Paul Nedeau
WCWP 10B
Assignment #2d
Sabrina Starnaman
May 31, 2006
As Simple as Black and White?
The goal in American higher education is one of integration and access for all
people in order to level an uneven playing field, promote diversity, and facilitate ideas of
all kinds. These are goals of universities, because they are the pillars that our country was
built upon in its inception over 200 years ago. However, as time has passed constant
racism has hindered our countries ability to properly handle a rising presence of minority
citizens. The country’s, namely the white majority’s, inability to accept these people has
hindered its progress, contradicted the very ideals it was founded upon, and is in fact at
the root of the segregation which plagues American universities today. While many
experts attribute unequal access to classicism and socioeconomic segregation, there is
evidence that proves these factors are a direct result of perpetual racism in the United
States; therefore, making the application process and higher education, albeit indirectly,
an entity segregated and controlled by racism. This all being said, racism at large is a very
broad and complicated subject. With dozens of different minority classifications, and
millions of individual scenarios, it is very difficult to write about the larger subject
specificity this paper will focus on and compare America’s majority (White Non
Hispanic) with its largest minority (African Americans). Using George Lipsitz’s article,
“The Possessive Investment in Whiteness” this essay will examine a brief history of
discrimination between Whites and African Americans. It will then go on to show how
those interactions affect African American’s accessibility to education, and discuss what
these Universities are doing to change current practices.
George Lipsitz states in his article, “Whiteness is everywhere in U.S. Culture, but
it is very hard to see.” (Lipsitz 1) Lipsitz believes that America’s racial problems don’t
necessarily stem from any of the individual minorities themselves, but rather from the
“Possessive Investment in Whiteness,” that exists even today the belief by white,
European Americans that the U.S. belongs to them, and that they are therefore entitled to
a better lifestyle. He backs this claim with history, starting at the slave trade and then
focusing on actions after World War II.
Since World War II an era many think of as a positive for African American
Rights the possessive investment in whiteness has both directly and indirectly caused
discrimination in all aspects of life. Starting with an expanding highway system promoted
by Dwight Eisenhower, the growing number of minorities in many inner cities caused
white flight via those highways. Many think that segregation improved after the civil
rights act of 1964 was passed to end Jim Crowe laws, but what those people don’t realize
is that from 1960 to 1977 the number of whites living in the suburbs increased by 22
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million, while the number of blacks living in the suburbs grew by only 500,000, and the
number of blacks living in inner city grew by 6 million. (Lipsitz 7) Lipsitz also notes, that
“by 1993, 86 percent of whites still lived in places with black population below 1
percent.” (Lipsitz 7) some might think that this move towards segregation is purely
coincidental, but it is interesting that during this same period, it has been proven that it
was much more difficult for minorities to receive loans from banks, and that it was also
more difficult for minorities to move to desirable housing, because of policies like
“redlining” by an almost entirely white realtor profession. (Lipsitz 7) This resegregation
of America has changed the whole idea of segregated communities. The suburbs have
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changed what was once segregation between Italians and Polish, Irish and French
neighborhoods, into a simple matter of White, and NonWhite, (Lipsitz 7) forming an
even stronger alliance between people of similar color, and in turn refounding the
“Possessive Investment in Whiteness” that Lipsitz speaks of. These occurrences if
nothing else show the impact racism continues to have on Socio Economic status in
America, believed by many to be the primary indicator in access to higher education.
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The country according to the 2000 census is 12.1% African American. Though primarily
concentrated in South and in urban Areas.
