ADVICE NOTE No.

ELECTROCHEMICAL REHABILITATION

of steel reinforced concrete structures

CONCRETE REPAIR ASSOCIATION Kingsley House, Ganders Business Park, Kingsley, Bordon, Hampshire GU35 9LU Tel: +44 (0)1420 471612 Fax: +44 (0)1420 471611 E-mail: admin@cra.org.uk

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INTRODUCTION
The environment provided by good quality concrete in which steel reinforcement exists is said to be passive whereby a highly dense and protective oxide film forms on the steels surface. The concrete pore solution is highly alkaline owing to the presence of hydroxides of sodium, potassium and calcium produced during hydration reactions. Any small breaks in this protective oxide film are constantly repaired by the hydroxyl ions. Furthermore, the cover concrete acts as a physical barrier to aggressive agents. If, however, the alkalinity of the surrounding concrete is reduced such as by neutralisation with atmospheric carbon dioxide or if depassivating ions such as chlorides are able to reach the steel, then corrosion of the reinforcement can occur. In industrial countries, the total cost of metallic corrosion-related deterioration, which includes steel reinforced structures, is believed to be about 4% of GNP. This value includes direct costs such as metal wastage, replacement, maintenance and repair as well as the indirect costs associated with shut-downs, disruption and Health and Safety issues. Corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete is one form of metallic corrosion but it is the single largest cause of deterioration of our infrastructure. The two primary causes of such deterioration are carbonation, which leads to the loss of concrete alkalinity and chloride attack primarily from deicing agents or seawater, which break down the protective oxide film of the steel reinforcement. The presence of moisture and oxygen can cause expansive corrosion. The volume occupied by the corrosion product can be up to eight times greater than the original steel product and the expansive forces are sufficient to cause concrete cracking, delamination and eventually spalling. Many remedial options are available. This Guidance Note is intended to describe the available electrochemically based methods of remediation and highlight where these are applicable. The level of alkalis in the concrete often related to type of concrete, cement content and presence of cement replacement materials The moisture content of the concrete reaching a maximum at an intermediate effective relative humidity of around 65% - 75% The presence of surface cracking.

The rate of carbonation also increases with rising temperature. The depth of carbonation increases roughly proportionally to the square root of time, doubling between one year and four years, then again between four and ten to sixteen years depending on the dry effected zone within the cover concrete. Very wet or very dry concrete does not normally suffer from carbonation owing to the slow diffusion of carbon dioxide in water and the lack of dissolution of the carbon dioxide respectively. Chloride attack In older concretes, chlorides were cast into concrete through ill-specified constituents such as sea-dredged aggregates or accelerators (calcium chloride), a practice stopped in the UK around the late 1970s, but many such chloride containing structures still remain in use. More commonly now, chlorides arise from seawater or from de-icing salts applied to structures during the winter months. If the chloride ions migrate to the reinforcement in sufficient quantity they can aggressively attack the steel, locally break down the protective oxide film and cause corrosion. This process is known as chloride attack. Chloride ingress from an external source into the cover concrete can be in the form of: Absorption, particularly following a dry period Diffusion through the water filled pores Wick action if the concrete is partially immersed in a chloride solution and drying of the concrete occurs at a higher level Capillary action through capillary pore networks.

CAUSES OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT CORROSION

Carbonation Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and other acidic gases, which are present in the atmosphere, dissolve in the pore water of concrete to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid reacts with the alkalis in the concrete to form mainly calcium carbonate. Associated with this reaction is a drop in pH from 13 to 9, a value at which the passive oxide film on the surface of the steel reinforcement is no longer stable. This process is known as carbonation and once its front reaches the steel reinforcement it causes corrosion of the steel in the presence of water and oxygen. The rate of carbonation depends on: The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere The porosity and generally the quality of the concrete

Cast-in chlorides, if they are not present in high quantities, can partially combine during the hydration process and owing to a relative uniformity of concentration may not at first cause observable

