SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Question 1 Construction of SCR

A silicon controlled rectifier is a semiconductor device that acts as a true electronic switch. It can change alternating current into direct current and at the same time can control the amount of power fed to the load. Thus SCR combines the features of a rectifier and a transistor. When a PN junction is added to a junction transistor, the resulting three PN junction device is called a silicon controlled rectifier as shown below.

Figure 1 It is clear that it is essentially an ordinary rectifier (PN) and a junction transistor (NPN) combined in one unit to form PNPN device. Three terminals are taken, one from the outer P-Type material called anode A, second from the outer N-Type material called cathode K and the third from the base of the transistor section called gate G. In the normal operating os SCR, anode is held at high positive potential with respect to cathode and gate at small positive potential with respect to cathode.

Figure 2 The silicon controlled rectifier is a solid state equivalent of thyratron. The gate, anode and cathode of SCR correspond to the grid, plate and cathode of thyratron. For this reason, SCR is called thyristor.

Working of SCR
In a silicon controlled rectifier, load is connected in series with anode. The anode is always kept at positive potential with respect to cathode. The working of SCR can be studied under the following two heads: 1. When the gate is open

Figure 3 Figure 3 shows the SCR circuit with gate open, i.e No voltage applied to the gate. Under this condition J2 is reverse biased while J1 and J3 are forward biased. Hence, the situation in the junctions J1 and J3 is just in npn transistor with base open . Consequently, no current flows through the load RL and SCR is cut off. However, if the applied voltage is gradually increased a stage is reached when reverse biased junction J2 breakdown. The SCR now conducts heavily and is said to be ON state. The applied voltage at which SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is called Breakover Voltage. 2. When gate is positive with respect to cathode

Figure 4 The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by applying small positive potential to the gate as shown in Figure 4. Now junction J3 is forward biased and J2 is reverse biased. The electron from n type material start moving across J3 towards left whereas holes from ptype toward right. Consequently, the electrons from J3 are attracted across junction J2 and gate current starts flowing. As soon as gate current flows anode current increases. The increased anode current in turn makes more electrons available at J2. This process continues and in an extremely small time, junction J2 breaks down and the SCR starts conducting heavily. Once SCR starts conducting, the gate looses all control. Even if the gate voltage is removed anode current does not decrease at all. The only way to stop conduction is to reduce the applied voltage to zero.

SCR performance using two transistors Analogy

Figure 5 The two transistor equivalent circuit shows that the collector current of the NPN transistor TR2 feeds directly into the base of the PNP transistor TR1, while the collector current of TR1 feeds into the base of TR2. These two inter-connected transistors rely upon each other for conduction as each transistor gets its base-emitter current from the others collector-emitter current. So until one of the transistors is given some base current nothing can happen even if a Anode-to-Cathode voltage is present. When the thyristors Anode terminal is negative with respect to the Cathode, the centre N-P junction is forward biased, but the two outer P-N junctions are reversed biased and it behaves very much like an ordinary diode. Therefore a thyristor blocks the flow of reverse current until at some high voltage level the breakdown voltage point of the two outer junctions is exceeded and the thyristor conducts without the application of a Gate signal. This is an important negative characteristic of the thyristor, as Thyristors can be unintentionally triggered into conduction by an overvoltage as well as high temperature or a rapidly rising dv/dt voltage such as a spike. If the Anode terminal is positive with respect to the Cathode, the two outer P-N junctions are forward biased but the centre N-P junction is reverse biased. Therefore forward current is also blocked. If now a positive current is injected into the base of the NPN transistor TR2, the resulting collector current flows in the base of transistor TR1. This in turn causes a collector current to flow in the PNP transistor, TR1 which increases the base current of TR2 and so on. each half cycle and as we now know, remains OFF until the application of a Gate trigger pulse. Since an AC sinusoidal voltage continually reverses in polarity every half-cycle allowing the thyristor to turn OFF, this effect is known as natural commutation and is a very important characteristic of the silicon controlled rectifier.