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The correlations between this history of racism and access to higher education go
beyond just a tie between race and class. For one, the residential segregation alone affects
the state of public schools and the quality of education their pupils receive. Another side
effect of residential segregation is found in the inability for people without equity to get
loans. Many black people were denied home loans in the 50’s, 60’s, and 70’s because of
the color of their skin, and are now denied loans because they don’t own homes and
therefore do not have the required equity to take out large loans for college. (Lipsitz 14)
The past cannot be ignored because a history of discrimination in higher education is also
detrimental, studies show that children with educated parents are much more likely to
attend college than those with uneducated parents. Sources tell us “before the 1960’s,
most top universities admitted only a token number of black students1.” (JBHE) Studies
have proven that when children’s parents have attended college, they have a much better
chance at attending college themselves. Many studies state, again and again that socio
economic status is the largest factor when determining whether or not a student will
attend college. When this is considered in context with a history of racist hiring and
payment practices it is hard to refute a correlation. In 1977, The U.S. civil rights
commission reported a disproportionate number of layoffs of minority workers. In cases
where minorities made up 1012 percent of the workforce, they made up 60 –70 percent
1
By token, the author means an amount small enough to be present yet insignificant. The article notes that
some colleges did not allow blacks at all until the 1950’s when they started allowing 2 or 3 per class in
some instances.
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of those being fired. Statistics in 1986 showed that white workers with high school
diplomas earned 3,000 dollars more than black workers with the same education. (Lipsitz
18) Not only were blacks given less academic opportunity, they were often paid less when
competing with people of the same academic background. All of these factors, along with
too many others to mention contribute to a still largely inaccessible higher education
system.
Along with all the racism of our past, come the everpresent obstacles that
inevitably complicate Lipsitz’s argument. One major complication is the fact that
different minorities have varying levels of success when it comes to higher education.
The fact that Asian American students consistently outperform Black and Hispanic
students in school is one of the biggest contrarians to the Racism argument. Many of
today’s respected scholars and colleges shy away from targeting race as a primary
admissions factor because of these complications, citing rather socio economic factors as
the primary deterrent. While it is undeniable that socioeconomic status effects college
admissions, it is very difficult to avoid race completely in this examination. Isaac martin
et al and Deborah Reed are examples of authors who focus on Socio Economic Factors
in access to education, but recognize the discrepancy between races as well. Isaac Martin
et al. note, “We find that California High Schools are unequal with respect to race and
class…” (Martin et al. 322). While Reed and Martin do not attack racism, they note many
of the same problems as Lipsitz, without making the same accusations. What these
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articles really show is that their arguments do not necessarily contradict each other,
Because of our history, race and Socio economic status are intrinsically linked, Martin et
al. and Reed take note of this phenomenon.
All this research still leaves the question, why do some minorities outperform
others? John Ogbu in his article “Voluntary and Involuntary Minorities…2” Offers
answers. Ogbu breaks down the nature of many different minority communities and
examines why certain minorities drastically outperform others in the classroom. Ogbu
declares that their performance has more to do with why they or their ancestors came to
this country; the motive behind their immigration, than it does with their socioeconomic
status. Ogbu’s theory does not debate the underrepresentation of African Americans in
Higher education, but rather his ideas in fact change the nature of who is at fault. He does
not blame the white majority so much as he aims to show that because of the way they
immigrated here3, their attitude as a community, not necessarily prevailing racism can be
held accountable for their shortcomings. He uses other minorities, such as the Chinese as
disproportionately succeeding in the upper levels of education at a much higher rate than
their black, and even their white counterparts. He notes that he believes it is in fact the
2
Full title: “Voluntary and Involuntary Minorities: A Cultural–Ecological Theory of School Performance
with Some Implications for Education.”
3
Ogbu makes distinctions between Voluntary (Immigrant) Minorities as people who came to America
willingly for better opportunity, Migrant/ Guest Workers or Refugees as people who came her illegally in
some cases out of necessity, and Involuntary (Noniimigrant0 Minorities meaning people who have been
enslaved or colonized.
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way they came here that effects their educational achievement. While this theory is broad,
and does leave something to be desired it attempts to explain the difference in attitudes
different rates. In reexamination of Ogbu’s study one may also conclude that it is not in
history going all the way back to slavery, a history that no other type of immigrants share.
