one relation. This results in data duplication and an unnecessary dependency between the entities

Functional Dependencies and Keys

Functional Dependency: The value of one attribute (the determinant) determines the value of another attribute Candidate Key:

unique identifier. One of the candidate keys will become the primary key

E.g. perhaps there is both credit card number and SS# in a tablein this case both are candidate keys

Each

non-key field is functionally dependent on every candidate key

Normalization
Normalization Relations can fall into one or more categories (or classes) called Normal Forms Normal Form: A class of relations free from a certain set of modification anomalies. Normal forms are given name such as: First normal form (1NF) Second normal form (2NF) Third normal form (3NF) Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF) Fourth normal form (4NF) Fifth normal form (5NF) These forms are cumulative. A relation in Third normal form is also in 2NF and 1NF.

Steps in normalization

First Normal Form (1NF)

A relation is in first normal form if it meets the definition of a relation: 1.Each column (attribute) value must be a single value only. 2.All values for a given column (attribute) must be of the same type. 3.Each column (attribute) name must be unique. 4.The order of columns is insignificant. 5.No two rows (tuples) in a relation can be identical. 6.The order of the rows (tuples) is insignificant. If you have a key defined for the relation, then you can meet the unique row requirement. Example relation in 1NF: STOCKS (Company, Symbol, Date, Close_Price)
Company IBM IBM IBM Netscape Netscape Symbol IBM IBM IBM NETS NETS Date 01/05/94 01/06/94 01/07/94 01/05/94 01/06/94 Close Price 101.00 100.50 102.00 33.00 112.00

Second Normal Form (2NF)

A relation is in second normal form (2NF) if all of its non-key attributes are dependent on all of the key. Relations that have a single attribute for a key are automatically in 2NF. This is one reason why we often use artificial identifiers as keys. In the example below, Close Price is dependent on Company, Date and Symbol, Date The following example relation is not in 2NF:
STOCKS (Company, Symbol, Headquarters, Date, Close_Price)
Company, Date -> Close Price Symbol, Date -> Close Price Company -> Symbol, Headquarters Symbol -> Company, Headquarters

Company IBM IBM IBM Netscape Netscape

Symbol IBM IBM IBM NETS NETS

Headquarters Armonk, NY Armonk, NY Armonk, NY Sunyvale, CA Sunyvale, CA

Date 01/05/94 01/06/94 01/07/94 01/05/94 01/06/94

Close Price 101.00 100.50 102.00 33.00 112.00

Second Normal Form (2NF)

Consider that Company, Date -> Close Price. So we might use Company, Date as our key. However: Company -> Headquarters This violates the rule for 2NF. Also, consider the insertion and deletion anomalies. One Solution: Split this up into two relations: COMPANY (Company, Symbol, Headquarters) STOCKS (Symbol, Date, Close_Price)
Symbol IBM IBM IBM NETS NETS Date 01/05/94 01/06/94 01/07/94 01/05/94 01/06/94 Close Price Company 101.00 100.50 102.00 33.00 112.00
Company -> Symbol, Headquarters Symbol -> Company, Headquarters

Symbol IBM NETS

Headquarters Armonk, NY Sunnyvale, CA

IBM Netscape

Symbol, Date -> Close Price

Third Normal Form (3NF)

A relation is in third normal form (3NF) if it is in second normal form and it contains no transitive dependencies. Consider relation R containing attributes A, B and C. If A -> B and B -> C then A -> C Transitive Dependency: Three attributes with the above dependencies. Example: At CUNY: Course_Code -> Course_Num, Section Course_Num, Section -> Classroom, Professor Example: At Rutgers: Course_ Index_Num -> Course_Num, Section Course_Num, Section -> Classroom, Professor

Third Normal Form (3NF)

Example:
Company IBM AT&T County Putnam Bergen Tax Rate 28% 26%

Company -> County and County -> Tax Rate thus Company -> Tax Rate

What happens if we remove AT&T ? We loose information about 2 different themes. Split this up into two relations:
Company IBM AT&T County Putnam Bergen

