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General Oil Palm Nutrition

Kah-Joo Goh
Applied Agricultural Research Sdn. Bhd., Locked Bag 212, Sg Buloh Post Office, Sg. Buloh, Selangor 47000, Malaysia. Fax: +60 3 6141 1278. E-mail: aarsb@po.jaring.my

Rolf Hrdter
International Potash Institute, c/o K+S KALI GmbH, Bertha-von-Suttner-Str 7, 34131 Kassel, Germany. Fax: +49 561 9301 1146. E-mail: rolf.haerdter@kali-gmbh.com

INTRODUCTION
Although its economic products (palm oil and palm kernel oil) contain mainly carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O), the oil palm has a large requirement for nutrients that is only surpassed by a few crops, such as banana (Soh, 1997). Whilst the first commercial oil palms were planted on fertile coastal clay soils in Malaysia, liparitic soils in North Sumatra and volcanic soils in West Sumatra, most oil palms are now planted on poor fertility status inland or upland soils in the islands of Borneo and Sumatra and in Thailand. Nutrient losses due to surface erosion and runoff are generally greater in these countries due to the predominantly hilly terrain, fragile soil structure and high rainfall. Thus, mineral fertilizers are of great importance to supplement the poor indigenous soil nutrient supply, and large yield responses have been demonstrated in many fertilizer experiments carried out in the region (Goh et al., this volume). Under intensified management and depending on local soil and climate conditions, fertilizers account for 5070% of field upkeep costs, 3035% of variable costs and about 25% of the total cost of production. An understanding of the factors that contribute to efficient fertilizer use is thus a crucial part of maximizing yields and economic returns. This chapter will provide an introduction to the mineral nutrition of oil palms, and a prelude to a discussion of methods to assess fertilizer requirements (Foster, this volume) and approaches to maximizing returns on fertilizer

use (Goh et al., this volume). We will review nutrient uptake, immobilization and removal by oil palms, explain the role of each nutrient and discuss the diagnosis and correction of nutrient deficiencies. The utilization and recycling of crop and factory residues is discussed by Redshaw (this volume).

NUTRIENT UPTAKE, IMMOBILIZATION AND REMOVAL

The nutrient requirements of oil palm vary widely, and depend on the target yield, the type of planting material used, palm spacing, palm age, soil type, groundcover conditions, as well as climate and other environmental factors. Three types of nutrient demand can be distinguished (Tinker, 1976): Nutrients removed in the harvested crop of fruit bunches; Nutrients recycled to the soil in pruned fronds, male inflorescences and by leafwash; Nutrients immobilized in the palm biomass. Nutrients removed in the harvested crop must be replaced by recycling crop residues such as empty fruit bunches (EFB) and palm oil mill effluent (POME) (Redshaw, this volume) and by the addition of mineral fertilizers, to avoid depleting soil nutrients stocks. Nutrients contained in pruned fronds and male inflorescences are returned to the soil when they are removed from the palm, and nutrients are leached by rainfall passing through the leaf canopy (leaf wash). Nutrients immobilized in

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the palm trunk are returned to the soil at replanting. Biomass may be utilized for manufacturing, which results in the removal of large quantities of nutrients and deprives the soil of the organic residues required for soil organic matter (SOM) replenishment. Nutrient uptake and removal were measured in experiments in Malaysia and Nigeria (Tinker and Smilde, 1963; Ng and Thamboo, 1967; Ng et al., 1968). Nutrient uptake was greater in Malaysia compared with Nigeria where climatic conditions result in smaller yields, and potassium (K) deficiency reduced total biomass production (Tables 1a and 1b).

Nutrient use efficiency (kg nutrient t-1 fruit bunch) is about two times greater for all nutrients except for K in Malaysia compared with Nigeria (Tables 1a and 1b). This may be explained by the better growing conditions in Malaysia (rainfall, solar radiation) and the oil palms tendency to partition assimilates to vegetative growth when subjected to stress or poor field maintenance (Breure, this volume). Thus, nutrient removal (as a percentage of total uptake) for all major nutrients is larger in Malaysia compared with Nigeria (Tables 1a and 1b). Nutrient uptake in oil palm fruit bunches is large, particularly for K (Table 2). A yield of 30 t

Table 1a. Nutrient removal, immobilization and recycling in adult oil palms in Malaysia (after Ng and Thamboo, 1967 and Ng et al., 1968).
N Malaysia (24 t FFB ha-1) kg palm-1 yr-1 Removal with harvested fruit Immobilized in palm tissue Nutrient recycled Total uptake Removal (% total uptake) Total uptake (148 palms ha-1) Uptake (kg t-1 FFB) 0.49 0.27 0.53 1.29 38 191 8.0 0.082 0.022 0.076 0.18 46 27 1.1 0.63 0.47 0.69 1.79 35 265 11.0 0.14 0.072 0.19 0.40 35 59 2.5 P K Mg

Table 1b. Nutrient removal, immobilization and recycling in adult oil palms in Nigeria (after Tinker and Smilde, 1963) N Nigeria (9.7 t FFB ha-1) kg palm-1 yr-1 Removal with harvested fruit Immobilized in palm tissue Nutrient recycled Total uptake Removal (% total uptake) Total uptake (148 palms ha-1) Uptake (kg t-1 FFB) 0.20 0.18 0.63 1.01 20 149 15. 5 0.04 0.024 0.073 0.14 29 21 2.2 0.23 0.11 0.38 0.72 32 107 11.1 0.03 0.104 0.25 0.38 8 56 5.8 P K Mg

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Table 2.

Nutrient content in fresh fruit bunches (Ng and Thamboo, 1967 and Ng et al., 1968).

kg t FFB-1 N 2.94 P 0.44 K 3.71 Mg 0.77 Ca 0.81 Mn 1.51 Fe 2.47

g t FFB-1 B 2.15 Cu 4.76 Zn 4.93

Table 3. Uptake and distribution of nutrients among different plant components (148 palms ha-1) (after Ng and Thamboo, 1967 and Ng et al., 1968). N Component kg Vegetative DM Pruned fronds Fruit bunches (25 t) Male inflorescence Total 41 67 73 11 19 2 % 21 35 38 6 100 kg 1.4 3.9 5.1 1.0 11.4 % 12 34 45 9 100 kg 46 72 78 13 209 % 22 35 37 6 100 kg 7 13 12 4 36 % 19 36 34 11 100 kg 10 44 14 3 71 % 14 62 20 4 100 P K Mg Ca

FFB ha-1 results in the removal of about 110 kg K ha -1, of which 60 kg (54%) may be recycled if all the empty bunches are returned to the field after oil and kernels have been extracted (Redshaw, this volume). The distribution of nutrients taken up by oil palms within the above-ground biomass was measured for dura palms grown on a coastal clay soils in Malaysia by Ng and Thamboo (1967) and Ng et al., (1968) (Table 3). Based on these measurements, a site must be able to supply about 190 kg nitrogen (N), 11 kg phosphorus (P), 210 kg K, 40 kg magnesium (Mg) and 70 kg calcium (Ca) ha-1 yr-1. Nutrient removal as a percentage of total uptake ranges from 20% for Ca to 45% for P. Data from these classic experiments have been used widely over the past 30 years, but new data for nutrient uptake in tenera and clonal palms planted on more representative inland and upland soils is now urgently required. The proportion of total annual nutrient uptake contained in trunk tissue is small when compared with uptake in leaves and bunches, but a large amount of nutrients accumulates in the trunk over the 2530 year life span of a palm stand. It has been suggested that a portion of the nutrients contained in the trunk may be remobilized during periods when the

soil nutrient supply is insufficient. Teo et al., (2000) showed that the yield from palms 27 years after planting on a Typic Paleudult (Rengam Series) soil in Malaysia did not decrease for a four year period after K fertilizer was stopped. It was not clear, however, whether the palms in this experiment utilized K stored in the trunk or made use of soil K reserves in the soil which may have increased due to past applications of K fertilizer. The nutrients contained in the trunk are returned to the soil at replanting unless the felled trunks are burned, which results in the loss of most of the N and sulfur (S) contained in the biomass, or removed for use in manufacturing. Teoh and Chew (1988a) estimate that the amount of K stored in the trunk of tenera palms at replanting is sufficient to meet the demand for vegetative growth and yield for 26 years in the replanted palms. About 350 kg K ha-1 is returned to the soil in trunk material at replanting but total K uptake in young palms in the first year after planting is only 25 kg K ha-1. Thus, in the absence of empirical data it may be assumed that much of the K returned to the soil after felling the old stand is lost due to leaching and surface runoff, particularly since K is held in the cell sap and is quickly leached from dead plant material

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during trunk decomposition. For this reason, some plantations have attempted to remove palm trunks at replanting and apply trunk chips at suitable application rates where K demand is greater in mature palms. This may improve overall K use efficiency, but with this approach young replanted palms are deprived of the mulch benefits of the trunk chips. Pruned fronds account for 3437% (N, P, K and Mg), and 62% (Ca) of total uptake (see Table 3). In a field of tenera palms planted on volcanic soil in a very productive environment in West Sumatra where yields in mature palms were sustained at 30 t ha-1 fresh fruit bunches (FFB), about 10 t dry matter ha-1 yr-1 containing 125 kg N, 10 kg P, 147 kg K and 15 kg Mg was returned to the soil in pruned fronds (Fairhurst, 1996). Pruned fronds contribute directly to the supply of P and indirectly by reducing the P sorption capacity in soils
Uptake (kg ha-1) 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 K 3 4

containing large amounts of iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) oxides. Even in optimal environments where soil conditions and climate are non-limiting, nutrient uptake is rather small in the first year after planting (Figure 1). During this time, it is important that proper planting techniques are used (Gillbanks, this volume), and sufficient fertilizer (particularly P) is applied to ensure that palms establish an effective root system. Nutrients are supplied with fertilizer, placed in the planting hole and around the seedling, and EFB placed around the seedling palms. During the second and third years after planting, however, there is a large increase in the demand for nutrients, particularly for K and N, due to the rapid growth in above- and belowground biomass (Ng, 1977) (Figure 1). From Years 35 onwards, annual nutrient demand tends to stabilize.

5 6 Year N

7 Mg

10 P

Figure 1. Table 4.

Nutrient uptake of oil palms for the first 10 years after field planting (Ng, 1977). Nutrient demand in oil palm (148 palms ha-1) (Tan, 1976; Tan, 1977).
Nutrient demand (kg ha-1)

Period (yrs) Units 0-3 3-9 0-9 kg ha-1 yr-1 kg ha-1 yr-1 kg ha-1 N 40 191 - 267 P 6 32 - 42 K 55 287 -387 1887 - 2487 Mg 7 48 - 67 309 - 423 Ca 13 85 - 114 549 - 723

1266 - 1722 210 - 270

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Table 5. Effect of oil palm productivity on K uptake and distribution among different plant components (148 palms ha-1).

High productivity* Selangor series Component Net cumulative vegetative matter Pruned fronds Fruit bunches Male inflorescence Total kg K ha-1 122.8 269.4 162.8 16.3 571.3 % 21 47 29 3 100 Briah series kg K ha-1 109.5 182.0 149.5 8.9 449.9 % 24 41 33 2 100

Low productivity** Selangor series kg K ha-1 55.7 86.2 93.4 16.1 251.4 % 22 34 37 6 100

* Teoh and Chew, 1988a; ** Ng and Thamboo, 1967 and Ng et al., 1968

Unlike most crop plants, the demand for K is greater than the demand for N, and this is one reason for the large requirement for K fertilizer during the immature phase, particularly in palms planted on highly weathered acid, upland soils containing small amounts of exchangeable K. Tan (1976, 1977) estimated the nutrient requirements of palms of different ages based on a number of field experiments (Table 4) but there is now evidence that nutrient demand is larger, particularly when very high yields are obtained in favorable sites (Goh et al., 1994a). A greater proportion of total K uptake was partitioned to fronds at high yield levels (Teoh and Chew, 1988a) (Table 5), probably because the frond production rate (fronds palm-1 yr-1) and frond weight (kg frond-1) were larger on the more fertile soils. Part of the increase in K partitioned to fronds may be regarded as

luxury consumption because the yield response to K fertilizer application on these coastal clay soils was very small. Other workers have also reported a larger total nutrient requirement in very productive clonal palms with a large yield potential (Woo et al., 1994). Over a 6-year period after field planting, K requirements increased by 11% but K use efficiency increased by 51% (Table 6). This was explained by the greater productivity of clonal palms selected for efficient oil (as opposed to bunch) production. Further work is required to determine the nutrient requirements of clonal palms with the potential for very large oil yields (Ng et al., on clones, this volume).