While multiple studies show that nationally, graduation and enrollment rates in
higher education are very close to being representative of the national population, with
12% black, 67% white, 3.5% nonresident alien and 17.5% other, graduating from college
in 2002 (NCES) these statistics can be misleading. When examining America’s top
studies of the top Universities in the U.S., African Americans made up over 10% of the
student population in just 2 of the 26 top schools in the country (JBHE), and were even
more underrepresented on the faculties. This statistic shows that while African Americans
are going to college, statistics are skewed by their attendance to state schools and all black
universities, which often are well over 90% black. Traditionally black colleges make up
just 3% of the college population, but their students make up 16% of the African
American student population in the U.S, (U.S. DOI)
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To the credit of many colleges, they
cases they have done so illegally4. It
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colleges make strides, increasing
access is not a battle they can fight
policy, numbers have become static.
and faculty specifically designated to improve diversity, but America needs to understand
that it is not enough. The drastic racism of the past exists even today, and a college
education is the key to unlocking the door, which still restricts many in the African
American community.
When evaluating the many arguments and evidentiary artifacts presented, it is
easy to get overwhelmed by the complexity and depth of the monster that is America’s
racist past. To ease the digestion, on must realize that the convolutions Ogbu and others
4
In the case UC Regents v. Bakke, the Supreme Court rules that Racial Quota’s are unconstitutional.
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present, are answerable, and do not necessarily contradict any claims being made. Ogbu,
while finding that as a result of racist actions, many African Americans are today
disenfranchised with “white America” still admits that racism is at the root of this feeling.
After all, many African American are “involuntary Immigrants” because of slavery and
factors for inequality in higher education convolute the argument as well, but once again
do not contradict it. They claim that classicism and the biproducts of it such as available
public schooling, and parental education are the primary factors, which segregate schools.
Racism in itself though is proven to directly effect these issues in the very recent past.
Most would agree, and Lipsitz would implore that you cannot make suggestions about the
class system in America without first acknowledging racism. Lastly the Discrepancy in
achievement between different minority groups complicates the argument as well. It is
important to remember that this paper focused specifically on African Americans because
each individual minority has its own history, many of the events may over lap as result of
widespread Racism, but each experience is unique and some are worse than others. Just
because one race has overcome a tortured past, does not mean you can discount another.
Each minority in this country has its own story and circumstances, and While Lipsitz
“Possessive Investment in Whiteness,” applies to all minorities, it is true that even this
investment in whiteness affects each minority group differently.
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When pulled together, this examination of Racism in America, and its affect on
higher education shows that the reason access to higher education is such a complicated
issue is due to the fact that most all of the factors that affect it are intertwined with one
another. Nothing is in a vacuum, and when scholars cannot pinpoint one definite problem,
it makes it very hard for them to find one immediate solution. This being said, we cannot
ignore our past. Many of America’s Colleges and Universities have not improved their
number of African American Enrollments in the last 20 years. We cannot allow ourselves
to become stagnant and to forget about our troubled past. Segregation is a growing
problem once again in this country and if we do not review our history on a consistent
basis, we may lose touch of the true reasons our country looks like it does. When you
look a person in the face, and have a conversation with them, you would immediately
understand where they are coming from, why they look the way they do, and why their
voice sounds the way it does if you knew their life story, if you knew their history. In
order to really understand our country, and our schools, we must examine our troubled
past, and fully acknowledge our history of racism.
Bibliography
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http://www.jbhe.com/news_views/50_blackenrollments.html
The Journal of Blacks in Higher education, 2006
http://www.censusscope.org/us/map_nhblack.html
Census 2000, Analyzed by Social Science Data Analysis Network (SSDAN)
http://www.doi.gov/hrm/black.html
U.S. Department of the Interior, February 2006
Lipsitz, George The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: how white people
profit from identity politics. Temple University Press, Piladelphia 1998
Ogbu, John “Voluntary and Involuntary Minorities: A Cultural–Ecological
Theory of School Performance with Some Implications for Education.”
University of California, Berkeley 1998
I. Martin, J. Karabel, S. Jaquez High School Segregation and Access to the
University of California , Educational Policy 19:2 Corwin Press, May 2005
Reed, Deborah Educational Resources and outcomes in California, by Race
and Ethnicity. California Counts: Population trends and Profiles 6:3, Public
Policy Institute of California, February 2005