County Putnam Bergen

Tax Rate 28% 26%

Company -> County

County -> Tax Rate

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

A relation is in BCNF if every determinant is a candidate key. Recall that not all determinants are keys. Those determinants that are keys we initially call candidate keys. Eventually, we select a single candidate key to be the primary key for the relation. Consider the following example: Funds consist of one or more Investment Types. Funds are managed by one or more Managers Investment Types can have one more Managers Managers only manage one type of investment.
FundID 99 99 33 22 11 InvestmentType Common Stock Municipal Bonds Common Stock Growth Stocks Common Stock Manager Smith Jones Green Brown Smith

FundID, Manager -> InvestmentType FundID, InvestmentType -> Manager Manager -> InvestmentType

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

The combination FundID and InvestmentType form a candidate key because we can use FundID,InvestmentType to uniquely identify a tuple in the relation. Similarly, the combination FundID and Manager also form a candidate key because we can use FundID, Manager to uniquely identify a tuple. Manager by itself is not a candidate key because we cannot use Manager alone to uniquely identify a tuple in the relation. Is this relation R(FundID, InvestmentType, Manager) in 1NF, 2NF or 3NF ? Given we pick FundID, InvestmentType as the Primary Key: 1NF for sure. 2NF because all of the non-key attributes (Manager) is dependant on all of the key.3NF because there are no transitive dependencies. Consider what happens if we delete the tuple with FundID 22. We loose the fact that Brown manages the InvestmentType "Common Stocks." FundID InvestmentTyp Manage
e r

FundID, Manager -> InvestmentType FundID, InvestmentType -> Manager Manager -> InvestmentType

99 99 33 22 11

Common Stock Municipal Bonds Common Stock Growth Stocks Common Stock

Smith Jones Green Brown Smith

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

The following are steps to normalize a relation into BCNF: List all of the determinants. See if each determinant can act as a key (candidate keys). For any determinant that is not a candidate key, create a new relation from the functional dependency. Retain the determinant in the original relation. For our example: Rorig(FundID, InvestmentType, Manager) 1. The determinants are: FundID, InvestmentType FundID, Manager Manager 2. Which determinants can act as keys ? FundID, InvestmentType YES FundID, Manager YES Manager NO 3. Create a new relation from the functional dependency: Rnew(Manager, InvestmentType) Rorig(FundID, Manager) In this last step, we have retained the determinant "Manager" in the original relation Rorig. 1. 2. 3.

Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

A relation is in fourth normal form if it is in BCNF and it contains multivalued dependencies. Multivalued Dependency: A type of functional dependency where the determinant can determine more than one value. More formally, there are 3 criteria: 1. There must be at least 3 attributes in the relation. call them A, B, and C, for example. 2. Given A, one can determine multiple values of B. Given A, one can determine multiple values of C. 3. B and C are independent of one another. example: Student has one or more majors. Student participates in one or more activities.

Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

StudentID 100 100 100 100 200 Major CIS CIS Accounting Accounting Marketing Activities Baseball Volleyball Baseball Volleyball Swimming StudentID ->> Major StudentID ->> Activities

Portfolio ID 999 999 999 999 888

Stock Fund Janus Fund Janus Fund Scudder Global Fund Scudder Global Fund Kaufmann Fund

Bond Fund Municipal Bonds Dreyfus Short-Intermediate Municipal Bond Fund Municipal Bonds Dreyfus Short-Intermediate Municipal Bond Fund T. Rowe Price Emerging Markets Bond Fund

Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

1. 2. 3. 4. A few characteristics: No regular functional dependencies All three attributes taken together form the key. Latter two attributes are independent of one another. Insertion anomaly: Cannot add a stock fund without adding a bond fund (NULL Value). Must always maintain the combinations to preserve the meaning. Stock Fund and Bond Fund form a multivalued dependency on Portfolio ID. PortfolioID ->-> Stock Fund PortfolioID ->-> Bond Fund

Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

Resolution: Split into two tables with the common key:
Portfolio ID 999 999 999 999 888 Portfolio ID 999 999 888 Stock Fund Janus Fund Janus Fund Scudder Global Fund Scudder Global Fund Kaufmann Fund Stock Fund Janus Fund Scudder Global Fund Kaufmann Fund Bond Fund Municipal Bonds Dreyfus Short-Intermediate Municipal Bond Fund Municipal Bonds Dreyfus Short-Intermediate Municipal Bond Fund T. Rowe Price Emerging Markets Bond Fund Portfolio ID 999 999 888 Bond Fund Municipal Bonds Dreyfus Short-Intermediate Municipal Bond Fund T. Rowe Price Emerging Markets Bond Fund

Fifth Normal Form (5NF)

There are certain conditions under which after decomposing a relation, it cannot be reassembled back into its original form.