NUTRIENTS AND NUTRIENT SOURCES

I Classification of mineral nutrients and their functions in plant metabolism
Mineral nutrients are inorganic elements that have essential and specific functions in plant metabolism. An essential element must be involved directly in the nutrition of the plant, e.g. as a constituent of an essential metabolite or for the action of an enzyme system (Mengel and Kirby, 1987). All essential nutrients are equally important for normal plant growth and crop production, since in the absence of a single essential nutrient the plant is unable to complete its life cycle.

Table 6. Oil yields and K use efficiency in clonal and seedling (D x P) palms in the first six years after planting (Woo et al., 1994).
Parameter Oil yield (kg ha-1) K application (kg K ha-1) Oil yield (kg oil kg-1 K) Efficiency (%) Clonal palm 32,300 1,547 20.9 151 DxP palm 19,400 1,400 13.90 100

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Based on the quantity required, mineral nutrients are usually classified as either macroor micronutrients. The essential nutrients are C, H, O, N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S, chlorine (Cl), boron (B), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), and Fe. To date, cobalt (Co), sodium (Na) and silicon (Si) have not been accorded the status as plant nutrients and have not yet been shown to be essential for the oil palm. Mineral nutrients function as constituents of organic structures, activators of enzyme reactions, charge carriers and osmoregulators. Nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus are components of proteins and nucleic acids. Other nutrients, such as Mg and most of the micronutrients (except Cl), are essential components of organic structures that catalyze enzymes either directly or indirectly. Potassium, and probably chlorine, are the only nutrients that are not constituents of organic compounds. These two nutrients play essential roles in osmoregulation, maintenance of electrochemical equilibrium in cells, and regulation of enzyme activity. All essential elements are intricately involved in physiological processes leading to the final economic product of the oil palm: the oil contained in the mesocarp and kernels of the fruits contained in fruit bunches. Before discussing the important interactions between the effects of individual nutrients, we shall discuss the role of each nutrient. The relationship between nutrition and oil palm diseases is reviewed by Turner (this volume).

proteins act as enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions in the plant. Thus N plays an essential role in almost all physiological processes. Effects of N Nitrogen application increases leaf area, and improves leaf production and the net assimilation rate of oil palms (Corley and Mok, 1972). Vegetative growth and leaf area index (L) increase when N is applied to young palms. An increase in canopy size leads directly to improved net assimilation and increased biomass production (Breure, this volume). In older palms, however, where L> 6.5, there may not be a response to N application, and yields may actually decrease due to increased interpalm competition and mutual shading (Breure, this volume). Under such circumstances, thinning may be required before a response to N fertilizer is obtained (von Uexkll, this volume). When N is deficient, it is translocated from the older to younger and more physiologically active leaf tissue and this explains why deficiency symptoms first appear on older leaves. In experiments with oil palm clones, yield components were found to respond differently to N application (Donough et al., 1996). There was a significant yield response to N application, but mean fruit weight and the fruit:bunch, shell:fruit and oil:dry mesocarp ratios were not affected. The application of N fertilizer resulted in a significant increase in kernel:bunch ratio and a decrease in the oil:bunch ratio. Total oil yield was increased significantly, however, due to an increase in fruit bunch yield (Figure 2). Excessive N Excessive N in relation to other nutrients can result in a decrease in yield and increased susceptibility to disease and insect pests (e.g. leaf-eating caterpillars, bagworms). Application of N to palms affected by crown disease prolongs the recovery period, and may predispose palms to spear-rot and lethal budrot. Nitrogen should not be applied to affected palms until they have produced >25 healthy leaves. Excessive N application may also induce B deficiency and white stripe. Unless proper soil conservation practices have been

II Macronutrients
Macronutrients are essential elements required for normal plant growth. For oil palm, this group comprises the nutrients N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S and Cl. Nitrogen (N) Physiological role of N Young nursery palms contain about 1.4% N, while the overall average concentration in mature oil palm tissue is 0.440.65% N (Ng et al., 1968). The concentration of N in fruit bunches ranges from 0.350.60% N. Nitrogen is a constituent of many essential organic compounds (e.g. amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids) and some of these

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Bunch yield (t ha-1) 35 90A 30 115E 54A

Oil yield (t ha-1) 7

926 25

5 20 4 Crude palm oil 3 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

15

Fruit bunches 10 1 2 3 4 5 N-level: 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 2. Fruit bunch (FFB) and oil (CPO) yield response of four oil palm clones (54A-115E) to N fertilizer (Donough et al., 1996). carried out, the application of N fertilizers can result in groundwater and river water pollution due to surface runoff and leaching. With increased concern over the environmental impact of oil palm cultivation, minimum standards for efficient N-use will likely feature in future environmental regulations. Nitrogen deficiency symptoms Nitrogen deficiency affects chloroplast development and function, and in N-deficient leaves, proteins are hydrolyzed (proteolysis) to produce amino acids which are redistributed to younger leaves. Thus, N deficiency results in poor palm growth, and affected palms appear stunted. Older fronds affected by N deficiency first appear uniformly pale green, before turning pale or bright yellow (chlorosis), and may subsequently be affected by die-back (necrosis) if severe and prolonged deficiency is not corrected. When deficiency is very pronounced, necrosis develops first on the tips and margins of pinnae. The rachis and midrib of severely deficient fronds are yellowish orange, and pinnae are narrow and roll inwards. Deficiency symptoms are distributed over the entire frond, but older leaves are affected first. Nitrogen deficiency is found under the following conditions: Acute shortage of N (e.g. sandy soils, soils with low organic matter status, acid peat soils where the rate of N mineralization is small due to lack of biological activity); Palms affected by severe competition from weeds (e.g. Imperata cylindrica and Mikania micrantha); Poorly drained soils where root development and soil N mineralization are decreased under anaerobic soil conditions; Palms affected by transplanting shock due to poor root establishment (i.e. seedlings handled carelessly and planted in soil affected by moisture stress). In addition to the application of mineral N fertilizers, N deficiency may be prevented through proper soil preparation and planting standards, control of noxious weeds, and the establishment of legume cover plants (LCP) (Giller and Fairhurst, this volume). Nitrogen fertilizer is the driving force for rapid vegetative palm growth, and an adequate supply of N is particularly important during the first five years after planting. When sufficient N fertilizer is applied and with good management, palms come into production 24 months after planting with a yield of 59 t ha-1 fruit bunches, but production may only commence 36 months after planting where insufficient N fertilizer is applied and general crop care is poor.

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A vigorously growing canopy of LCP returns about 230330 kg N ha -1 yr -1 to the soil (Watson, 1964; Han and Chew, 1982). An adequate supply of P is required to maximize biological N2-fixation in LCP. An application of 40130 kg P ha-1 in the form of a reactive phosphate rock is required when LCP are sown on acid, infertile upland soils, particularly where the land has been cleared from sheet alangalang (Imperata cylindrica). A large amount of nutrients accumulates in the above-ground LCP biomass, and these nutrients are returned to the soil surface as a protective mulch of leaf litter (Giller and Fairhurst, this volume). Application rates for N The recommended annual application rate is 0.251.75 kg N palm-1 for mature palms and 0.250.75 kg N palm-1 for young palms 23 years after field planting. Application rates must be adjusted to meet site-specific requirements, however, by taking into account palm age, the results of soil and leaf analysis, and the site yield potential (which is in turn affected by the amount of solar radiation, the amount and distribution of rainfall, and soil type). Larger N application rates are required to increase the leaf area where the planting density is small (112128 palms ha-1) . The application of excessive amounts of N to highdensity plantings (138148 palms ha -1), however, may result in increased inter-palm competition, and thus reduced yield. Sources of N The characteristics of common N fertilizers used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Urea (46% N) has replaced ammonium sulfate (AS, 21% N) as the standard N-fertilizer for oil palms in Indonesia because it is less costly, contains more N (i.e. resulting in smaller transport and storage costs), and is less acidifying in soil (see Annex 1). Approximately three times more CaO is required to correct the change in soil pH due to a given amount of N applied as AS compared to urea. By contrast, about 44% of the total N fertilizer used in Malaysia is in the form of AS which is easier to handle (not hygroscopic),

and losses as gaseous NH3+ after application (volatilization) are small when compared with urea. In 12 trials carried out in Malaysia, the relative efficiency of urea was 8085% when compared to AS due to large volatilization losses from surface-applied urea (Tarmizi et al., 1993). In spite of its lower use efficiency when compared with AS, urea remains a cost effective source of N. Furthermore, when applied properly and in the right environment (e.g. clayey soils with relatively high rainfall) urea is as effective as AS. Other N sources include Ca ammonium nitrate (CAN, 26% N), ammonium nitrate (AN, 33% N) and ammonium chloride (25% N) (see Annex 1). Precautionary measures to note: Ammonium nitrate should not be used on sandy soils or soils with high infiltration rates because it is more susceptible to leaching losses than either urea or AS. The Cl content in ammonium chloride may cause a reduction in the oil:wet mesocarp ratio in fruit bunches, especially when applied in combination with large amounts of KCl. Ammonium chloride is hygroscopic and should be applied promptly after delivery because it cakes easily. Crop and factory residues (pruned fronds, empty bunches, POME) also contain significant amounts of N (Redshaw, this volume). Timing of N application Nitrogen losses due to leaching, surface runoff and volatilization can be reduced if N fertilizer is timed and applied carefully. To minimize volatilization losses, urea should not be applied to dry soil or when only a small amount of rainfall (<5 mm d -1) is expected after application. Ideally, urea should be applied during wet periods when it is likely that moderate rainfall will occur (20 mm d-1) within one day of application. Nitrogen fertilizers should be applied 34 months before the onset of the dry season, and large amounts of N (>0.5 kg N palm-1) should be applied in split applications. Nitrogen fertilizers should not be applied immediately before or during high rainfall periods to minimize leaching losses.

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Clearly, an essential tool for timing N fertilizer applications is a properly maintained meteorological station with long-term records of rainfall (mm d-1), raindays and the timing of rainfall events (recorded with a pluviometer). Such records have been used successfully to determine the probability of the occurrence of rainfall events and thus to improve the timing of N fertilizer application. Placement of N fertilizers Losses due to N immobilization are greater when N fertilizers are applied over decomposing organic residues. Nitrogen fertilizers should be applied over the clean weeded circle in young plantings (5 years after field planting), and application should be timed to follow circleweeding so that competition from the ground vegetation is minimized. In mature palms (i.e. after canopy closure), uptake efficiency may be greater when N fertilizer is broadcast over the soil surface, unless the inter-row vegetation is very vigorous and competitive. Soil pH in soil beneath the circle decreases where large applications of fertilizer N have been applied over several years (Fairhurst, 1996). A decrease in soil pH results in a reduction in cation exchange capacity (CEC) in variable charge soils, and thus acidification may result in a decrease in the soils capacity to store cations (i.e. K and Mg) applied in mineral fertilizers. The negative effect of N fertilizers on soil pH is reduced when fertilizer is broadcast using a mechanical spreader because the fertilizer material comes into contact with a greater volume of soil. Tractormounted spreaders are now often used to broadcast fertilizer in plantations where labor is very costly or in short supply, but low groundpressure vehicles must be used to avoid soil compaction. There are also reports that palm response to N is greater when the fertilizer is broadcast (Zakaria et al., 1990). Nitrogen fertilizer should never be applied in heaps or in a narrow band around the base of the palm, as this practice will increase N losses and may cause severe damage to palm roots. Optimum leaf N concentration The optimum leaf N concentration in leaf dry matter (taken from frond #17) can range from 2.5% to 3% depending on palm age, planting

density, and climate. Leaf N concentrations <2.6% in young palms (5 years after planting) or <2.3% in older palms (>6 years after planting) indicate N deficiency and suggest the requirement for a corrective application of N fertilizer unless wet ground conditions indicate the need to first improve drainage. Phosphorus (P) Physiological role of P The overall average P concentration in vegetative dry matter ranges from 0.147% in nursery palms to 0.052% in mature palms (Ng et al., 1968). The average P concentration in fruit bunches is 0.074% (Ng and Tamboo, 1967). Phosphorus is an essential constituent of nucleic acids (deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA and ribonucleic acid, RNA) that are involved in the storage and transfer of genetic information. P is contained in phospholipid compounds in cell membranes and is responsible for maintaining the necessary separation between the various physiological processes in plant cells. Phosphorus is also contained in adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the key compound involved in all energy transfers in plant cells. Phosphorus deficiency is thus expected to cause considerable disruption to plant growth and function; leaf expansion, leaf surface area and leaf number are all reduced under P deficiency. In addition, the photosynthetic efficiency of chlorophyll is smaller in leaves affected by phosphorus deficiency. The chlorophyll content of tissue affected by P deficiency is increased and this explains the dark green appearance of P-deficient plants. In P-deficient plants, shoot growth is affected more than root growth because a greater proportion of assimilates is partitioned towards the roots and this leads to a decrease in the shoot:root dry matter ratio. This adaptive response to poor P supply causes severe sink competition and the transfer of assimilate to the roots, leading to reduced flower initiation and floral abortion, pyramid-shaped trunk growth and smaller yields. Effects of P Soil P recapitalization is required during the establishment period on most inland soils in