Derivation of SCR anode current in terms of current gain and leakage current Ico

Figure 6

Question 2 Explanation of SCR ratings

SCR Voltage Ratings
(i) Breakover Voltage. The minimum forward voltage, when the gate is open, at which SCR starts conducting heavily (that is turned-on) is called the breakover voltage. To specify this value, the gate is in the open-circuit condition and the junction temperature is at its maxi-mum permitted value, although VFB0 is still a function of dv/dt. Though the SCR can be turned-on, with gate open, by making the supply voltage equal to breakover voltage, but in practice, the SCR is operated with supply voltage less than breakover voltage and it is turned-on by applying a small voltage (typically 1.5 V) to the gate. Commercially available SCRs have Breakover voltages from about 50 V to 500 V. (ii) Peak Forward Voltage. This is the limiting positive anode voltage above which the SCR may get damaged. In general peak forward voltage (PFV) is larger than forward breakover voltage VFB0 so that there is some inherent protection for the device. However, if there is a voltage transient with an amplitude larger than the transient rating of the SCR, although it is unlikely to damage the device, it may lead to malfunctioning of the circuit if it causes the device to turn-on at the wrong instant. If the junction temperature is low, it is possible that the PFV is lesser than VFBQ. (iii) Maximum On-State Voltage. It is the maximum value of the voltage appearing across the device during the conduction. For an SCR with current load, the voltage across load is also included. Normally value of this voltage is of 1.5 V. (iv) Peak Reverse Voltage. The maximum reverse voltage (cathode positive with respect to anode) that can be applied to an SCR without conduction in the reverse direction, is called the peak reverse voltage (PRV) or peak inverse voltage (PIV). Peak reverse voltage (PRV) is an important consideration while SCR is operating in an ac circuit. During negative half cycle of ac supply reverse voltage acts across the SCR and if it exceeds beyond PRV, there may be avalanche breakdown and SCR will get damaged if the current is not limited by the external circuit. Commercially available SCRs have PRV ratings upto 2.5 kV. (v) Critical Rate of Rise of Voltage. Critical rate of rise of voltage, dv/dt, is the maximum rate at which the voltage in the forward direction can rise without triggering the device. It is expressed in volts /microseconds. It is found that sometimes an SCR unintentionally switches-on by itself during sudden variation of the applied anode voltage at a time when there is no gate current applied and the SCR is supposed

to be in the forward blocking state. This false triggering is because of the capacitance possessed by the large area of junction J2. When the rate of rise of the applied voltage dV/dt is very large, the capacitive charging current, CdV/dt may become large enough to trigger the device. This is not likely to damage the device, but an unintended triggering may lead to either high di/dt through the SCR or large short-est circuit current which may lead to the failure of the device. (vi) Voltage Safety Factor. To avoid puncture of SCR due to uncertain conditions, normal operating voltage is kept well below PRV value of the device. The operating voltage and PRV are related by voltage safety factor Vf defined as Vf = PRV/ 2x rms value of input voltage The normal value of V, lies between 2 and 2.5.

Current ratings of an SCR

The current carrying capability of an SCR is solely determined by the junction temperature. Except in case of surge currents, in no other case the junction temperature is permitted to exceed the permissible value (i) Holding current It is the maximum anode current, gate being open, at which SCR is turned off from ON conditions. When SCR is in the conducting state, it cannot be turned OFF even if gate voltage is removed. The only way to turn off or open the SCR is to reduce the supply voltage to almost zero at which point the internal transistor comes out of saturation and opens the SCR. The anode current under this condition is very small and nis called holding time. Thus SCR has a holding time of 5mA, I means that if anode current is made less than 5mA, then SCR will be turned off. (ii) Forward current rating. It is the maximum anode current that an SCR is capable of passing without destruction. Every SCR has a safe value of forward current which it can conduct. If the value of current exceeds this value, the SCR may be destroyed due to intensive heating at the junctions. For example, if an SCR has forward current rating of 40A, it means that the SCR can safely carry 40A. Any attempt to exceed this value will result in the destruction of the SCR. Commercially available SCRs have forward ratings from about 30A to 100A. (iii) Circiut (I^2*t) rating. It is the product of square of forward surge current and the time of duration of the surge, i.e Circuit fusing rating = I^2*t. The circuit fusing rating indicates the maximum forward surge current capability of SCR. For example, consider an SCR having circuit of 90. If this rating is exceeded in the SCR circuit, the device will be destroyed by excessive power dissipation. (iv) On-state Current. When the device is in conduction, it carries a load current determined by the supply voltage and the load. On-state current is defined in terms of average and rms values.

ITav is the average value of maximum continuous sinusoidal on-state current (frequency 40-60 Hz, conduction angle 180) which should not be exceeded even with intensive cooling. The temperature at which the current is permissible has to be mentioned. It is this current which determines the application of device. ITrms is the rms value of maximum continuous sinusoidal on-state current (frequency 40-60 Hz, conduction angle 180) which should not be exceeded even with intensive cooling. Latching Current. It is the minimum device current, which must be attained by the device, before the gate drive is removed while turning-on, for maintaining it into conduc-tion. Holding Current. It is the minimum on-state current required to keep the SCR in conducting state without any gate drive. Its usual value is 5 m A. (v) Critical Rate of Rise of Current. The maximum rate of increase of current during on-state which the SCR can tolerate is called the critical rate of rise of current for the device. This is specified at maximum junction temperature. During initial period of turning-on, only a small area near the gate conducts the anode current. If the current increases too fast, localised overheating may take place. This is called the hole storage effect. Due to localised heating the device may get permanently damaged. To-day devices are available which can withstand rate of rise of current upto 200-250 A/microsecond, however in application this rate is hardly allowed to exceed beyond 5-10 A/micro second. Protection against dI/dt is provided by series inductor.