De-Normalization
Consider the following relation: CUSTOMER (CustomerID, Name, Address, City, State, Zip) This relation is not in DK/NF because it contains a functional dependency not implied by the key. Zip -> City, State We can normalize this into DK/NF by splitting the CUSTOMER relation into two: CUSTOMER (CustomerID, Name, Address, Zip) CODES (Zip, City, State) We may pay a performance penalty - each customer address lookup requires we look in two relations (tables). In such cases, we may de-normalize the relations to achieve a performance improvement.

All-in-One Example
Many of you asked for a "complete" example that would run through all of the normal forms from beginning to end using the same tables. This is tough to do, but here is an attempt: Example relation: EMPLOYEE ( Name, Project, Task, Office, Phone ) Note: Keys are underlined. Example Data:
Name Project Task Office Floor Phone Bill Bill Bill Bill Sue Sue Sue Ed 100X 100X 200Y 200Y 100X 200Y 300Z 100X T1 T2 T1 T2 T33 T33 T33 T2 400 400 400 400 442 442 442 588 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 1400 1400 1400 1400 1442 1442 1442 1588

All-in-One Example
Name is the employee's name Project is the project they are working on. Bill is working on two different projects, Sue is working on 3. Task is the current task being worked on. Bill is now working on Tasks T1 and T2. Note that Tasks are independent of the project. Examples of a task might be faxing a memo or holding a meeting. Office is the office number for the employee. Bill works in office number 400. Floor is the floor on which the office is located. Phone is the phone extension. Note this is associated with the phone in the given office. Question : First Normal Form Assume the key is Name, Project, Task. Is EMPLOYEE in 1NF ?

All-in-One Example
Second Normal Form List all of the functional dependencies for EMPLOYEE. Are all of the non-key attributes dependant on all of the key ? Split into two relations EMPLOYEE_PROJECT_TASK and EMPLOYEE_OFFICE_PHONE. EMPLOYEE_PROJECT_TASK (Name, Project, Name Project Task Task)
Name Bill Bill Bill Bill Sue Sue Sue Ed Project 100X 100X 200Y 200Y 100X 200Y 300Z 100X Task T1 T2 T1 T2 T33 T33 T33 T2 Office 400 400 400 400 442 442 442 588 Floor 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 Phone 1400 1400 1400 1400 1442 1442 1442 1588 Bill Sue Ed Bill Bill Bill Bill Sue Sue Sue Ed Name 100X 100X 200Y 200Y 100X 200Y 300Z 100X Office 400 442 588 T1 T2 T1 T2 T33 T33 T33 T2 Floor 4 4 5 Phone 1400 1442 1588

EMPLOYEE_OFFICE_PHONE (Name, Office, Floor, Phone)

All-in-One Example
Third Normal Form
Assume each office has exactly one phone number. Are there any transitive dependencies ? Where are the modification anomalies in EMPLOYEE_OFFICE_PHONE ? Split EMPLOYEE_OFFICE_PHONE. EMPLOYEE_PROJECT_TASK (Name, Project, Task)

EMPLOYEE_OFFICE (Name, Office, Floor) Name Office Floor Bill 400 4 Sue 442 4 Ed 588 5 EMPLOYEE_PHONE (Office, Phone)
Office 400 442 588 Phone 1400 1442 1588

Name Bill Bill Bill Bill Sue Sue Sue Ed

Project 100X 100X 200Y 200Y 100X 200Y 300Z 100X

Task T1 T2 T1 T2 T33 T33 T33 T2

All-in-One Example
Boyce-Codd Normal Form List all of the functional dependencies for EMPLOYEE_PROJECT_TASK, EMPLOYEE_OFFICE and EMPLOYEE_PHONE. Look at the determinants. Are all determinants candidate keys ?