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reinforcement corrosion. The process of carbonation can, however, release these chemically bound chlorides unevenly back into the pore system and, aided by the lowering of the pH, initiate corrosion. Steel reinforced structural components that have been in existence since before the 1970s are thus gradually showing corrosion problems. There is a probabilistic relationship between the risk of corrosion initiation and an increasing concentration of chloride at the depth of the steel but is considered to be negligible at levels up to 0.2% and very low up to 0.4% by weight of cement. Beyond such concentrations the risk of corrosion rises quickly to low/moderate up to 0.8%, high up to 1.5% and extremely high above 1.5% by weight of cement.

concrete offers a good barrier against carbon dioxide ingress and this can be further enhanced by the use of anti-carbonation coatings. Maintaining the concrete in a dry condition by way of coating, cladding and sheltering is also an effective way of preventing carbonation-induced reinforcement corrosion, but a high level of carbonation is possible at an intermediate effective relative humidity (RH) of 65%75%. At such RH levels corrosion of the steel is insignificant owing to the very high resistivity of dry carbonated concrete, but sudden wetting of the concrete either by a change of use of the structural element or development, of a leak will lead to destructive corrosion of the steel3. Chloride ingress can similarly be restricted by good quality, well-compacted concrete with an adequate depth of steel cover and made more effective through the application of coatings or sealants. Coatings are inevitably of limited use if the chlorides are already present in the concrete in sufficient quantities to cause corrosion or are not adequately maintained. While this approach sets the benchmark for design and is aimed at preventing material deterioration over the structures design service life, localised variations in the exposure environment, such as prevailing wind direction, localized soil contamination, spray of salt contaminated water from passing traffic, inadequate sheltering, breakdown of protective coatings etc., all factors that can significantly reduce structure serviceability, are not adequately covered in the standard. Furthermore, changes in the use of a structure over its design surface life, inadequate local

DESIGNING AGAINST DETERIORATION

In principle, a good concrete mix design with adequate steel cover, aided by good site practice, should ensure corrosion free steel reinforcement for the design service life of the structure or structural component. Indeed, BS 8500-1:20021, a complimentary standard to BS EN 206-12, lays out minimum concrete mix design and steel cover depth criteria that would be expected to ensure a minimum design service life for a whole range of aggressive exposure conditions. Carbonation induced corrosion can be prevented, for example, if carbon dioxide penetration into the concrete cover is limited by concrete mix design and a good steel cover is maintained. The use of good quality, well-compacted low water/cement ratio Principle 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Principle 8 8.1 Principle 9 9.1 9.2 Principle 10 10.1 10.2 Principle 11 11.1 11.2 11.3
Notes:

Preserving or Restoring Passivity (creating conditions in which the surface of the steel reinforcement can maintain or return to a passive condition). Increasing cover to reinforcement with additional cementitious mortar or concrete Replacing chloride-contaminated or carbonated concrete Electrochemical realkalisation of carbonated concrete* Realkalisation of carbonated concrete by diffusion Electrochemical chloride extraction* Increasing Resistivity (increasing the electrolytic resistivity of the concrete) Limiting moisture content of the concrete by surface treatments, coatings, sheltering Cathodic Control (creating conditions in which potentially cathodic areas of reinforcement are unable to drive an anodic reaction) Limiting oxygen content by saturation of the concrete or surface coating* Applying cathodic inhibitors to the concrete*# Cathodic Protection or Prevention (polarising the steel reinforcement cathodically so as to reduce the rate of anodic reaction) Impressed current systems* Sacrificial anode systems* Control of Anodic Area (creating conditions in which potentially anodic areas of reinforcement are unable to take part in the corrosion reaction) Painting reinforcement with coatings containing active pigments Painting reinforcement with barrier coatings# Applying anodic inhibitors to the concrete*#

Italic text indicates the existence of supporting evidence that the method achieves protection by the appropriate principle * These methods may make use of products and systems not covered by the 1504 series of European Standards # Inclusion of methods in this table does not imply approval or confirmation of their effectiveness

Table 1: Principles and methods for remediation of reinforcement corrosion

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design details, low quality of workmanship, shrinkage and movement cracks and other localised phenomena can all contribute to failure within the structures design service life. BRE Information Paper 3/06 (Parts 1-3)4,5,6 attempts to deal with such limitations and describes additional measures that can be taken to ensure that the expected residual service life at the time of intervention is achieved. Table 7 in BRE IP 3/06 Part-36 lists additional single intervention protection measures specifically for dealing with steel reinforcement corrosion for each of the exposure classes and gives an approximate level of service life extension of the structural component from each remedial measure. Nearly half of these measures are electrochemical in nature.