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Sumatra and Borneo. Large amounts of P fertilizer must be applied to the LCP and palms during the three year development to build up soil P stocks. Phosphate fertilizers are susceptible to loss by erosion and surface runoff, however, and soil conservation measures (platforms, terraces, bunds) and mulching with empty bunches should be carried out to reduce the loss of P applied in fertilizer. Insufficient P application during the establishment phase leads to poor palm development (stunting, pyramid-shaped trunks), poor LCP development (soil losses due to the effect of erosion and surface runoff on exposed soil) and inefficient use of N and K fertilizers.
Increase (%) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 FW Increase (%) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 BY P1 BN P2 BW FA FP
Vegetative characteristic

There is usually a significant response to P fertilizers in palms not previously supplied with P, and regular annual P applications are required to sustain optimum yields. Foster and Prabowo (1996a) found that P fertilizers increase average frond weight, frond production rate, and fruit bunch yields due to an increase in bunch weight (Figure 3), but bunch number was not affected by P application. Optimal P content in frond #17 was 0.150.19% dry matter and concentrations less than 0.13% were found to indicate severe P deficiency. Unlike N, P fertilizers have a great residual effect and when large amounts are applied at one application, the frequency of application may be reduced to once in 24 years (Chan, 1982b; Foong and Sofi, 1995). On Malaysian inland soils, the optimum leaf P concentration is about 0.165% P (Zakaria et al., 1992) and a large response to P fertilizer can be expected if the P concentration in frond #17 is less than 0.165% or the extractable P content (Bray II) in the soil is <20 mg kg-1soil. A clear relationship between leaf P, soil P and yield has been shown for coastal soils in Malaysia. Excessive P Oversupply of P by fertilizer application may result in excessively high P levels in palm roots, which can depress growth and retard the uptake and translocation of micronutrients such as Cu, Zn and Fe. Thus, excessive applications of soluble P (triple super phosphate, TSP or diammonium phosphate, DAP) have been reported to induce Zn and Cu deficiencies on very sandy soils and peat soils in North Sumatra, Indonesia and in Malaysia. Phosphorus deficiency symptoms In contrast with most other nutrients, Pdeficient leaves do not show specific symptoms in oil palm other than reduced frond length. Another visible symptom of P deficiency in oil palm is stunted growth with short dark green fronds. Trunk diameter and bunch size are also reduced, and palms show a pronounced pyramid shape due to the progressive depletion of soil P. There is some anecdotal evidence that premature desiccation of older leaves is associated with P deficiency but no conclusive evidence is available at present.

Generative characteristic

Figure 3. Effect of P fertilizer on frond weight (FW), frond area (FA), frond production (FP), bunch yield (BY), bunch number (BN), and bunch weight (BW) in North Sumatra (average of 6 experiments) (Foster and Prabowo, 1996a).

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Legume cover plants are difficult to establish in low P status soils. Phosphorusdeficient LCP have small leaves and the groundcover is patchy and sparse (Shorrocks, 1964). Under such situations, Imperata cylindrica and other grasses generally outcompete LCP. Other plants that indicate acid, low P-status soils are Straits rhododendron ( Melastoma malabathricum ) and tropical bracken (Dicranopteris linearis). In tropical soils, most of the available P is contained in the topsoil. Thus, when sufficient P fertilizer is applied to LCP at planting, the soil is covered with a protective living mulch that reduces the loss of P due to sheet erosion and surface water runoff. Replenishment of soil P on sloping land must always be complemented with soil conservation measures (terracing, platforms, bunds). Application rates for P Phosphorus fertilizer requirements range from 0.30.4 kg P palm-1 (coastal clay soils) to 0.4 0.7 kg P palm-1 (inland soils) in Malaysia (Zakaria et al., 1992; Foster and Prabowo, 1996a; Goh and Chew, 1995), while in Sumatra, recommended rates are 0.4 kg P palm-1 on volcanic and alluvial soils, and 0.8 kg P palm -1 on highly weathered Ultisols derived from sandstone. Since most soils used for oil palm are acid and very P-deficient, a one-time blanket application of 60130 kg P ha-1 as reactive rock phosphate should be applied to ensure rapid LCP establishment. Part of the P fertilizer applied is taken up by the LCP and redeposited at the soil surface in the form of leaf litter. When the LCP is shaded out at canopy closure, all the P contained in the LCP biomass is returned to the soil. Sources of P The characteristics of common P fertilizers used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Phosphate fertilizers range from fully watersoluble sources (e.g. TSP, SSP, monoammonium phosphate (MAP), DAP, quality NPK compounds) to partially acidulated phosphate rocks and phosphate rocks of variable reactivity. Phosphate fertilizers have a wide range of P content (824% P) and solubility. The choice of P fertilizer is largely

dependent on agronomic and economic efficiency (e.g. cost:value ratio) of the P source. On acid soils, quality rock phosphate is the most suitable P fertilizer source but a source with citric acid solubility of >8.5%, finely ground to pass through an 80100 mesh sieve should be selected. In experiments where various sources of phosphate rock were tested using TSP as a control, agronomic efficiency was found to be closely related to the reactivity of the rock phosphate source, the chemical and physical properties of the soil, and the length of the crop cycle (Chien and Menon, 1994). For oil palm, both the soil conditions (i.e. low pH) and the long growth cycle (>25-year crop cycle) favor the use of rock phosphates. For young palms (3 years after planting), a basal application of 0.20.5 kg palm-1 reactive rock phosphate applied in the planting hole and yearly applications of a soluble P source (e.g. TSP, DAP) or quality NPK compounds are recommended. In very acidic soils (pH <4.5), reactive rock phosphate may be used from two years after planting (Goh and Chew, 1995). The P requirement for mature palms (8 years old) is smaller provided that soil P stocks have been built up in the first eight years after planting and the application of reactive rock phosphate may be decreased (Zakaria et al., 2001). Other sources of P include EFB, BA, POME, and pruned fronds (Redshaw, this volume) Timing of P application Because P is held by soil colloids (clay particles, SOM) leaching losses of fertilizer P are small except, perhaps, on very coarse, sandy soils containing small amounts of clay and SOM. Phosphorus fertilizer thus remains close to the surface where it has been applied and is therefore particularly vulnerable to loss through erosion and surface runoff. Timing of application is not an important consideration but uptake by palms depends on an adequate supply of soil moisture because of the comparatively poor mobility of P in the soil. Placement of P fertilizers Phosphorus fertilizer should be applied over the soil in the weeded circle of young palms (<3 years after planting) where the palm root

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system is most active. In mature plantations, however, where a single palms roots can extend 2030 m from each palm, P should be applied broadcast over the inter-row (except the area occupied by the path). Because P uptake is greatest where there is a proliferation of quaternary roots near to the soil surface, it has been suggested that most of the P fertilizer should be applied over the frond stack where the soil surface is protected from surface runoff and erosion. Optimum leaf P concentration The optimum leaf concentration ranges between 0.150.19% P. Leaf P concentrations <0.13% indicate deficiency, especially if found in combination with high leaf N status. The close interdependency of N and P was studied by Ollagnier and Ochs (1981) who defined a critical curve for leaf P depending on leaf N content, to reflect the ratio between N and P in protein compounds (Figure 4). Thus, an assessment of palm P status should include reference to the N:P ratio as well as the leaf P concentration per se. For example, palms may be P deficient even where the leaf P concentration is greater than the commonly used critical value of 0.15% if the leaf N concentration is 2.5% (Figure 4).

decreases with increasing palm age, the K content in oil palm vegetative dry matter remains fairly constant throughout the life cycle from nursery through to maturity at (1.01.3%) (Ng et al., 1968). Fruit bunches contain about 0.65% K, and K is the nutrient required in the largest quantity by oil palms. To produce even moderate yields, total palm uptake must be about 2,0002,750 kg K ha-1 during the first ten years after planting (see Table 4) (Ng and Thamboo, 1967; Chew et al., 1994). Potassium is taken up actively against a concentration gradient by palm roots, and supply is thus coupled to the metabolic activity of the palm. K+ is the most abundant cation in the cytoplasm, and it is not metabolized or bound in organic complexes of plants. Potassium is thus highly mobile within the palm and its concentration is greater in more metabolically active tissue. Potassium activates a number of enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions involved in the synthesis of starch, proteins and fats. It is also required in the various steps of protein synthesis (e.g. the translation of genetic information and the incorporation of inorganic nitrogen into amino acids) and for the transport of assimilates. Potassium also enhances the effect of phytohormones (e.g. indole acetic acid (IAA) and cytokinins) required for the growth of meristematic tissue. Potassium plays an important role in the conversion of light into biochemical energy during photosynthesis and is thus required for the fixation of CO 2 . Potassium also has a central role in the osmoregulation of plants (e.g. cell extension, stomata regulation) and other functions related to water stress tolerance. Thus, when the K supply is sufficient, the decline in photosynthetic activity under conditions of drought or salinity stress is reduced. Furthermore, K is involved in the translocation of photosynthates from source (leaves) to sink (inflorescences, fruit bunches, roots). Effects of K Potassium increases drought- and diseaseresistance in oil palm (Turner, this volume) and bunch size and bunch number are reduced in K-deficient palms. On some soils (e.g. sandy soils, peat soils) K deficiency is usually the largest single nutritional factor limiting yields.

Critical leaf P (%) 0.20 Critical leaf P = 0.0487 0.19 x Leaf N% + 0.039 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 Leaf N (%) Figure 4. Critical line for leaf P in relation to leaf N content (Ollagnier and Ochs, 1981).
Potassium (K) Physiological role of K Compared to other nutrient elements whose concentration in palm vegetative tissue

0.14 2.2

2.4

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Bunch yield (t ha-1) 150 140 130 120 110 100 P1 P2

Bunch weight (kg bunch-1) 15 14 13

Bunch number (bunch palm-1) 14 12 10 8

12 11

6 4 2

10 P1 K0 P2 K1

0 P1 K2 P2

Figure 5. The effect of three levels of K at two levels of P on oil palm yield components in Sumatra, 19921995 (Kusnu et al., 1996). Multiple regression analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between oil palm leaf K status and the number of functional leaves as well as yield components (bunch number and bunch weight) (Nair and Sreedharan, 1983). In a fertilizer experiment in North Sumatra, K increased yield, bunch weight and bunch number but there was no response to P (Figure 5) (Kusnu et al., 1996) As we shall see, bunch components (oil:bunch, fruit:bunch, dry mesocarp:fruit bunch, kernel:bunch and kernel:fresh fruit) are affected strongly by interactions between N and K. A large response to K fertilizer can be expected where soil exchangeable K <0.2 cmol kg-1 soil. Excessive K Excessive K application may induce deficiency of other cations in acid soils, for example Mg and B deficiency (Woo et al., 1992). Large applications of KCl resulted in a decrease in the oil:bunch ratio (Foster et al., 1988), but this may be due to the effects of Cl rather than K. Potassium deficiency symptoms Potassium deficiency does not immediately result in the appearance of visible deficiency symptoms, but is indicated by reduced growth rates, decreased leaf turgor and increased susceptibility to drought and diseases such as Cercospora leaf spot, Ganoderma basal stemrot and vascular wilt ( Fusarium sp .) (Pendergast, 1957; Turner, 1981; Turner, this volume; von Uexkll, 1982) (Figure 6). Bunch failure and plant failure are two physiological disorders that may be linked to an inadequate K supply (Turner, 1981). In young palms, K deficiency results in a flattopped appearance due to progressive frond shortening with each emerging leaf. A considerable variety of symptoms has been

Fusarium wilt (%) 30 26 22 18 14 10 0.3

0.5 0.7 0.9 Leaf K (%) Figure 6. Relationship between leaf K content and the occurrence of fusarium wilt in oil palm (based on Turner, 1981).