All-in-One Example
Forth Normal Form Are there any multivalued dependencies ? What are the modification anomalies ? Split EMPLOYEE_PROJECT_TASK. EMPLOYEE_PROJECT (Name, Project )
Name Bill Bill Bill Bill Sue Sue Sue Ed Project 100X 100X 200Y 200Y 100X 200Y 300Z 100X Task T1 T2 T1 T2 T33 T33 T33 T2 Name Bill Bill Sue Sue Sue Ed Name Bill Bill Sue Ed Project 100X 200Y 100X 200Y 300Z 100X Task T1 T2 T33 T2

EMPLOYEE_TASK (Name, Task )

All-in-One Example
Name Bill Sue Ed Office 400 442 588 Floor 4 4 5

EMPLOYEE_OFFICE (Name, Office, Floor)

Office 400 442 588

Phone 1400 1442 1588

R4 (Office, Phone)

All-in-One Example
At each step of the process, we did the following: 1.Write out the relation 2.(optionally) Write out some example data. 3.Write out all of the functional dependencies 4.Starting with 1NF, go through each normal form and state why the relation is in the given normal form.

All-in-One Example
Another short example Consider the following example of normalization for a CUSTOMER relation. Relation Name CUSTOMER (CustomerID, Name, Street, City, State, Zip, Phone) Example Data
CustomerID C101 C102 Name Bill Smith Mary Green Street 123 First St. 11 Birch St. City New Brunswick Old Bridge State Zip NJ NJ Phone

07101 732-555-1212 07066 908-555-1212

Functional Dependencies CustomerID -> Name, Street, City, State, Zip, Phone Zip -> City, State

All-in-One Example
Normalization 1NF Meets the definition of a relation. 2NF All non key attributes are dependent on all of the key. 3NF There are no transitive dependencies. BCNF Relation CUSTOMER is not in BCNF because one of the determinants Zip can not act as a key for the entire relation. Solution: Split CUSTOMER into two relations: CUSTOMER (CustomerID, Name, Street, Zip, Phone) ZIPCODES (Zip, City, State) Check both CUSTOMER and ZIPCODE to ensure they are both in 1NF up to BCNF. 4NF There are no multi-valued dependencies in either CUSTOMER or ZIPCODES. As a final step, consider de-normalization.

Merging Relations

View IntegrationCombining entities from multiple ER models into common relations Issues to watch out for when merging entities from different ER models:
Synonymstwo

or more attributes with different names but same meaning Homonymsattributes with same name but different meanings Transitive dependencieseven if relations are in 3NF prior to merging, they may not be after merging Supertype/subtype relationshipsmay be hidden prior to merging

Enterprise Keys
Primary

keys that are unique in the whole database, not just within a single relation Corresponds with the concept of an object ID in object-oriented systems

Enterprise keys
a) Relations with enterprise key

b) Sample data with enterprise key

Physical Database Design

Purposetranslate the logical description of data into the technical specifications for storing and retrieving data Goalcreate a design for storing data that will provide adequate performance and insure database integrity, security, and recoverability

Physical Design Process

Inputs
zNormalized zVolume

relations

Decisions
zAttribute zPhysical

estimates definitions time expectations

Leads to

data types

zAttribute zResponse zData

record descriptions (doesnt always match logical design)

security needs needs

zFile

organizations and database architectures

zBackup/recovery zIntegrity zDBMS

zIndexes

expectations
zQuery

technology used

optimization

Composite usage map

Composite usage map (cont.)

Data volumes

Composite usage map (cont.)

Access Frequencies (per hour)

Composite usage map (cont.)

Usage analysis:
140 purchased parts accessed per hour 80 quotations accessed from these 140 purchased part accesses 70 suppliers accessed from these 80 quotation accesses

Composite usage map (cont.)

Usage analysis:
75 suppliers accessed per hour 40 quotations accessed from these 75 supplier accesses 40 purchased parts accessed from these 40 quotation accesses

Designing Fields
Field:

smallest unit of data in database Field design

Choosing

data type Coding, compression, encryption Controlling data integrity

Choosing Data Types

CHARfixed-length character VARCHAR2variable-length character (memo) LONGlarge number NUMBERpositive/negative number INEGERpositive/negative whole number DATEactual date BLOBbinary large object (good for graphics, sound clips, etc.)