ELECTROCHEMICAL REMEDIATION
All electrochemical remediation techniques applied to steel reinforcement are similar in nature. They all polarize the steel in a negative (cathodic) direction ensuring that the steel behaves primarily or totally as a cathode and as such does not corrode, or corrodes at an acceptably low rate. What differs in the techniques is the nature and properties of the anode which can either be sacrificial (i.e. is consumed in preference to the steel) or essentially inert driven by an external power source. The level of polarization and whether it is permanent or temporary, plus the use of additional current carrying electrolyte and the electrochemical reactions induced at the anode and cathode, define the technique and what it is aimed at achieving. The current density and period of polarization that defines the type of remediation technique is indicated in Table 2. Electrochemical realkalisation of carbonated concrete (Method 7.3 see Table 1) The technique is applied to concrete suffering from carbonation. The cathodic reactions around the steel reinforcement produce hydroxyl ions. The steel cathode also attracts the alkali metal ions towards its surface, so that high alkalinity is restored around the steel. Several forms of temporary anode material may be employed. Commonly they consist of a metal mesh or cage (activated titanium or steel), either positioned in a tank or bath attached to the surface of the concrete or within cellulose sprayed onto the concrete. The electrolyte is normally an alkali carbonate such as sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) or potassium carbonate (K2CO3). During realkalisation, the electrolyte penetrates the concrete, mainly by absorption and diffusion, and raises the alkalinity of

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
BS EN 1504-97 groups various remedial measures (including those listed in BRE IP 3/06 Part 36) into Principles of Remediation. Principle 7, Preserving or Restoring Passivity, encompasses many of the available remedial measures including the traditional patch repair (7.2) for both carbonation and chloride induced reinforcement corrosion (Table 1). By this method, cracked, delaminated and spalled concrete is removed, the reinforcement is cleaned and the removed concrete is replaced with a proprietary repair material. This type of approach is likely to be effective in carbonated concrete particularly if a crack-bridging elastomeric coating is applied on the surface with the intention of maintaining the substrate concrete dry (Principle 8.1). Where chlorides are present, even a surface coating is unlikely to be successful in avoiding further corrosion of the steel in areas around the original patch. Corrosion quickly develops within a ringed area of the patch by a mechanism known as incipient anode formation whereby the newly cleaned concrete within a chloride-free environment drives the corrosion of the steel immediately outside the patch which is still likely to be contaminated with chlorides. While Principle 7 can be classed as a single intervention (or multiple interventions at set time intervals), Principle 10 describes the only reliable way of continuously and systematically controlling corrosion of the steel reinforcement. Referred to as Cathodic Protection or Cathodic Prevention, it can only be achieved by electrochemical means. Similarly, many methods listed in Principle 7 can also be classed under the banner of Electrochemical Remediation either in whole or in part.

Figure 1: Schematic of the process of electrochemical realkalisation of carbonated concrete

Type of electrochemical remediation technique Realkalisation Chloride extraction Cathodic protection Cathodic prevention

Current density (per m2 of steel) 0.51.0 A 12 A 520 mA 0.42 mA

Typical period of polarisation 310 days 26 weeks Permanent Permanent

Table 2: Typical range of current density and period of polarization for each electrochemical remediation technique