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associated with K deficiency in mature palms, related to local differences in environmental and genetic factors. A. Confluent Orange Spotting (COS), sometimes referred to as speckled bronzing or speckled yellows Orange spotting is the most common K deficiency symptom and starts with the development of pale yellow, irregularly shaped spots along the pinnae of older fronds in the canopy. As the symptoms become more severe, the spots turn orange and, in severe cases, spots fuse together to form bright orange lesions which transmit light when the leaf is held against bright sunlight. At a more advanced stage, brown spots appear in the centre of the orange spots and marginal necrosis develops along leaflets, starting from the distal end. Pinnae also become brittle and the edges of leaves become desiccated and shattered. Occasionally single palms can be found with very intense and bright orange spotting when surrounding palms appear to be normal. Such symptoms are usually of genetic origin and are sometimes described as genetic orange spotting (GOS). B. Diffuse yellowing or mid-crown yellowing Symptoms of diffuse yellowing may be found on palms planted on K-deficient, acid sands or peat soils, especially during or after periods of water stress. Pinnae in the lower to middle part of the canopy become pale (dull khaki or ochre coloured chlorosis) and then turn yellow or orange yellow. Later, a very clearly defined and often necrotic band develops around the leaf margin of pinnae. In severe cases, older fronds suddenly desiccate and die. These symptoms should not be mistaken for peat yellows or Zn deficiency (see below). C. Orange blotch or Mbawsi symptom The first symptom of orange blotch is the appearance of large, elongated diffuse olivegreen blotches emerging in pairs half way along the pinnae of older fronds. With increasing age and severity the blotches turn bright yellow to orange and eventually

brownish yellow before the pinnae desiccate and die. D. White stripe White, pencil-like stripes occur on both sides of the mid-ribs of leaf pinnae, usually in the middle to upper part of the crown of young palms 36 years after field planting. White stripe is probably caused by a nutrient imbalance involving excessive N use in relation to K (leaf N>2.5% and leaf K<1.0%) and probably a lack of B. White stripe should not be mistaken for Chimera, which is a genetic defect. Application rates for K Potassium requirements for mature palms vary between 0.3 and 3.0 kg K palm-1 yr-1 (Ng and Thong, 1985). This large variation underlines the importance of making site-specific fertilizer recommendations based on the results of leaf and soil analysis, and an understanding of fertilizer K use efficiency. Response to K is often poor if there is strong inter-palm competition for light. Potassium requirement in oil palm is also related to the magnitude of nutrient losses, particularly due to runoff and leaching (Maene et al., 1979; Chang et al., 1995 and Foong and Sofi, 1988). Chronic K deficiency has been reported on soils containing very wide exchangeable Mg:K ratios (>300:1). In Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea, this results in very low leaf K levels that can only be corrected by very large applications of K fertilizer or empty bunches (e.g. >2.5 kg K palm-1). Sources of K The characteristics of common K fertilizers used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Part of the oil palms requirement for K can be supplied by recycling EFB or BA (if incineration is permitted). About 0.2 t EFB is produced for every ton of FFB, which contains about 1% K (fresh weight basis). Thus, with a yield of 25 t FFB ha-1, about 160 kg K is removed in fruit bunches but about 50 kg K is contained in 5 t EFB that may be recycled to the field. In practice, larger application rates of EFB (20

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40 t ha-1) are used as a substitute for K fertilizer, supplying 200400 kg K ha-1 over about 20% of the plantation, and each field is mulched once every five years. Bunch ash can be used as a substitute for KCl at a rate of 2:1. It is strongly alkaline and has an ameliorative effect on very acid soils (e.g., peat soils, acid sulphate soils) by the effect of increased pH on soil microbiological activity and thus the release of N from SOM (Redshaw, this volume). Bunch ash is very hygroscopic and its nutrient content (fresh weight basis), decreases rapidly during storage and should therefore always be applied fresh. Potassium chloride (KCl or muriate of potash) is the most important K fertilizer used in oil palm because it is the least costly source of K and supplies Cl in addition to K. Sulfate of potash has been used but is more costly and provides S which is usually supplied in sufficient quantities in N (AS) and Mg (kieserite) fertilizers. Other sources of K include EFB, BA, POME, and pruned fronds (Redshaw, this volume). Timing of K application Potassium fertilizer can be applied throughout the year, even under dry conditions. Application during very wet periods, however, should be avoided to reduce losses due to surface runoff and leaching. Placement of K fertilizers Placement should aim to maximize the contact between applied fertilizer and palm roots. This is achieved by spreading the fertilizer evenly over the entire application zone. In immature palms, K fertilizer should be broadcast over the soil in the weeded circle but after canopy closure in older palms K fertilizer should be broadcast over the entire soil surface except for the harvesters path. This helps to minimize leaching losses that may be large if K fertilizer is applied continuously over the weeded circle. It has been shown that the soil exchange complex in low CEC, variable charge soils rapidly reaches saturation point when K fertilizer is broadcast over the weeded circle (Kee et al, 1995a).

Optimum leaf K concentration For most soils, the normal concentration of K in frond #17 is 0.91.3%, but optimum K concentrations can vary over a wide range depending on factors such as the concentration of total leaf cations, palm age, soil moisture status, and palm spacing (i.e. inter-palm competition for light) (Foster, this volume). Furthermore, in contrast to other nutrient elements, leaf pinnae are not a very reliable reference tissue, and it has been shown that the rachis tissue in frond #17 is a more sensitive and representative reference tissue for assessing palm K status (Table 7) (Teoh and Chew, 1988b). Table 7. Proposed classification for K status based on rachis tissue analysis from frond #17 (Teoh and Chew, 1988b). Classification High Adequate Marginal Low % K in rachis tissue >1.60 1.31 - 1.60 1.01 - 1.30 <1.01

Very low leaf K levels (<0.7%) are common on alluvial soils in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea where the ratio between soil exchangeable Mg and K is very wide.

Magnesium (Mg)
Physiological roles of Mg The concentration of Mg in oil palms ranges from 0.16% in mature palms to 0.22% in nursery palms. There is a concentration gradient for Mg within the palm biomass with large concentrations in young tissue (e.g. crown cabbage) and smaller concentrations in the roots (Ng et al., 1968). Fruit bunches contain 0.090.234% Mg (Ng and Tamboo, 1967). Magnesium has many functions in the metabolism of oil palm. The most important role of Mg is as a constituent of chlorophyll, the green pigment that converts light energy into

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biochemical energy during photosynthesis. Between 1035% of the total Mg content of the palm is contained in chlorophyll, depending on the Mg supply status of the palm. Under conditions of Mg deficiency and where light intensity is low, the proportion of Mg incorporated in chlorophyll may be >50% of the total Mg in the plant. Magnesium is also an essential component of the enzyme that catalyzes chlorophyll synthesis and functions as a bridging element between ribosome subunits in protein synthesis. Magnesium deficiency interrupts the synthesis of proteins and results in an accumulation of low-molecular weight N compounds that are the precursors of proteins (e.g. nitrate, nitrite, amides and amino acids). In this regard, the balance between Mg and K supply is very important since an excessive supply of K may cause a reduction in Mg uptake and lead to a complete cessation of protein and thus oil formation. Magnesium is required by a number of other enzymes such as those required in energy metabolism (e.g. Mg-ATP-esters). Magnesium is involved directly in the fixation of CO2 in photosynthesis by catalyzing the enzyme carboxylase. About 510% of the total Mg in the plant is incorporated in pectate,

a structural element of cell walls, and thus Mg plays an important role in maintaining the integrity of cell compartments isolating different physiological processes. Magnesium is also involved in the transport of carbohydrates (CH2O) from leaves (CH2O source) to bunches (CH2O sink). Effects of Mg In experiments on a Typic Paleudult in Sumatra deficient in Mg and K (exchangeable Mg 0.12 cmol kg-1, exchangeable K 0.12 cmol kg-1), mature oil palms did not respond to Mg in the first two years of application (Kusnu et al., 1996). During the third and fourth years, however, an annual application of 0.27 kg Mg palm-1 as kieserite increased the FFB yield significantly due to an increase in bunch number (Figure 7). Frond dry weight, leaf area, leaf production and yields are smaller in palms with acute Mg deficiency. A positive linear correlation between Mg content in frond #17 and oil:bunch ratios was obtained when Mg was in the range of marginal supply (Figure 8) (Foster (pers. comm.). Correcting Mg deficiency resulted in an increase in the mesocarp:fruit ratio and an increase in the mesocarp oil content (Prabowo and Foster, 1998). These results may be

Bunch palm-1 kg bunch-1 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -Mg BN +Mg BW Y 100 120 140 130 Yield (kg palm-1) 150

Oil:bunch ratio 27 25 23 21 19

110
17 15 20 R = 0.7865 25
2

y = -0.0211x + 1.9557 x -5.9841

Figure 7. The effect of Mg on yield components, bunch number (BN), bunch weight (BW) and FFB yield (Y) of oil palm (average 19921995) (Kusnu et al., 1996).

30 35 40 45 Mg (%TLC) Figure 8. The relationship between leaf Mg concentration (as percent of total leaf cations, TLC) and oil:bunch ratio (Foster, H., pers. comm.).

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explained by a reduction in starch accumulation in storage organs when Mg deficiency results in impaired CH2O transport. The results also show that oil:bunch ratio is reduced when Mg is small as a proportion of total leaf cations. Excessive Mg Excessive amounts of Mg fertilizer, particularly when applied in the form of dolomite, may induce K deficiency due to antagonisms between Ca, Mg and K uptake. Magnesium deficiency symptoms Magnesium-deficient pinnae of older palm fronds are chlorotic, and the symptoms are commonly described as orange frond. The first symptoms appear on older, basal fronds because Mg is mobile and translocated from older to younger tissues in Mg-deficient palms. Under conditions of severe deficiency, the affected leaves turn ochre to bright yellow and become desiccated. A diagnostic feature of Mg deficiency is that shaded parts of leaves, though deficient in Mg, remain green whilst Mgdeficient tissue fully exposed to the sun turns yellow. The occurrence of chlorosis on pinnae or frond parts exposed to the sunlight may be explained by an accumulation of photosynthates (i.e. starch) in the leaf. This results in a feedback reaction that leads to the accumulation of toxic oxygen species that finally cause the chlorosis and necrosis of Mg deficient fronds . Severe Mg deficiency is thus often erroneously called sun-scorch. Magnesium deficiency occurs commonly on palms planted on light-textured soils, particularly where the topsoil has been eroded and the amount of soil exchangeable Mg is <0.2 cmol kg-1. Mg deficiency may also be induced by large concentrations of other cations, e.g. Ca2+, K+, NH4+ on volcanic soils or H+, Al3+, Mn2+, K+ and NH4+ on acid mineral soils with a small buffer capacity. Application rates for Mg An annual application of 0.060.25 kg Mg palm-1 yr-1 is sufficient for maintenance. Where acute Mg deficiency is detected, a corrective application of 0.300.75 kg Mg palm -1 is required, but should be applied in several split applications.