Example code look-up table

Code saves space, but costs an additional lookup to obtain actual value

Field Data Integrity

Default valueassumed value if no explicit value Range controlallowable value limitations (constraints or validation rules) Null value controlallowing or prohibiting empty fields Referential integrityrange control (and null value allowances) for foreign-key to primarykey match-ups
Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) legislates importance of financial data integrity

Handling Missing Data

Substitute an estimate of the missing value (e.g., using a formula) Construct a report listing missing values In programs, ignore missing data unless the value is significant (sensitivity testing) Triggers can be used to perform these operations

Physical Records
Physical Record: A group of fields stored in adjacent memory locations and retrieved together as a unit Page: The amount of data read or written in one I/O operation Blocking Factor: The number of physical records per page

Denormalization
Transforming normalized relations into unnormalized physical record specifications Benefits:
Can improve performance (speed) by reducing number of table lookups (i.e. reduce number of necessary join queries)

Costs (due to data duplication)

Wasted storage space Data integrity/consistency threats

Common denormalization opportunities

One-to-one relationship Many-to-many relationship with attributes) Reference data (1:N relationship where 1-side has data not used in any other relationship)

A possible denormalization situation: two entities with one-to-one relationship

A possible denormalization situation: a many-to-many relationship with nonkey attributes

Extra table access required

Null description possible

A possible denormalization situation: reference data

Extra table access required

Data duplication

Partitioning

Horizontal Partitioning: Distributing the rows of a table into several separate files

Useful for situations where different users need access to different rows Three types: Key Range Partitioning, Hash Partitioning, or Composite Partitioning

Vertical Partitioning: Distributing the columns of a table into several separate relations

Useful for situations where different users need access to different columns The primary key must be repeated in each file

Combinations of Horizontal and Vertical

Partitions often correspond with User Schemas (user views)

Partitioning (cont.)

Advantages of Partitioning:

Efficiency: Records used together are grouped together Local optimization: Each partition can be optimized for performance Security, recovery Load balancing: Partitions stored on different disks, reduces contention Take advantage of parallel processing capability

Disadvantages of Partitioning:

Inconsistent access speed: Slow retrievals across partitions Complexity: Non-transparent partitioning Extra space or update time: Duplicate data; access from multiple partitions

Data Replication
Purposely storing the same data in multiple locations of the database Improves performance by allowing multiple users to access the same data at the same time with minimum contention Sacrifices data integrity due to data duplication Best for data that is not updated often

Designing Physical Files

Physical File:
A

named portion of secondary memory allocated for the purpose of storing physical records Tablespacenamed set of disk storage elements in which physical files for database tables can be stored Extentcontiguous section of disk space

Constructs to link two pieces of data:

Sequential

storage Pointersfield of data that can be used to locate related fields or records

Physical file terminology in an Oracle environment

File Organizations

Technique for physically arranging records of a file on secondary storage Factors for selecting file organization:
Fast

data retrieval and throughput Efficient storage space utilization Protection from failure and data loss Minimizing need for reorganization Accommodating growth Security from unauthorized use

Types of file organizations

Sequential Indexed Hashed

Sequential file organization

1 2

Records of the file are stored in sequence by the primary key field values

If sorted
every insert or delete requires resort

If not sorted
Average time to find desired record = n/2 n

Indexed File Organizations

Indexa separate table that contains organization of records for quick retrieval Primary keys are automatically indexed Oracle has a CREATE INDEX operation, and MS ACCESS allows indexes to be created for most field types Indexing approaches:
B-tree

index Bitmap index Hash Index Join Index

B-tree index

Leaves of the tree are all at same level consistent access time

uses a tree search

Average time to find desired record = depth of the tree

Hashed file or index organization

Hash algorithm
Usually uses divisionremainder to determine record position. Records with same position are grouped in lists

Bitmap index index organization

Bitmap saves on space requirements
Rows - possible values of the attribute Columns - table rows Bit indicates whether the attribute of a row has the values

Join Indexesspeeds up join operations