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the cover concrete to over pH-11. A form of electroosmotic movement of the carbonate solution through the carbonated concrete has also been reported. The depth of penetration depends primarily on the permeability of the concrete and its degree of dryness prior to exposure to the electrolyte. Some pre-drying may be necessary if the concrete is predominantly wet. Lithium based solutions, such as lithium hydroxide, have been suggested as possible realkalisation electrolytes for concrete susceptible to alkali aggregate reaction (AAR) owing to the inhibitive nature of the lithium ions. Tests to establish the level of realkalisation after polarisation are limited. The steel reinforcement is likely to remain polarised to a degree for several weeks, or months, after realkalisation and corrosion potentials and rates during this period cannot be relied on to present a true indication of the state of the steel. Suitable acid/base indicators which change colour at sufficiently high pH levels* sprayed on freshly split cores, allow the depth and extent of realkalisation to be determined. The question of how long the raised alkalinity can be maintained around steel reinforcement has not been adequately researched. Unless penetration of sufficient electrolyte to the depth of the reinforcement is achieved by absorption, diffusion and possibly electro-osmosis, realkalisation is only likely to be contained in a limited area around the bar, which may allow subsequent diffusion of the alkalis away from the steel. An anti-carbonation coating is often applied to the surface of the concrete, once the realkalisation process is completed, for aesthetic reasons, to provide extra protection to the concrete and to maintain it in a dry condition. Problems of bonding of the coatings to the substrate, which appear to be electrolyte-related, have been reported with some realkalisation systems. Electrochemical chloride extraction (Method 7.5 - see Table 1) The set-up for chloride extraction (known also as chloride removal, or desalination) is very similar to that for realkalisation. Both techniques require a drive voltage normally between 10V and 40V depending on

the resistivity of the concrete electrolyte. Chloride ions are repelled by the steel cathode and attracted to the anode, which is normally positioned inside a tank attached to the surface of the concrete. The chlorides can then be washed away by circulation of the electrolyte to a reservoir. The electrolyte is often calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) but even ordinary tap water has been used. Electrical continuity is important for both anode and cathode systems. Lithium electrolytes have also been used in trials because of possible initiation or furtherance of AAR in susceptible concrete from the increased alkalinity around the reinforcement. Concerns have also been raised about pressure induced microcracking owing to the evolution of hydrogen gas at the steel and of paste softening around the steel from the increased alkali concentration. Other evidence suggests, though, that the properties of concrete around steel can improve following polarisation (See Section on New Developments). As a result of equilibrium considerations, only a proportion of the free chlorides can be removed during a single treatment8 . The rate of chloride extraction is reduced with decreasing concentration of chloride in the pore electrolyte. Consequently, cost effectiveness of the process is reduced with each successive treatment. Chlorides behind the steel reinforcement may not be removed if they lie outside the field of current and could, with time, diffuse towards the steel, as could chlorides remaining in the bulk of the cover concrete. The risk of re-depassivation of the steel, enhanced by the counter-diffusion of the inhibitive alkalis away from the steel with time, necessitates monitoring of the chloride concentration profiles in the concrete and of the corrosion activity of the steel. As with realkalisation, the corrosion potentials of the steel require several months to stabilise after the polarising action of chloride extraction and as such, cannot be used as an indicator of the success of the process. More complete remediation can be achieved by a subsequent low current cathodic prevention installation which can be achieved with the use of sacrificial galvanic anodes (Also see Section on New Developments).

CATHODIC PROTECTION, OR CATHODIC PREVENTION (PRINCIPLE 10)

Impressed Current Systems (Method 10.1 - see Table 1) As opposed to the single intervention type of measures contained within Principle 7, cathodic protection and cathodic prevention are considered to be permanent techniques, where more permanent anode systems are either surface applied to the concrete or embedded within the concrete. Organic conductive coatings, activated titanium mesh, thermally sprayed zinc etc are painted, fixed or sprayed over the whole surface of the concrete while activated titanium strips or rods and titania ceramic anodes are either embedded within the concrete or fixed in drilled holes. These techniques are designated

Figure 2: Schematic of the process of electrochemical chloride extraction of chloride contaminated concrete
* Suitable pH indicators include phenolphthalein at pH~10, thymolphthalein at pH~11.5, titan yellow at pH~12.5, indigo carmine at pH~13 and universal indicator over a range of pHs