Question 3 Detailed explanation of the turn off mechanisms of an SCR

The SCR can be brought back to the forward blocking state from the conduction state only by reducing the forward current to a level below that of the holding current. This can be done by the following turn off mechanisms 1. Natural commutation: In this type of turn off, the supply voltage becomes zero or negative, Hence SCR is reverse biased. Therefore it is turned off. 2. Forced commutation: When the supply voltage is DC, then external commutation component are used to turn off the SCR. The commutation components apply reverse bias across the temporarily or pass impulse of negative current. Therefore SCR turns off. The method of discharging a capacitor in parallel with an SCR to turn off the SC is called forced commutation. As shown in figure 7 , the forced commutation of SCR where capacitor C performs commutation. Assuming the SCRs are switches with SCR1 ON and SCR2 OFF, current flows through the load and C. When SCR2 is triggered on, C is effectively parallel across SCR1. The charge on C is then opposite to SCR2s forward voltage, SCR1 is thus turned off and the current is transferred to R-SCR2 path.

Figure 7 3. Anode current interruption. When the anode current is reduced below a minimum value called holding current, the SCR turns off. The simple way to turn off the SCR is to open the line switch S as shown in figure 8

Figure 8

Question 4 The operation of R-C firing circuit

Firing means the turning ON of an SCR.

RC HALF WAVE
Capacitor C in the circuit is connected to shift the phase of the gate voltage. D1 is used to prevent negative voltage from reaching the gate cathode of SCR. In the negative half cycle, the capacitor charges to the peak negative voltage of the supply (-Vm) through the diode D2 . The capacitor maintains this voltage across it, till the supply voltage crosses zero. As the supply becomes positive, the capacitor charges through resistor R from initial voltage of -Vm , to a positive value. When the capacitor voltage is equal to the gate trigger voltage of the SCR, the SCR is fired and the capacitor voltage is clamped to a small positive value.

Figure 9 RC half wave trigger circuit

Case 1: R = Large: When the resistor R is large, the time taken for the capacitance to charge from Vm to V gt is large, resulting in larger firing angle and lower load voltage. Case 2: R =Small: When R is set to a smaller value, the capacitor charges at a faster rate towards Vgt resulting in early triggering of SCR and hence VL is more. When the SCR triggers, the voltage drop across it falls to 1 1.5V. This in turn lowers, the voltage across R & C. Low voltage across the SCR during conduction period keeps the capacitor discharge during the positive half cycle. DESIGN EQUATION From the circuit Vc =Vgt +Vd1 . Considering the source voltage and the gate circuit, we can write vs = Igt*R +Vc . SCR fires when vs> Igt*R +Vc that is vs>Igt*R +Vc . Therefore R<(vs-Vgt-Vd1)/Igt . The RC time constant for zero output voltage that is maximum firing angle for power frequencies is empirically gives as RC>1.3(T/2).

RC FULL WAVE
A simple circuit giving full wave output is shown in figure below. In this circuit the initial voltage from which the capacitor C charges is essentially zero. The capacitor C is reset to this voltage by the clamping action of the thyristor gate. For this reason the charging time constant RC must be chosen longer than for half wave RC circuit in order to delay the triggering. The RC value is empirically chosen as 50 2 RC T . Also s gt gt v V R I - .

Figure 9: RC full wave trigger circuit

References
1. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/blog/thyristor.html 2. https://www.google.com.na/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=7&cad=rja&ved=0 CFMQFjAG&url=http%3A%2F%2Ftalkingelectronics.com%2FDownload%2520eBooks%2FPrin ciples%2520of%2520electronics%2FCH20.pdf&ei=sqhYUYSxIcevPO3ZgdAG&usg=AFQjCNHLg2vJU8HiEWOD_9f0og9F_jihlA&bvm=bv .44442042,d.d2k 3. https://www.google.com.na/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&ved=0 CD8QFjAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pkb.edu.my%2Felearning%2Ftopic%25201.pdf&ei=sq hYUYSxIcevPO3ZgdAG&usg=AFQjCNFL6iR0IWy5HcUfbYslGnhsz5iNOQ&bvm=bv.44442042,d. d2k 4. http://books.google.com.na/books?id=lGePnwccy3UC&pg=SA6-PA18&lpg=SA6PA18&dq=Detailed+explanation+of+the+turn+off+mechanisms+of+an+SCR&source=bl&ots= AbWTibmXbD&sig=U4OxMi64ITSBuOB3afxPRAhjLHw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=pbBYUeWYDMG2O8 SZgbAC&ved=0CF8Q6AEwCQ