Sources of Mg The characteristics of common Mg fertilizers used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. A number of different Mg fertilizers are available, contrasting in solubility (and thus their availability for uptake) and cost. Kieserite, langbeinite, and synthetic Mg sulfate can be used where a rapid acting source of Mg is required independent of soil pH. Magnesite and dolomite are only suitable for use on acid soils, where they are used to ameliorate soil pH and CEC as well as supply Mg. In a fertilizer experiment in Malaysia, a large economic response was obtained when 420840 kg dolomite ha-1 yr-1 was applied to palms an acid sandy soil four years after planting (Goh et al., 1998). Tang et al. (2001) obtained a 9% increase in fruit bunch yield with kieserite compared with a 6% increase where the equivalent amount of Mg was applied as dolomite to mature palms planted on inland soils in Malaysia. The economic efficiency of the two sources was found to depend greatly on CPO prices. Thus dolomite is favored as an Mg source during periods of low CPO prices. Yields were greatest when 0.150.20 kg Mg palm-1 was applied as kieserite in a long-term experiment on a Rengam Series soil in Malaysia (Mohd Hussin et al., 1998). Larger application rates led to a decrease in fruit bunch yields when kieserite was used, and an increase in yield when dolomite was used. The continuous use of dolomite may aggravate rather than ameliorate Mg deficiency, however, due to the antagonism between Mg and Ca (Ng et al., 1995). Magnesium is released very slowly from dolomite and should therefore not be used for vigorously growing young palms or for very deficient palms where the demand for Mg is large. Other sources of Mg include EFB, BA, and pruned fronds (Redshaw, this volume) Timing of Mg application Large losses of basic cations (i.e. Ca2+ and Mg2+) can be expected in the humid tropics where rainfall exceeds evapo-transpiration and on soils that have a small effective CEC. On a Rhodic Paleudult with annual rainfall of >1,900 mm yr-1, Mg losses (contained in soil and

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fertilizer) ranged from 48 kg Mg ha-1 in young palms (4 years old) to 30 kg Mg ha-1 in mature palms (22-year-old) (Omoti et al., 1983). To minimize losses, Mg should not be applied during the rainy season. Split applications are recommended particularly if the total annual recommendation is >0.30 kg Mg palm-1 (e.g. >2 kg kieserite palm-1). Where it is necessary to correct severe Mg deficiency, corrective applications of Mg fertilizer should always precede applications of K fertilizer, based on the principle that the diagnosed major limiting cation should be corrected first to avoid antagonistic effects and hence improve both K and Mg use efficiency. Placement of Mg fertilizers Losses of Mg applied as fertilizer can be reduced when contact between root and nutrients is maximized by broadcasting over a large soil surface area. In immature palms, Mg fertilizer should be broadcast over the entire weeded circle, but in mature palms (i.e. after canopy closure), Mg fertilizer should be broadcast over the entire soil surface except the harvesters path. This helps to minimize leaching losses that may be large if Mg fertilizer is continuously applied over the weeded circle. Dolomite is usually spread evenly over the inter-row area and not over the weeded circle. The rate of release of Mg from dolomite may be greater when applied to the soil in the weeded circle where the past application of large amounts of acidifying N fertilizers has resulted in a decrease in soil pH. Dolomite has a liming effect on the soil and this results in an increase in N losses when urea is applied immediately after dolomite. Optimum leaf Mg concentration The optimum range for frond #17 is 0.300.40% for young palms and 0.250.30% for mature palms. Magnesium deficiency is indicated if the Mg concentration in the tissue of frond #17 decreases to <0.20% and where Mg as a proportion of total leaf cations is small (Foster, this volume). Visual deficiency symptoms are usually evident when leaf Mg concentration is <0.15%.

Calcium (Ca)
Physiological roles of Ca The overall average concentration of Ca in oil palms is about 0.14% in nursery palms and about 0.25% in mature palms (Ng et al., 1968). Unlike other nutrients, the Ca content is greater in older, mature palm tissue. The Ca concentration in bunches is between 0.06 and 0.29% (Ng and Tamboo, 1967). The large variation in bunch Ca content may be due to differences in the stage of ripeness at sampling since in most crop species the Ca content decreases as fruit near maturity (Marschner, 1995). In addition, a smaller Ca content in bunches compared to other palm tissues may be expected because: Bunches are organs with low rates of transpiration; Calcium is transported almost exclusively in the xylem with the transpiration stream; and There is very little re-translocation of Ca from fronds to fruits because Ca is not mobile in the phloem. Calcium uptake in mature oil palms is about 90 kg Ca ha-1 yr-1, of which only about 20 kg ha-1 yr-1 is removed in FFB (Ng and Thong, 1985). Calcium is a structural component of pectates found in the middle lamella of cell walls. It is essential for cell extension and division, membrane stabilization, maintenance of cation:anion balance in cells, and osmoregulation. Calcium is also involved as a messenger in the transfer of environmental signals (caused by high or low temperatures, or by the physical impact of rain and wind). Effects of Ca There are no reports of a growth response to Ca in field palms. Seedlings grown in sand culture without Ca are stunted with abnormally short and narrow leaves and prominent leaf veins. At an advanced stage of deficiency, leaves are small, malformed and affected by terminal necrosis.

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Excessive Ca Excessive Ca application may depress the uptake of K, Mg and micronutrients such as B due to the antagonistic effect of Ca on K and Mg uptake. This has been reported for oil palms planted on soils containing very large amounts of exchangeable Ca (e.g. coral soils and recent volcanic soils in Papua New Guinea). In addition, Ca applied in the carbonate form may induce Fe and Mn deficiency by raising the soil pH. Calcium deficiency symptoms To date, Ca deficiency has not been reported in field palms. Application rates for Ca Large responses to lime have been reported on acid low Mg-status soils, acid sulfate soils, and peat soils. This may be due to a direct effect of Ca, or more likely the effect of increasing the soil pH on the availability of Mg, N, and P as well as micronutrients (e.g. B, Cu and Zn). Liming precipitates Al3+ and results in improved root growth and nutrient uptake. An application of lime may be required to increase pH in peat soils where acid soil conditions inhibit biological activity and thus the mineralization and release of nutrients (particularly N) from peat. The growth of LCP is reduced under very acid soil conditions, and an application of lime may thus increase biological N2-fixation. Calcium application rates vary considerably depending on the liming strategy. In peat soils, 100150 kg CaO ha-1 yr-1 may be applied during the establishment of oil palms. To improve LCP growth, an application of 150 500 kg CaO ha-1 as dolomite or lime may be required. Sources of Ca The characteristics of common Ca fertilizers used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Lime is used only in situations such as those described above. Phosphorus fertilizers and dolomite fertilizers are the main sources of Ca in oil palm

plantations. Calcium content varies in the different types of fertilizer used. Single super phosphate (SSP, 22% Ca) contains more Ca than TSP (13% Ca), whilst rock phosphate contains between 32% and 36% Ca depending on the source. The Ca balance in oil palm is also affected by the choice of Mg fertilizer, since dolomite contains 21% Ca, but kieserite does not contain Ca. In contrast to the water-soluble P fertilizers that have a slight acidifying effect, rock phosphates and dolomite have a liming effect. Other sources of Ca include EFB, BA, POME, and pruned fronds (Redshaw, this volume). Timing and placement of Ca fertilizers Decisions concerning the timing and placement of Ca fertilizers are made according to the purpose of application. For example, lime is placed in the planting hole in peat soils to increase soil biological activity. It may be necessary to apply small amounts of lime or dolomite in the weeded circle to counter the acidifying effect of N-fertilizers. Optimum leaf Ca concentration The optimum Ca concentration in frond #17 is 0.50.7% for young palms (<6 years after field planting) and 0.50.75% for mature palms.

Sulfur (S)
Physiological role of S Sulfur is taken up by oil palm in amounts similar to Ca and Mg uptake. The overall average concentration of S in whole palms is 0.17 0.36% (Ng et al., 1968). Sulfur is a constituent of some amino acids (e.g. cysteine and methionine) that are essential building blocks of proteins. It is also a structural element of coenzymes required for the formation of longchain fatty acids and thus for the synthesis of mesocarp and kernel oil. Effects of S There is very little information on the effect of S on oil palm growth and yield. Application of S was found to increase biomass production in palm seedlings (Forde, 1968), but S

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deficiency was considered to occur only rarely in oil palm based on a survey in Malaysia (Ng et al., 1988). Other workers found there was no response to S application (Lim and Chan, 1995), but this may have been due to past use of fertilizers containing S (e.g. AS and kieserite) or to S inputs contained in rainfall. S deficiency is most likely to occur where plantations are located far from S emission points (i.e. industrial and coastal zones). Excessive S Fruit bunch yields are reduced only when very large applications of S cause imbalances with N, P, K and Mg fertilizers (Lim and Chan, 1995). Sulfur deficiency symptoms The early stages of S deficiency resemble N deficiency. Sulfur-deficient pinnae are pale and small. Under acute S deficiency, small brown necrotic spots may appear. Sulfur deficiency may result in increased incidence of Cercospora disease (Cavez et al., 1976) and has been identified in young palms grown on acid soils and poorly drained soils, with low soil organic matter status, or those formerly covered by savannah vegetation (Cavez et al., 1976). Despite its strongly acidifying effect on the soil, an application of elemental S may be required particularly where non S-containing N-fertilizers (e.g. urea) are used. Application rates, sources, timing, and placement of S fertilizers The characteristics of common S fertilizers used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Sufficient S is usually applied with N (AS), Mg (kieserite) and P (SSP) fertilizers. Elemental S corrects S deficiency effectively in oil palm nurseries and where acute S deficiency occurs in the field. It is not recommended as general treatment in the field, however, due to its strong acidifying effect on the soil. Optimum leaf S concentration The optimum range proposed for S is 0.20 0.23% in frond #17 (Ollagnier and Ochs, 1972). Results of experiments, and practical experience, however, suggest that the critical leaf S concentration is probably <0.16% (Lim and Chan, 1995).

Chlorine (Cl)
Physiological roles of Cl Oil palm leaf tissue contains 0.040.6% Cl (Foster et al., 1993; Lim and Chan, 1995). This amount is in the same order of magnitude as the concentration of P and Mg, but 12 orders of magnitude greater than that required for optimal plant growth (Marschner, 1995). This may explain why Cl is generally described as a micronutrient. It has been shown, however, to be an essential nutrient for oil palm in amounts that place it in the macronutrient category (Ollagnier and Ochs, 1971; Ollagnier 1973). Based on biomass growth, the calculated annual absorption of Cl per palm is about 0.02 kg for one year old palms, 0.15 0.21 kg for palms 28 years old, and 0.05 0.10 kg for >8 years after planting. Whilst most of the Cl in plants occurs as the free chloride anion, there are more than 130 chlorinated organic compounds found in higher plants (Engvild, 1986). Chlorine is essential for the water-splitting process in photosynthesis and is also required for the stimulation of ATPase, which triggers the transport of protons required to regulate pH in the cytoplasm. Chlorine is a strong osmoticum and preferentially transported into the vacuoles of root cells, where its presence results in increased water and nutrient uptake. It is also involved in stomata regulation, and thus in water and gas exchange in oil palm leaves. The role of Cl in N-metabolism and protein synthesis is not yet clear, but it has been shown that amino acids accumulate in Cldeficient plant tissue. Effects of Cl A significant yield response to Cl was found in fertilizer experiments on low Cl status volcanic soils of recent origin in Papua New Guinea (Foster et al., 1993). Yield was increased due to an increase in bunch weight (Figure 9). Chlorine also results in improved palm vegetative growth, probably due to improved palm moisture status (von Uexkull, 1985; 1990), and Mg uptake, which is particularly important on volcanic soils where the large concentration of Ca in the soil is antagonistic to Mg uptake (e.g. volcanic soils in West New Britain, Papua New Guinea). Chlorine may also be involved in insect and disease resistance

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Bunch yield (t ha-1)

35 33 31 29 27 25 23 21 19 17 15

Bunch weight (kg bunch-1)

24 22 20 18 16

Bunch number (bunch palm-1)

12 10 8 6 4

14 12 10 2 0

-Cl +Cl -Cl +Cl -Cl +Cl Figure 9. Effect of Cl on FFB yield and yield components of oil palm in Papua New Guinea (Foster et al., 1993). of oil palms. Deficient palms respond rapidly to an application of Cl. Excessive Cl Excessive Cl application results in an increase in mesocarp water content and thus a reduction in the oil extraction rate. Chlorine deficiency symptoms To date, deficiency symptoms for Cl have not been identified in oil palm. Chlorine deficiency, however, leads to wilting and reduced vegetative growth due to restricted stomata opening. Chlorine deficiency may also lead to premature senescence, frond fracture, stem bleeding and stem/frond cracking in coconut palms (von Uexkll, 1985). Application rates and sources of Cl fertilizers The characteristics of common fertilizers containing Cl that are used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Sufficient Cl is usually supplied when KCl is used as the source of K even though Cl losses due to leaching are large under conditions of high rainfall. Ammonium chloride is another source of Cl, recommended on high K status soils where K fertilizers that contain Cl are not required. Timing and placement of Cl fertilizers Chlorine is usually applied as KCl or ammonium chloride; hence it is linked to the timing of N and K fertilizer applications Optimum leaf Cl concentration The optimum Cl concentration in frond #17 is 0.450.6%. A response to Cl application can be expected when leaf Cl concentration is <0.2%. The Cl concentration in frond #17 should be monitored as part of routine leaf analysis.