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as Methods 10.1 and 10.2 in EN 1504-9. A European Standard describes some of these systems which have at least a five year track record in detail (EN 12696-1). It further recognises that other new and effective anode systems would continuously be developed for cathodic protection in atmospherically exposed reinforced concrete and lists some promising systems in an annex. Frequent monitoring allows the applied current to be adjusted so that the steel is sufficiently polarised to prevent corrosion pits developing on the surface of the steel and at least reduce the activity of existing pits to insignificant levels. The process also repels chlorides away from the steel and replenishes the inhibitive hydroxyl ions around the steel. Criteria used for ensuring protection of the steel by cathodic protection are detailed in EN 12696-1 and are summarised below. Criteria of protection by CP For any atmospherically exposed structure, the open circuit potential of the steel at any representative point shall meet any one of the criteria given in items a) to c). (a): An instant-off potential (measured between 0.1s and 1s after switching the d.c. circuit open) more negative than -720mV with respect to Ag/AgCl/0.5 M KCl (b): A potential decay over a maximum of 24 hours of at least 100mV from instant off (c): A potential decay over an extended period (typically 24 hours or longer) of at least 150mV from the instant off subject to a continuing decay and a use of reference electrodes for the measurement extended beyond 24 hours. As summarised in Table 2, the initial current density is expected to be up to 20mA/m2 of steel surface in order to achieve the criteria, but with time this is likely to be reduced gradually to nearer 5mA/m2 owing to beneficial modifications at the steel concrete interface. Figure 3 demonstrates the concept of cathodic protection, which is applied once corrosion of the steel has initiated in the form of pitting (Domain A, e.g. Location 4). To achieve complete protection and repassivate all corrosion pits, the potential needs to be reduced by applying cathodic polarisation down to Domain C (e.g. Location 6). Partial polarisation down to Domain B (e.g. Location 5) ensures a reduction of corrosion but not complete re-passivation, a process that can be adequately described as corrosion control. Cathodic protection is, therefore, normally applied when corrosion of the steel is ongoing and needs to be controlled or stopped. On the other hand, cathodic prevention is a preventive measure aimed at ensuring that the steel is polarised to a level where corrosion cannot be initiated. This is demonstrated clearly in Figure 3. Path 1 to 2, where a small cathodic level of polarisation is applied to the steel as a preventative measure before chloride contamination of the concrete occurs, or path 1a to 2a, where a similar level of polarisation is applied when chloride contamination is low, but steel pitting has not yet initiated, are both indicative of cathodic prevention. Once this level of low polarisation is applied, considerably higher levels of chloride can then be tolerated (e.g. Location 3) without the prospect of corrosion initiation. With cathodic prevention, it is only necessary to maintain the potential of the steel within Domain B to ensure that no corrosion is possible hence the much lower current density requirement (Table 2). Cathodic protection, or prevention, is a versatile and reliable technique which applies in many different situations with the added benefit of reducing patch and repair requirements. The Highways Agency has adopted cathodic protection for the majority of deteriorated crossbeams in the Midland Links viaduct sections connecting the M5 and M6 motorways and some sections of the M4. Installation costs are indicated in the new Corrosion Prevention Association (CPA) Technical Note 129. This technical note should be viewed together with the Highways Agency (HA) Bridge Advice Note BA8310 which gives guidance on the selection and installation of cathodic protection systems12 for the corrosion protection of reinforcement in highway structures. Furthermore, CPA Technical Note 11 describes the use and

% Chloride concentration by weight of cement

1 to 2 to 3 or 1a to 2a to 3

Cathodic Prevention

1 to 4 to 5 1 to 4 to 6

Cathodic Protection reducing corrosion rate Cathodic Protection restoring passivity

Figure 3: Steel potential vs. concrete chloride content showing domains of pitting and other steel behaviour

