ELECTRICITY

Circuits

Current (I) Amps (p) Voltage (V) volts (v) Resistance (R) Ohms ()

Conductors are substances hat allow electricity to flow through them easily (metals & graphite) Insulators are substances that do not allow electrons to flow through them easily (plastics, glass, wood) Current (I) - amount of electrons flowing through a conductor. Ammeter is used to measure current. Voltage (V) the amount of electrical pressure the power pack gives the electrons. Voltmeter is used to measure voltage. Resistance (R) a measure of how hard it is for electrons to flow through a conductor (like water flows through a large smooth pipe more easily than through a narrow, rough sided pipe)

Ohms Law Ohms law describes the relationship between current (I),resistance (R) and voltage (V) in a circuit. Voltage = current x resistance; V= IR

V I R

Parallel Circuit If the globes are arranged next to each other but on separate branches, this is a parallel circuit. The voltage used by each globes is the same but current is split between each branch. If a globes in this circuit is removed or blows, the other globe will remain lit

Series Circuit If two or more globes are arranged one after the other in a line then they said to be in series. The voltage is split between 2 globes but the current passing through is the same. Globes will glow dimmer than a circuit with one globe. If a globe in this circuit is removed or blows the circuit is broken so the other globes dont light either.

GENES All living things are made up of cells Plant and animal cells have 3 parts in common: A cell membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus

The nucleus contains all the genetic material of an individual, inside the nucleus

theres chromosomes
A gene is a hereditary unit that controls a particular characteristic Genes determine eye colour, body size, skin type etc. Each gene is made up of a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Genes are located of structures called chromosomes, these are found in the nucleus. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, total of 46. Females have XX chromosomes and males have XY chromosomes

DNA DNA is the keeper of all our genetic information Instructions to make a human or animal are contained within molecules of DNA coiled inside the chromosomes of a cell DNA is a molecule that contains information our cells require to grow, perform functions DNA is found in the nucleus of all cells A molecule of DNA consists of two strands joined together by cross pieces in a spiral shape called a double helix.

 The rungs of this ladder are chemical units called bases There are 4 types of bases which are represented by A (adenine), T (thymine), G (guanine), C (cytosine) In every base A is always opposite base T and base C is always opposite base G The sides of the DNA ladder are made up of sugar and phosphate molecules Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division that takes place in the ovary or testes for

reproduction.
Ovaries produce eggs and testes produce sperm. Lol tadpoles When a perms meets an egg, the resulting cell will have the correct number of

chromosomes
During meiosis the chromosomes are duplicated once In the first division, each chromosome of each homologous pair (matching similar

pairs) separates to form two cells. Each cell only has one copy of each kind of chromosome
In the second division, the duplicated chromosomes separate to produce total of four

daughter cells

The Human Genome Project The project was an international project to determine the complete genetic code for humans. It identifies every gene that codes for each characteristic. Findings from the project: Genetic code that makes each person unique is 99.9% the same for all people 6% of DNA codes for genes, the rest is junk DNA

Dominant & Recessive inheritance In each cell there are two genes for each characteristic, each gene can be dominant or recessive. A dominant gene over-rites the effect of a recessive gene Allele is a member of a pair of genes Homozygous having two identical allele for a single trait Heterozygous having two different allele for a single trait A pure bred had identical genes for a particular characteristic

 A hybrid had two different genes for a characteristic Genotype refers to the genes carried by an individual eg. BB, Bb, bb Phenotype refers to the appearance of the individual eg, brown eyes, blue eyes etc.

Punnet Square Mother

Father

Zygotes

Mutations A mutation is any spontaneous change in a gene or chromosome that may produce an alteration B b b B b B b B B b B b

in the related characteristic. Mutations in normal body cells (not sex cells) affect the organism but will not be inherited. Only mutations in gametes will be inherited. Helpful mutations: eg. Granny smith apples and breeders use mutations to develop new and improved varieties in dogs, cats etc. IONS A charged atom is called an ion When two elements combine to form an ionic compound the last shell must be filled Positive ion is a cation, negative ion is a anion Ionic bonds occur between metal ions and non-metal ions Compounds that consist of a positice and negative ion are called ionic compounds Atoms They are the smallest unit of an element. The atomic number is the number of protons and the number of electrons The mass number is the number of neutrons and protons. The mass of electrons are negligible. Nucleus which contains protons and neutrons Protons positive charge Electrons negative charge, found in different energy levels Neutrons have no charge; neutral Periodic Table

Elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number The atomic number equals the amount of electrons, hence no. of protons an atom has. The atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutrons added together. The columns are groups and the rows are periods. The last column of the periodic table are noble gases, they react very rarely and have full outer shells. The non-metals extend from boron down to astatine in a zig-zag shape. Compound: two of more elements chemically bonded together. They are formed by the rearranging of atoms, not by the creating of new ones. Molecules: Two or more same/different non-metals joined together by chemical bonds. Element: a substance only made up of one type of atom Chemical reaction: when reactants combine together chemically to form new products Tests for Gases Hydrogen will make a popping sound when held over a naked flame Oxygen will relight a glowing splint Carbon-dioxide turns limewater milky A physical change is when no new substance is formed. A chemical change is when a new substance is formed. A chemical change involves the rearranging of atoms. The bond between atoms with full shells is called ionic. INTELLIGENCE Cerebrum: largest part of the brain consisting of 2 hemispheres. It controls the senses, thought, memory, learning and some voluntary muscles. Cerebellum: small section at the back and base of the brain. It controls and coordinates balance and works with the cerebrum to control voluntary muscles. Medulla: (brain stem) controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat and breathing. Define the following terms: Endocrine System It is made up of glands that produce and secret hormones. These hormones regulate metabolism, digestion, blood pressure and growth. Hormone Chemical messenger made by a gland. It is released into the bloodstream. Target organ Hormones control the actions of certain cells or organs, known as target cells/organs. Stimulus response pathway: Stimulus endocrine gland produces a hormone hormone carried around the body by the blood hormone sensitive tissue respond (heart, blood vessels, liver, sex organs) Name Pituitary Thyroid Pancreas Hormone made Growth hormone, ADH sex hormones Thyroxin Insulin Hormone Function Growth, blood water level, triggers egg release Controls the speed of chemical reaction in cells (metabolism) Controls blood sugar levels

Adrenals Ovaries Testes

Adrenalin Oestrogen Testosterone

Prepares body for action- increasing heart rate glucose levels Controls puberty and help controls menstrual cycle Prepare womb ready for baby Male features, controls puberty

Communication medium Transmission Time of response Area effected Controlled by Type of stimulus

Endocrine System Bloodstream Hormones Slow Response effects many parts of the body Pituitary Usually internal

Diseases of the endocrine system: Diabetes Symptoms are glucose in the urine, extreme thirst, hunger and loss of weight Caused by the body not producing any or enough of the insulin hormone Type 1 diabetes occurs when the body stops making insulin Type 2 diabetes occurs to those who are overweight and inactive, have high blood pressure or heart disease High levels of glucose in the blood cause serious problems