III Micronutrients
The important micronutrients in oil palms are B, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, and Mo. Concentrations in oil palm vegetative dry matter are in the range 10200 mg kg-1.

Boron (B)
Physiological roles of B The above-ground biomass of oil palm contains 7.08.5 mg B kg-1 (Ng et al., 1968). Concentrations are similar in the crown and trunk, but decrease with increased frond age. Mature palms accumulate about 0.5 kg B ha-1 in aboveground biomass. About 0.07 kg B ha -1 is removed in fruit bunches. Boron is essential for root elongation, nucleic acid synthesis, cell wall synthesis, phenol metabolism, tissue differentiation, plasma membrane integrity, carbohydrate and protein formation, pollen germination, as well as pollen tube growth. A large increase in the IAA content of leaf tissue was found in Bdeficient palms (Rajaratnam and Lowry, 1974), due to an increase in the concentration of

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phenolic acids which inhibit the oxidation of IAA (Rajaratnam, 1976). A large concentration of IAA leads to the disintegration of cell walls, and this explains the characteristic morphological changes in leaf appearance that can be observed in B-deficient palms. Boron deficiency symptoms Boron deficiency is the most widespread micronutrient disorder in oil palm. It is particularly common under high rainfall conditions, and on sandy and peat soils where B is readily leached from the soil. Boron deficiency is more likely to occur where: Soil pH is very low (<4.5) or high (>7.5); Large application rates of N and K fertilizers result in vigorous vegetative growth and large bunch yields; and Boron removal in crop yields has increased after the introduction of the pollinating weevil (Elaeidobius kamerunicus). Meristematic growth is impaired in Bdeficient palms, leading to retarded growth of root tips and other apical tissues. Thus, B deficiency symptoms involve abnormalities in leaf development such as crinkle leaf, hook leaf, little leaf, fishbone leaf, stump leaf, and blind leaf. Boron-deficient leaves are also brittle and dark green. The earliest symptom of B deficiency is the shortening of younger leaves (Rajaratnam, 1976), often with narrow pinnae, and this gives palms a characteristic flat top appearance. Leaf production stops completely under acute B deficiency. A large crater is formed in the middle of the crown with the apical bud in the center. Yield reduction in B-deficient palms may be caused by floral abortion because pollen germination and pollen tube growth are impeded in B-deficient palms. Application rates for B The recommended B application rates are 0.01 kg B palm-1 in the first year, and 0.015 0.035 kg B palm-1 for mature palms. Regular applications of B fertilizer are particularly important in high yielding environments where

large amounts of N, P and K fertilizers are also used. Sources and placement of B fertilizers The characteristics of common B fertilizers used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Boron is usually applied in the form of sodium borate. Uptake is most rapid when B is applied in the leaf axils (Rajaratnam, 1972). This may, however, lead to uneven distribution within the palm, and even result in B toxicity if excessive amounts are applied. Boron fertilizers are therefore best applied to the soil close to the trunk in the weeded circle. Large application rates (>0.03 kg B palm-1) should be applied in two split applications. Optimum leaf B concentration The optimal concentration of B in frond #17 is 1525 mg kg-1.

Copper (Cu)
Physiological roles of Cu Oil palms contain 710 mg kg-1 Cu in the above-ground biomass. The concentration of Cu is largest in the cabbage and inner parts of the trunk, and smallest in the rachis (Ng et al., 1968). Based on average growth rates and tissue concentrations, the accumulation of Cu in the biomass of oil palm is 4770 mg palm-1 in the first year after planting, and 3501,000 mg palm-1 yr-1 in mature palms. Fruit bunches contain about 5 g Cu t-1, equivalent to the removal of about 0.15 kg Cu ha-1. Copper is an essential constituent of proteins and enzymes (e.g. cytochromeoxidase) and is involved in the electron transport in Photosystem I in photosynthesis. Copper is contained in polyphenol oxidase, an enzyme involved in the synthesis of lignin, and Cu is also required for carbohydrate, lipid and nitrogen metabolism. Pollen viability is decreased under Cu deficiency. Copper deficiency Palms affected by Cu deficiency are stunted, and during the early stages of deficiency, chlorotic rectangular speckles (0.51 mm diameter) appear on the youngest open fronds. Under more severe Cu deficiency, newly

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emerged fronds are shorter than older leaves, and interveinal yellowing occurs on affected pinnae, starting from the distal end of the leaf. Leaf tips and margins gradually become necrotic. Copper deficiency was first observed on peat soils (where Cu is complexed by organic compounds) and described as mid-crown chlorosis (Ng and Tan, 1974; Ng et al., 1974). Since then Cu deficiency has been identified on coarse-textured ferrallitic and ferraginuous soils poor in Cu, and calcareous soils developed from limestone. Copper deficiency is accentuated by the application of N and P fertilizers, but decreased by the application of K fertilizer (Wanasuria and Gales, 1990). Application rates for Cu On mineral soils, Cu deficiency can be corrected by a single application of 1025 g Cu palm-1 as copper sulfate. A larger application rate of 0.1 kg Cu palm-1 is required on peat soils. Sources of Cu The characteristics of common Cu fertilizers used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Copper sulfate, available in two different forms of hydration, is the main source of Cu for oil palm. Uptake is more efficient, however, when Cu is applied in a chelated form. Placement of Cu fertilizers Cheong and Ng (1977) reported that mature palms planted on peat soil recovered from Cu deficiency (in terms of frond length and color) 46 weeks after they were sprayed with 4.5 L of a copper solution (200 mg Cu L-1 water). Palms recovered fully four months after the first foliar application of Cu. It is more difficult to correct Cu deficiency through soil application on peat soils, however, because Cu is adsorbed on complex organic compounds. Attempts have been made to overcome this problem by using a slow release Cu source. For example, mud balls can be prepared from a 1:1 or 1:5 mixture of copper sulfate and clay soil (Fairhurst et al., 1998). A 0.5 kg mud ball is then placed adjacent to each seedling at planting. Another approach is to insert lengths of Cu rod adjacent to palms planted in acid peat soils.

Optimum leaf Cu concentration The critical leaf Cu content of frond #17 is 58 mg kg-1. Severe deficiency is indicated when leaf Cu concentration is <3 mg Cu kg-1.

Zinc (Zn)
Physiological roles of Zn The Zn concentration in above-ground biomass of oil palm is 1831 mg kg-1 (Ng et al., 1968). Zinc concentration is largest in the cabbage, and smallest in the rachis. Zinc is either a constituent or an activator of a number of enzymes (e.g. carbonic anhydrase, dehydrogenase) and is required for protein synthesis, carbohydrate and hormone metabolism, as well as the maintenance of cell membrane integrity. Zinc deficiency Zinc deficiency occurs on highly weathered acid soils and calcareous soils, but many studies have shown that Zn deficiency may be induced by applying large amounts of P fertilizer. Zinc-deficient palms are stunted, and root growth may be enhanced at the expense of shoot growth. Copper deficiency was thought to be involved in peat yellows (Turner, 1981), but more recent work suggests that Zn is the primary factor causing this disorder (Gurmit Singh et al. , 1987). Deficiency symptoms start with the appearance of yellowish-orange discoloration of the lower fronds. Later, young leaves also become pale and chlorotic, while older leaves become desiccated. In a sandy muck soil in Sumatra, palms became severely stunted due to Zn deficiency induced by the application of soluble P fertilizer (e.g. TSP). Application rates for Zn Two applications of zinc sulfate (1 g Zn L-1) as a foliar spray is effective for the treatment for Zn deficiency in peat soils, and has been shown to increase fruit bunch production by 1278% when applied to affected palms (Figure 10) (Gurmit Singh et al., 1987). Sources of Zn The characteristics of common Zn fertilizers used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. The

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Yield (t ha-1) 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 1982 1983 1984 Year F1 F2 1985 Zn spray

importance of Mn in various physiological processes. The most important role of Mn is in photosynthesis, particularly in photosynthetic O2 evolution (Marschner, 1995). Manganese is also involved as a constituent or an activator of enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Manganese is essential for cell division and extension, particularly in the roots. Manganese deficiency symptoms Manganese deficiency sometimes occurs in oil palms grown on highly leached tropical soils, deep peat soils, or where large amounts of limestone have been applied to sandy soils (<10% clay). Manganese deficiency results in reduced photosynthetic activity, inhibition of root growth, reduced tissue lignification, and thus increased susceptibility of roots to pathogenic attack. Discontinuous interveinal chlorotic streaks first appear on younger fronds. These longitudinal streaks eventually become chlorotic with a striped appearance. Newly emerged fronds become progressively smaller and chlorotic, and the palm canopy appears unthrifty and retarded. In severe cases, chlorosis and necrosis affect the newly emerged spear before frond pinnae have expanded (Kee et al., 1995b). Application rates for Mn About 4.5 kg Mn ha -1 yr -1 accumulates in mature oil palm stands (Ng et al., 1968), while removal in FFB is about 0.40.5 kg ha -1. Fertilizer Mn is thus rarely required in oil palm plantations except where Mn deficiency symptoms are identified. Manganese deficiency can be treated effectively with a foliar application of MnSO4 (12%). In mature oil palms, an application of 50 g palm-1 Mn as manganese sulfate or a foliar spray (50 g Mn L-1) is sufficient to overcome Mn deficiency (Kee et al., 1995b). Sources of Mn The primary source of Mn for oil palm is Mn sulfate. Mn-EDTA (13% Mn) may be used for foliar and soil applications.

F3

Figure 10. Effect of a foliar application of zinc sulphate in different fields (F1F3) on yield in palms affected by peat yellows (Gurmit Singh, 1987). main sources of Zn for oil palm are various forms of hydrated zinc sulfate. Zinc chelate (ZnEDTA) is sometimes used in palms grown on peat soils. Placement of Zn fertilizers Young palms should be soaked with a zinc sulfate solution. An application of 4.5 L palm-1 is recommended. Soil application and trunk injection, however, were both found to be ineffective (Gurmit Singh, 1988). In palms treated with Zn, the K uptake is usually increased. Leaf N, P and Cu status improved in deficient palms treated with Zn. Optimum leaf Zn concentration The critical range for Zn in frond #17 is 1218 mg kg-1.

Manganese (Mn)
Physiological roles of Mn The aerial parts of oil palm contain between 64166 mg kg-1 Mn (Ng et al., 1968). The concentration of Mn is large in pinnae, and small in the inner part of the trunk. The distribution within the palms may reflect the

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Placement of Mn fertilizers Manganese sulfate should be applied over the weeded circle but full recovery of canopy size and vigor may only occur two years after corrective applications of Mn fertilizer have been applied. Optimum leaf Mn concentration The optimum leaf Mn concentration is 50200 mg kg -1. Oil palms exhibit Mn deficiency symptoms when the leaf Mn concentration in frond #17 is <25 mg kg-1.

Application rates for Fe Soil application of 20 g Fe palm-1 as iron sulfate (FeSO4.7H2O) is ineffective in overcoming Fe deficiency (Setyobudi et al., 1998). Affected palms can be treated with three foliar applications of FeSO4.7H2O (0.5%) at 1-week intervals. Alternatively, root infusion with four applications of FeSO4.7H2O (10 g L-1) and citric acid (0.6 g L -1 ), or five applications of FeSO4.7H2O (15 g L-1) are effective for the treatment of Fe deficiency. Sources of Fe Iron sulfate, Fe-EDDHA and Fe-EDTA are effective sources of Fe fertilizer for oil palm. Placement of Fe fertilizers Root infusion to actively growing root tips has been found to be more effective than foliar application (Setyobudi et al., 1998). Optimum leaf Fe concentration There is very little information on critical Fe levels for oil palm. Based on experience with other crops, a minimum leaf Fe concentration may be >70 mg Fe kg-1. Eschbach (1980) proposed an optimum leaf Fe concentration of 50250 mg kg-1 and deficiency where Fe is <50 mg kg -1, but these values have yet to be confirmed by field experimentation.