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performance of the range of anodes that are in current use in cathodic protection applications . Sacrificial Systems (Method 10.2 - see Table 1) Sacrificial cathodic protection systems have been successfully installed in the USA, Latin America and the Middle East on structures submerged in seawater or in splash zones. The method relies on anodes, made of metal below steel on the electrochemical series (usually aluminium or zinc and their alloys) and fixed in the cover concrete or adhered or sprayed onto the surface of the reinforced concrete component to sacrificially corrode and protect the steel reinforcement. Trials on atmospherically exposed concrete were originally less successful than on submerged concrete, but the main difficulties of passivation of zinc anodes in insufficiently alkaline concrete have now been overcome. Sacrificial cathodic protection systems have potentially low installation and maintenance costs. Discrete galvanic anodes are now available either to enhance patch repairs by preventing corrosion initiation in a ring around the newly installed patch or to control global corrosion if inserted strategically in arrays. These are particularly beneficial in small areas contaminated with low levels of chlorides.

the structure or structural component. BRE Digests 44413,14,15 and 45516 define the procedures that should be followed for successful management of the structure taking into account whole life costs. The electrochemical remediation techniques available form only part of the range of steel reinforced concrete rehabilitation methods, but are recognized as the most successful in controlling or arresting steel corrosion. These processes require specialist skills and should only be carried out by a qualified contractor, experienced in the design and application of the techniques. Members of the Concrete Repair Association, offering the required experience, are designated in the Association Members directory.

AUTHOR
Dr George Sergi, Corrosion Consultant, Birmingham City Laboratories

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. BS 8500-1:2002 Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1 BS EN 206-1: 2000 Concrete. Specification, performance, production and conformity G Sergi, A Dunster, Corrosion of steel in concrete: A review of the effect of humidity BRE Digest 491, BRE 2004 E Nolan, K Quillin, P Nixon, G Sergi, G Somerville Reinforced concrete service life design: Overview BRE Information Paper, IP 3/06 Part-1 E Nolan, K Quillin, P Nixon, G Sergi, G Somerville Reinforced concrete service life design: Design for durability BRE Information Paper, IP 3/06 Part-2 E Nolan, K Quillin, P Nixon, G Sergi, P B Bamforth Reinforced concrete service life design: Service life forecasting and enhancement BRE Information Paper, IP 3/06 Part-3 BS EN 1504 Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures. Definitions, requirements, quality control and evaluation of conformity: Part-9: 1997 General Principles for the use of products and systems G Sergi, C Goodier & A M G Seneviratne The long-term effectiveness of electrochemical chloride extraction as remediation for corroding steel in reinforced concrete EUROCORR-03, European Corrosion Congress, Budapest, September 2003 J Broomfield, Budget Cost and Anode Performance Information for Impressed Current Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete Highway Bridges, Corrosion Prevention Association Technical Note 12, Sept. 2008

NEW DEVELOPMENTS
There is now enough experimental evidence to suggest that once complete passivity of the steel reinforcement is established, by a sufficient level of early cathodic polarisation (Domain C or Domain D if applicable), cathodic prevention polarisation levels are then only required in order to maintain the steel free of corrosion. This allows for new dual systems where a high early temporarily applied current, such as that achieved by the chloride extraction/realkalisation type of technique, is followed by a long-term low current technique such as that provided by sacrificial anodes. The high early polarisation levels can induce other additional benefits. Apart from the very localised sharp reduction in chloride to hydroxyl ratio which determines the corrosivity of the environment there is likely also to be precipitation of solid alkali phases around the steel reinforcement offering additional physical protection. While these positive beneficial effects can be reversed with time if no further action is taken, the subsequent low polarisation applied can maintain them for much longer periods.

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CLOSING REMARKS
Even though standards, information papers and advice notes exist, which lay down the minimum requirements for durable steel reinforced concrete, it is always likely that poor detailing, inadequate consideration of local weathering and microclimatic conditions and poor workmanship will lead to corrosion of the reinforcement. It is essential that a thorough assessment of the condition of the structure is performed at regular intervals and the most suitable remediation procedure is applied when required according to the residual service life requirements of 9.

10. Highways Agency Cathodic Protection for use In Reinforced Concrete Highway Structures Bridge Advice Note BA83, Revised 2002

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11. J Broomfield, S El-Belbol, Impressed Current Anodes for the Cathodic Protection of Atmospherically Exposed Reinforced Concrete Corrosion Prevention Association Technical Note 11, Nov. 2006 12. J Broomfield, The Principles and Practice of Galvanic Cathodic Protection for Reinforced Concrete Structures Corrosion Prevention Association Technical Note 6, Oct. 2007 13. G Sergi, K Quillin & D Richardson, Corrosion of steel in concrete: Durability of reinforced concrete structures BRE Digest 444 Part-1, BRE 2000 14. G Sergi, K Quillin & D Richardson, Corrosion of steel in concrete: Investigation and assessment BRE Digest 444 Part-2, BRE 2000 15. G Sergi, K Quillin & D Richardson, Corrosion of steel in concrete: Protection and Remediation BRE Digest 444 Part-3, BRE 2000 16. K Quillin, Corrosion of steel in concrete: service life design and prediction BRE 2001

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B J McFarland 15+ Years of Developments in Electrochemical Chloride Extraction UK Corrosion, Majestic Hotel, Harrogate, 1995 P Lambert 'Reinforced Concrete History, Properties & Durability' Corrosion Prevention Association Monograph No: 1, October 1998. J Drewett 'An Introduction to Electrochemical Rehabilitation Techniques' Corrosion Prevention Association Monograph No: 2, October 1998. JP Broomfield & BS Wyatt 'Cathodic Protection of Steel in Concrete the Global Experience' Corrosion Prevention Association Monograph No: 3, January 1999. M Gower & S El-Belbol Monitoring & Maintenance of Cathodic Protection Systems' Corrosion Prevention Association Monograph No: 4, May 1999.

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10. The European Federation of Corrosion, EFC 24 'Electrochemical Rehabilitation Methods for Reinforced Concrete Structures: A State of the Art Report' Ed. J Meitz, 1998 11. The European Federation of Corrosion, EFC 25 Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete: Monitoring, prevention and rehabilitation Eds. J Mietz, B Elsener, R Polder, 1998 12. The European Federation of Corrosion, EFC 31 Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete Eds. J Mietz, B Elsener, R Polder, 2000 13. The European Federation of Corrosion, EFC 38 Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete Eds. M Raupach, B Elsener, R Polder, J Mietz 2006 14. NACE International, Electrochemical chloride extraction from steel reinforced concrete- Astate-of-the-art report Publication No. 01101 15. NACE International, Electrochemical realkalisation of steel-reinforced concrete- A state-of-the-art report Publication No. 01104 16. NACE International. State-of-the-art report: Criteria for cathodic protection of prestressed concrete structures Publication No. 01102 17. NACE International, Sacrificial cathodic protection of reinforced concrete elements: State-of-the-art report Publication No. 01105

FURTHER READING
1. BS EN 1504 Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures. Definitions, requirements, quality control and evaluation of conformity: Part-1: 1998 General scope and definitions. BS EN 1504 Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures. Definitions, requirements, quality control and evaluation of conformity: Part-7: 2004 Reinforcement corrosion protection. BS EN 1504 Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures. Definitions, requirements, quality control and evaluation of conformity: Part-10: 2003 Site application of products and system s and quality of the works J E Bennett, et al 'Chloride removal implementation Guide', SHRP-S-347 Electrochemical Removal and Protection of Concrete Bridge Components: Lab Studies, SHRPS-667. Electrochemical Removal and Protection of Concrete Bridge Components: Field Trials SHRP-S 669. National Research Council, Washington DC 1993.

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Although care has been taken to ensure to the best of our knowledge that all data and information contained herein is accurate to the extent that it relates to either matters of fact or accepted practice or matters of opinion at the time of publication the Concrete |repair Association assumes no responsibility for any errors in the misinterpretation of such data and/or information or any loss or damage arising from or related to its use.

January 2009: The Concrete Repair Association

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