Iron (Fe)
Physiological roles of Fe The above-ground biomass of oil palm contains 107221 mg kg-1 Fe (Ng et al., 1968). Fruit bunches contain 25 g Fe t-1, equivalent to a removal of about 0.75 kg ha-1. Iron is required in all enzymes that catalyze redox processes (e.g. cytochrome and ferredoxin) in plants. Thus Fe plays an important role in photosynthesis, energy metabolism, and N2-fixation. Iron is also a constituent of iron-sulfur proteins. Iron deficiency symptoms Iron deficiency in oil palm is rarely recorded because tropical soils are usually well supplied with Fe (Zakaria and Jamaludin, 1992). Iron deficiency was reported recently in 9-year-old palms on a Histic Tropaquept in northern Riau, Sumatra (Setyobudi et al ., 1998). Iron deficiency may also occur: On calcareous soils; On or near former termite mounds; In soils overlying coral; On poorly drained soils in the presence of Cu, Zn, and Mn; and Where large amounts of P fertilizers have been applied. Interveinal chlorosis appears on the youngest fronds but leaf veins remain green. The youngest fronds later turn white but older fronds are yellow. Growth ceases and death may occur after one year in severely Fedeficient palms.

Molybdenum (Mo)
Physiological roles of Mo Molybdenum is the nutrient element required in the smallest amount by plants (Marschner, 1995). It is an essential constituent in the Nmetabolism of plants, and a component of some enzymes (e.g. nitrate reductase) due to its multiple oxidation states. In oil palm, as in other plants, the enzyme nitrate reductase is required for the incorporation of nitrate. Molybdenum is also a constituent of nitrogenase, which is contained in all microorganisms with the capacity for biological N2-fixation. It therefore has an indirect effect on oil palm growth and production through its effect on LCP growth and development, and N2-fixation.

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Molybdenum deficiency symptoms Molybdenum deficiency occurs on very acid soils (pH<4) due to adsorption on soil sesquioxides (Fe and Al oxides). Molybdenum deficiency has not yet been reported in oil palm. Sources of Mo Sodium molybdate, ammonium molybdate, soluble Mo trioxide and molybdenized superphosphate are suitable sources of Mo fertilizer. Placement of Mo fertilizers Foliar application with a solution of 500 mg Mo L-1 is sufficient to correct Mo deficiency in LCP. Optimum leaf Mo concentration The optimum leaf Mo concentration in oil palm leaf tissues is 0.50.8 mg kg-1. Deficiency symptoms may occur when leaf Mo concentration is <0.1 mg kg-1.

Interactions occur when the application of one nutrient influences the supply, uptake or incorporation of another one. This explains why it is necessary to carry out factorial experiments in which each nutrient is applied at more than one level to determine optimal rates for N, P, K and Mg (Verdooren, this volume). Interactions may be expected between all essential elements but under field conditions, only the interactions among the macronutrients (N, P, K and Mg) are of interest. Interactions between N and P, N and K, K and Mg, as well as K and B, are the most significant in commercially grown oil palms. On P-deficient soils, there may be no response to N and K unless P deficiency is first corrected (Figure 11). Bunch yield and vegetative growth Without P, a large application of N may result in a decrease in leaf N status and fruit bunch yield, whilst increasing the amount of P fertilizer reduces the amount of N required to obtain the same yield. There are a number of reports of N-K interactions for both inland and coastal soils in Malaysia (Goh et al., 1994b). For example, in the absence of N, an increase in the amount of K applied resulted in a

NUTRIENT INTERACTIONS
Nutrients do not act in isolation, and a full response to each nutrient is only achieved when all nutrients are supplied according to the physiological needs of the palm (see also Foster, this volume).

Leaf N (% dry matter) 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2 N0 N1 N2 N application rate P0 a)

Yield (t ha-1) 190 170 150 130 110 90 70 50 N0 N1 N2 N application rate P2 b)

P1

Figure 11. Effect of N and P fertilizers on leaf N concentration and yield in a fertilizer experiment in Indonesia (Ollagnier and Ochs, 1981).

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decrease in yield but had no effect on palm vegetative growth (Chan, 1982c). When N was applied, however, K fertilizer increased both yield and vegetative dry matter production significantly (Figure 12). Vegetative growth (kg palm-1 yr-1) 100 a) 90 80 70 60 50 K0 K1 K2 K application rate N0

The optimum rate of one fertilizer often depends on the rate of the other fertilizers applied. For example, K must be supplied in addition to N and P to correct Cu deficiency in oil palm (Table 8). Yield (t ha-1) 150 b) 130 110 90 70 50 K0 K1 K2 K application rate N2

N1

Figure 12. Effect of N and K fertilizers on vegetative growth and yield in oil palms on a Rengam Series (Typic Paleudult) soil in Malaysia (Chan, 1982a). Table 8. Effect of N, P, and K on the incidence of Cu deficiency and leaf Cu concentration (Wanasuria and Gales, 1990).

All treatment combinations

Incidence of Cu deficiency (%)

Leaf Cu concentration in Frond #1 (mg kg-1)

Effect of N: at any rates of P and Mg N0K0 N1K0 N2K0 0 5 21 7.3 4.6 3.1

Effects of P: at N1 and N2 and at any rates of Mg P0K0 P1K0 P2K0 9 24 34 4.5 4.1 2.9

Effects of K: at any rates of P and Mg N0K0 N1K1 N2K2 21 0 0 3.1 4.5 4.7

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Table 9. Effect of N and K on bunch yield on Rengam Series and Kuantan Series soils (average of 6 years) (Foong and Sofi, 1988). FFB yield (kg palm-1 yr-1) Soil Fertilizer level N1 K1 Rengam Series (Typic Paleudult) K2 K3 K4 LSD (P<0.05): K1 Kuantan Series (Haplic Acrorthrox) K2 K3 K4 LSD (P<0.05): In a long-term experiment on an Ultisol and Oxisol, the best combination for a Rengam Series soil (Typic Paleudult) was 0.83 kg N palm-1 and 1.8 kg K palm-1 whilst on a Kuantan Series soil (Haplic Acrorthox), the optimum combination was 0.6 kg N palm-1 and 2.0 kg K palm-1 (Table 9) (Foong and Sofi, 1988). 141.6 140.4 158.6 143.9 15.1 160.2 174.3 199.8 186.2 16.6 The interaction between the effect of N and Mg on frond length is shown in Table 10. In the fourth year after application, frond length decreased when only Mg was applied, but there was an increase in frond length when both N and Mg were applied (Chan, 1982a). In a similar experiment to investigate interactions between K and Mg, the addition of Mg caused a decrease in yield in the absence of K. This may be explained by the displacement of K+ from exchange sites by the Mg2+ contained in the Mg fertilizer. Fertilizer K thus entered the soil solution and was leached from the root zone. Yield was increased significantly, however, when both Mg and K were applied (Chan and Rajaratnam, 1977) (Table 11). Thus, the application of Mg to low K status soils with a small CEC may aggravate K deficiency resulting in a decrease in yield, and vice versa. Oil yield There has been increased interest to investigate the factors that affect oil yield (t oil ha-1) because of the present low oil extraction rates in Malaysia, since nutrient interactions have been shown to affect oil synthesis. In a fertilizer experiment in the Ivory Coast, oil:bunch ratio decreased when the K 178.4 197.3 206.5 191.7 183.1 188.9 195.2 190.9 179.8 195.1 200.1 191.3 N2 154.3 159.6 163.1 168.3 N3 156.2 159.1 167.1 174.2 N4 157.9 158.2 167.8 163.9

Table 10. Effect of N and Mg on frond length measured for four years after application (Chan, 1982a).

Treatments N0 N1

Mg0

Mg1

SE

Frond length (cm) 381.0 384.0 362.8 3.04 389.0

Table 11. Effect of K and Mg on yield in low Mg plots in Trial 18 on 24-year-old palms on ex-jungle soils (Chan and Rajaratnam, 1977).
FFB yield (kg palm yr ) Mg level K0 Mg0 Mg1 71.2 67.6 K1 88.0 97.7 K2 99.2 103.9
-1 -1

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Oil:bunch ratio 30 28 26 24 22 K1 K2 K3 K rate Mg0 K4 Mg1

Table 12. Effect of nutrient additions on oil content in wet mesocarp of fruit and oil to bunch ratio in oil palms planted on a muck soil in Malaysia (Ng, 1974). Treatments Control N P K Mg Ca K + Ca No. samples 27 13 21 24 9 27 22 O:WM (%) 51 52 55 54 57 55 57 O:B (%) 23 22 21 24 22 23 26

Figure 13. Effect of K and Mg on oil:bunch ratio in the Ivory Coast (Ochs and Ollagnier, 1977). application rate was increased, but when K was applied together with Mg fertilizer, oil extraction rate was increased significantly and the largest K fertilizer level resulted in the highest extraction rate (Figure 13) (Ochs, 1977). In another experiment on muck soils, K and K/Ca treatments resulted in an increase in the oil:bunch ratio, but the ratio was decreased when Mg fertilizer was applied (Table 12). Breure (1982) investigated the effect of the chloride contained in KCl and MgCl2 fertilizers on oil extraction rates. Both these Cl-containing fertilizers reduced the oil:wet mesocarp ratio, but increased oil yields and fertilizer efficiency due to increased bunch yields (Table 13). In fertilizer experiments carried out on Bungor and Rengam Series soils in Malaysia, K fertilizer resulted in a decrease in the oil:bunch ratio at low N fertilizer rates, but when N and K fertilizers were both applied, the oil yield was increased (Table 14) (Foster et al., 1988).

O:WM = oil to wet mesocarp; O:B = oil to bunch ratio.

Results from more recent experiments carried out in Indonesia confirm that interactions between fertilizers affect oil yield and yield components significantly (Table 15) (Prabowo and Foster, 1998). Nitrogen generally had no effect on oil yield components, but the application of P decreased fruit:bunch ratio and increased mesocarp:fruit ratio (Table 15a). Potassium fertilizer tended to reduce the mesocarp:fruit ratio, whereas Mg increased the oil:bunch ratio (Table 15b). There was a significant positive correlation between the mesocarp:fruit ratio and leaf Mg content.

MULTIPLE NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES, EXCESSES AND IMBALANCES

There are often cases where one or more nutrients are deficient, and others are present in excess, resulting in leaf symptoms that differ considerably from standard nutrient deficiency symptoms. White stripe is caused by an

Table 13. Effect of Cl-containing fertilizers (KCl and MgCl2) on oil:wet mesocarp (O:WM) ratios (Breure, 1982). Treatment Mg0 Parameter Oil:wet mesocarp Leaf Cl (%) Oil:wet mesocarp Mg1 Leaf Cl (%) K0 50.7 0.19 48.5 0.49 K1 48.9 0.46 48.6 0.55 K2 48.3 0.52 47.7 0.58 K3 48.4 0.53 47.8 0.58

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Table 14. Effect of N and K on oil:bunch ratio (%) on Bungor Series and Rengam Series soils in Malaysia (Foster et al., 1988).

Soil taxonomy

N level Soil series K level N0 K0 Bungor K1 K2 K0 Rengam K1 K2 27.1 25.0 23.5 26.9 23.7 22.8 N1 23.4 24.8 24.6 25.6 24.6 23.5 N2 24.0 24.2 25.4 24.8 21.3 24.1 3.0 3.0 LSD*

Typic Paleudult

* LSD denotes least significant difference at alpha = 0.05.

Table 15a. Effect of N and P fertilizer on oil extraction rate and its components (after Prabowo and Foster, 1998). Significant differences are denoted with * (P<0.05).

Parameter Oil:bunch (%) Fruit:bunch (%) Mesocarp:fruit (%) Oil:wet mesocarp (%)

N0 27.7 66.7 78.0 53.2

N1 27.7 67.2 78.4 52.5

N2 27.5 66.6 78.5 52.5

P0 27.6 67.2 77.8 52.8

P1 27.6 66.4* 78.1 53.2

P2 27.6 66.9 79.0 52.3

Table 15b. Effect of K and Mg fertilizers on oil extraction rate and its components (after Prabowo and Foster, 1998). Significant differences are denoted with * (P<0.05).

Parameter Oil:bunch (%) Fruit:bunch (%) Mesocarp:fruit (%) Oil:wet mesocarp (%)

K0 28.2 66.8 79.4 53.3

K1 27.5* 67.0 78.2* 52.5

K2 27.1* 66.7 77.3* 52.5

Mg0 26.9 66.8 77.3 52.1

Mg1 28.0* 66.8 79.2* 52.9

Mg2 28.0* 67.0 78.4 53.3*

imbalance between N, B and K where the N supply is excessive and K and B are deficient. Peat yellows may involve K, Cu, and Zn deficiencies and excessive Mg and P, particularly when they occur during dry periods. In poorly managed fields on low fertility status sedentary soils, oil palms commonly express multiple nutrient deficiencies (N, K, Mg and B). Under such instances, corrective action should follow a step-wise approach. General field maintenance should first be improved, and

N and K deficiencies corrected before correcting Mg and B deficiencies to avoid inducing antagonistic effects between the nutrients applied. Potassium deficiency often occurs on ultrabasic soils and soils derived from limestone, due to the very wide ratio between exchangeable Mg+Ca:K in the soil. Control measures include large applications of KCl (>3 kg K palm-1) and mulching with EFB (60 t ha-1 yr-1).

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It is also common to observe severe P deficiency in acid, upland soils in Sumatra and Borneo such that young palms show a pronounced pyramid shape and bunch yields are very small. Clearly, P deficiency must first be corrected before a response is obtained to N and K fertilizers.

TOXICITIES
Aluminum toxicity is widespread in the humid tropics where soils are acid and highly weathered. Low pH results in the accumulation of soluble Al in the soil that reduces root growth and impairs root function. Aluminum toxicity is thus manifested in the appearance of Mg and K deficiency, particularly in young palms but can be corrected by applying rock phosphate or dolomite at planting to ameliorate soil pH. Magnesium fertilizers have also been shown to reduce the effect of Al toxicity on plant growth for a variety of crops (Grimme and Hrdter, 1991). Nickel toxicity can be a difficult problem in soils derived from ultrabasic or serpentine rocks. Palms affected by Ni toxicity exhibit narrow, fish-net like chlorotic patterns on younger leaves, and growth can be severely retarded. Nickel toxicity is difficult to correct and, whilst mulching with EFB (where available), liming, and additional K fertilizer may help to alleviate the symptoms, it is not recommended to plant oil palm on ultrabasic soils. Some sources of poor quality rock phosphate are also known to contain a large concentration of Ni, and these fertilizer materials should not be used. Micronutrient toxicities are rare under humid tropical conditions and are usually only found after excessive application of micronutrient fertilizers. Great care must be taken when choosing the application rate for micronutrient fertilizers since the difference between deficiency and toxicity is often quite small. Copper toxicities may develop as a result of excessive and careless fertilizer application, the latter especially from excessive use of Cucontaining fungicides. Copper toxicity symptoms first appear as small, oval or round, light brown spots on the leaf surface. The spots have depressed centers and may coalesce into extensive necrotic areas with yellow margins on the leaf surface.

Boron toxicity symptoms start on the younger leaves where interveinal chlorotic streaks appear on leaf tips. Chlorosis is rapidly followed by necrosis, developing from the distal to proximal end of leaves. Boron toxicity may be corrected by the application of N fertilizers, which precipitate B and improve palm growth by diluting the concentration of B in palm tissue. The application of molybdenum to palms as foliar spray resulted in a decrease in yield in young palms on an acid sand soil in Nigeria (Ataga et al., 1982). Bunch yield was also reduced when palms were treated with a foliar spray of manganese. In both cases, however, no leaf symptoms were reported. The hyperacidity disorder can be found on palms planted on excessively drained acid sulfate and peat soils. Typical symptoms include the gradual necrosis and desiccation of leaflets on lower fronds, but the spear and young leaves are not affected. Liming with dolomite or BA is not very effective and hyperacidity can be better prevented by maintaining the water-table just above the jarosite layer or 30 cm from the surface, whichever is lower.

HERBICIDE DAMAGE
Herbicide use has increased very dramatically in recent years because very cost-effective products are available on the market, while labor has become more costly, or may not be available, as in some parts of Malaysia. This has resulted in excessively bare ground conditions in many plantations, particularly in Peninsular Malaysia where workers have not been trained properly in selective weed control methods. Furthermore, some plantation groups appear to advocate clean weeding as a policy. This results in increased soil erosion and surface water runoff, and ultimately the loss of costly fertilizer nutrients. Young palms are particularly sensitive to herbicide damage, which may result in temporary or even permanent damage in terms of palm growth and productivity. Herbicide damage may resemble nutrient deficiency symptoms caused by severe nutrient imbalance or by wind (Turner, 1981).

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Systemic herbicides are not recommended for use in young immature stands of oil palm. Other alternative methods of weed control (e.g. biodegradable black plastic sheet mulch) should be considered (Gillbanks, this volume).

CONCLUSIONS
It has been shown that mineral nutrition plays a crucial role in the production of palm oil. Nutrients are required in different amounts and partitioned within the palm to the various plant parts (roots, trunk, fronds, fruit bunches). The particular demand for each nutrient is explained by its function in the whole metabolism of the plant, and it was shown that whilst all nutrients are equally important for biomass and oil formation, the quantity of nutrients required increases in the order P<Mg<Ca<N<K. An adequate supply of nutrients is particularly important during the phase of rapid vegetative growth (i.e. the first 35 years after planting) if potential productivity over the duration of the crop cycle (2530 years) is to be attained. Nutrient deficiencies, even for short periods, can lead to a substantial yield reduction which may not be evident in terms of leaf nutrient deficiency symptoms or even low leaf nutrient

status. Thus deficiency symptoms are inefficient indicators of nutrient need since their occurrence implies that future production is already affected, and there is a time lag between the correction of deficiencies and recovery of yield. Regular monitoring of the nutrient status of the palms by plant analysis is therefore required (Foster, this volume). Nutrients also do not act independently and there are strong interactions between all mineral nutrients, but particularly with N and K. We have shown that a decrease or increase in the supply of a single nutrient also affects the uptake, incorporation and efficiency of other nutrients. Agronomists should attempt to provide a continuous and balanced supply of nutrients in the form of mineral fertilizers and crop residues so that crop demand and nutrient supply is closely matched. Emphasis must therefore be given to matching the availability of all nutrients with crop demand over time and space. Efficient nutrient use requires that application techniques (timing, placement) are designed to accommodate the contrasting nutrient release dynamics of the different nutrient sources (fertilizers, crop residues).

Important points for practical planters

1 There are 16 essential nutrients with equal importance for the production of vegetative biomass and fruit bunches. Omission of only one of these nutrients can lead to reduced yield and sometimes crop failure. Nutrient demand is determined by the production potential of oil palm which varies according to genotype, soil and environmental factors. Like other plants, the oil palm distinguishes between macronutrients (elements required at amounts of several kilograms per hectare) and micronutrients (elements required at amounts of several grams per hectare). The planters role is to identify the site-specific demand for nutrients in each soil type. Mineral fertilizers are used to supplement the indigenous soil nutrient supply and nutrients recycled in crop residues so that the site-specific genetic yield potential, limited only by climatic factors, is achieved. Strong interactions occur between the various nutrients required and imply the need for a management strategy that avoids nutrient imbalances throughout the whole growth cycle of a plant. A monitoring system needs to be implemented to optimize nutrient supply at each stage of this cycle (Foster, this volume; Goh et al., this volume).

2 3

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Zakaria, Z.Z., Mohammed, A.T., Foster, H.L., Dolmat, M.T., Haron, K. and Bakar, H.A. (1990) Evaluation of urea as a nitrogen fertilizer for the oil palm industry in Malaysia. In: Sukaimi, J., Zakaria, Z.Z., Paranjothy, K., Darus, A., Rajanaidu, N., Cheah, S.C., Wahid, M.B. and Henson, I.E. (eds.) PORIM International Palm Oil Development Conference. Module II. Agriculture. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 59 September 1989. PORIM, pp.440446. Zakaria, Z.Z., Foster, H.L., Mohamad, A.T. and Dolmat, M.T. (1992) Yield responses to phosphate fertilizer in oil palm. In: Bachik, A.T. and Bidin, A. (eds.) Phosphate Sources for Acid Soils in the Humid Tropics of Asia. Kuala Lumpur, 67 November 1990 . MSSS, pp.104109. Zakaria, Z.Z., Foong, S.F., Jamaludin, N., Lee, C.T., Hamdan, A.B., Tarmizi, A.M. and Khalid, H. (2001) Evaluation of various sources of phosphate fertilizer for mature oil palm in Peninsular Malaysia. In: CuttingEdge Technologies for Sustained Competitiveness. PIPOC International Palm Oil Congress. Agriculture Conference. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2022 August 2001. MPOB, pp.272281.

GENERAL OIL PALM NUTRITION

229

Annex 1. Name Nitrogen

List of common fertilizers used for oil palm. Formula NH4NO3 (NH4)2SO4 CO(NH2)2 Ca(H2PO4)2 . H2O + CaSO4 . 2 H2O Ca(H2PO4) . 2 H2O NH4H2PO4 (NH4)2HPO4 Ca3(PO4)2 Ca3(PO4)2 Content 33 - 34% N 28% N 21% N, 24% S 46% N 16 - 21% P2O5, 18 28% CaO, 12% S 41 - 50% P2O5, 12 - 20% CaO, 1.4% S 51% P2O5, 11% N 46 - 53% P2O5, 18 - 21% N 23 - 26% P2O5 46 - 50% CaO 25 - 39% P2O5, 46 - 50% CaO 60% K2O 50% K2O, 18% S 27% MgO, 22% S 30 - 47% CaO, 2 -18% MgO 32% CaO, 18% S 56% CaO 14% B 11% B 35% Cu 25% Cu 97% S 36 14 Slow-acting, acidifying Soluble, quick-acting Quick-acting Soluble, quick-acting Slow-acting, content of Ca and Mg varying Slightly soluble, slowacting Slow-acting Soluble, quick-acting Soluble, quick-acting Soluble, quick-acting Comments Non-acidifying Acidifying Acidifying Acidifying Soluble, non-acidifying Soluble, slightly acidifying Soluble, slightly acidifying Soluble, slightly acidifying > 30% water-soluble Very slow acting

Ammonium nitrate Ammonium sulfate Urea Phosphorus Single superphosphate (SSP) Triple superphosphate (TSP) Monoammonium phosphate (MAP) Diammonium phosphate (DAP) Partly acidulated rock phosphate Rock phosphate, finely powdered Potassium

Ammonium chloride NH4Cl

Potassium chloride KCl Potassium sulfate Magnesium Kieserite Dolomite Calcium Gypsum Lime Boron Fertilizer borate Borax Copper Copper sulfate Sulphur Elemental S Zinc Zinc sulfate Zinc chelate Z n S O 4 . H2O Na2Zn-EDTA S CuSO4 . H2O CuSO4 5 H2O
.

Muriate of potash (MOP)

K2SO4 MgSO4 . H20 MgCO3 + CaCO3

CaSO4 . 2 H2O CaCO3 Na2B4O2 . 5 H2O Na2B4O2 10 H2O

.

230

Annex 2.
Potassium Magnesium Calcium Sulphur Chlorine Boron Copper Manganese Iron Fe Mn Cu B Cl S SO3 0.4 2.496 mg kg-1 10.0 0.9 4.0 Ca CaO 0.715 1.399 Mg MgO 0.603 1.658 K K2O 0.83 1.205 - - - - cmol kg-1 - - - 0.2 0.2 0.8 Zinc Zn -

Nutrient conversions, critical soil and leaf concentrations, nutrient uptake in oil palm, and recommended fertilizer placement methods.

Aspect

Nitrogen

Phosphorus

Element

Oxide

P2O5

Oxide to element

0.4364

Element to oxide

2.2914

Units

Total N (%) 2.0

Available P mg kg-1

- - - - - - - - - - - - mg kg-1 - - - - - - - - - - - 2.5 9.0

Critical soil concentration

0.2

20

Units 1.0 0.20 0.30 0.20 0.25 8 8 8 0.2 - 0.3 0.25 0.25 7 - 14 0.20 0.20 68 - 84 0.28 0.25 85 - 105 0.20 0.20 43 - 73 0.8 0.75 250 - 300 3 3 3 0.2 - 0.3

Year

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -%- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - mg kg-1 - - - - - - - - - - - 50 50 50 2.2 - 2.4 70 70 70 4.5 - 5.0 10 10 10 0.7 - 0.8

2.5

0.15

<8 Critical leaf concentration 8 - 10 (years after planting) >10

2.4

0.14

2.3

0.14

Uptake in kg element ha-1 (yield = 30 t FFB ha-1)

230 - 250

14 - 26

Placement: - - - - - - - - Foliar (all micronutrients) - - - - - - - Foliar Close to trunk Foliar, mudballs close to trunk Root infusion, actively growing tips
Goh, K.J. & Hrdter, R.

Immature

- - - - - - - - - - - - Weeded circle (all macronutrients) - - - - - - - - - - -

Mature

Weeded circle

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Interrow - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -