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UNIT 2 SOIL WATER

Structure
2.1 2.2 Introduction
Objectives

Types of Soil Water


2.2.1 Held Water and Free Water 2.2.2 Hygroscopic Water and Capillary Water 2.2.3 Height o f Capillary llise in Soil

2.3

Flow of Waler Through Soil


2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 Total Hmtl and Pressure Head : Gwdient Dnrcy's 1,ilw Validity of Darcy's Low Factors Influencing Permeability Measurel~~cnt of Pemlei~bility in Laboratory Measure~nento f I'erlneiibility in Ficld

2.4

Effective Stress Concepl


2.4.1 Intergrar~ular Stress. Told Stress ant1 Pore Wiltcr Pressure 2.4.2 lnflucr~ce of Pore Water Pressure on Soil Behiiviour

2.6 2.7

Kcy Words Answers lo SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unil, soil watcr syslcm iI11d ils sig~~ilicmcc are discussed. Dilrcy's law for I;uninar flow Uirougli soil illong wilh lhc dcl'inilion of soil permeability is introduced. Fielcl iu~d laboratory methods of permeability clcterrninatio~l are outlined. Finally, the coniepts of cffcctive stress in soil and pore water pressure ;Ire cliscussed.

Objectives
After reading this unit, you should be ;ible to : understand difl'crc~lt states of water in soil such as held water, free wiiler, ciipillary walcr and U~cir mechanistic signific;mce, explain Uie concept or lanlinnr Ilow of water Uirough soil, Darcy's law, soil pcnncabilily, ils nicnsurernc~ll a n d application to engineering problems, md * know the concept of the effective stress and pore water pressure in soil aid heir relationship to applied load.

2.2 TYPES OF SOIL WATER


2.2.1 Held Water and Free Water
Natural soils a1w;iys ciirry some nloislurc with hem. When Uie smallest particle size of soil, equivalcnl to that of a colloid is considered, the walcr tllal is present around this particle, exists in two for~ns. There is a fill11 of moisture, very close to Ihe particle, which is referred to ;ISClle adsorbed moisture film, ;is shown in Figure 2.1. For all practical purposes this film is considercd as part of soil grain ilsclC As shown further in the figure, U~is adsorbed film of water may be divided into two parts: firs1 being solidified water, which is closest to soil grain imd h e second part being highly viscous watcr Chat surrounds the solidified water nod Ulis is also termed as collcsive water. llie entire film of watcr is called held water. Surrounding the held watcr as shown in Figure 2.1, lllerc exists WiItcr that fills Ule voids of soil mass. This watcr is referred to as free watcr. T l ~ pllysical e properties of held water and free water are different. Wllercas, the free water has its freezing arid boiling points, boiling point of held water is viscosity and surface tension same as Ulc ordiilary water, tl~e

Soil Water System

lligher, its freezing point is lower and its viscosily and surface arc I I I U C ~higller Llli~lll l l i ~ l01 ordinary water. The free water remains outside the sudaces of adsorbed moislurc Silms al(1 it is this water that deternines the physical properties of soils. It is illso commonly referred to as pore water.
.-

. .

free vater or pTrF

-.

- -

hesivc . ~ t e rlayer

- water

\ adsorbed

water or) bound water or hydrated water

\ solidified
Layer

Figure 2.1 : Classificatio~l of Soil Moisture Basetl on Adliesiver~essof Walter

2.2.2 Hygroscopic Water and Capillary Water


Whereas, the above classification of water was based on adhesiveness o f watcr L o soil grains, soil water can be further classified as hygroscopic water ru~d capillllry wilier. The water which the soil mass absorbs from the almosphcre is lalown ilS hygroscopic waler. In case ol' a dry soil in colitacl with moist environment, UIC hygroscopic noi is lure absorption is of the order of 2-3 percent for sands 'and more than 13 percent in casc 01' l'ine grained soils (clays), thus showing that colloidal content of soil has irlherenl property ol' absorbing water from the surroundings. Capillary water is defined as that water which soil draws in Iiom lhr: levcl of frcc water surface that is present in the soil mass. Rain water goes deeper inlo Ule ground due L o ils pervious nature, until it is arrested by i~npervious stratum, ovcr which, il i~ccunlulatcs lo form a ground water reservoir. The level of water within the soil deposit, where atmospheric pressure acts, is referred to as phreatic surrace, or, lllore comnlonly as watcr table. Below water table, soil remains in the slate ol'saluration arid the coritai~~ed water is called ground water. The extent of soil between water table and ground surface is tcr~ncd as zone of aeration. It has been noticed that, above water table, soils are fully s;lturatcd upto a certain extent and partially saturated, a li ttle further. This saturation results froin the capillary rise of water in the soil. Thus capillary water is that water which soil sucks iioln grou~iti wiltcr table. Its existence is due to the presence of adhesive films in soil which attract water from the ground water tablc. The height to which water is drawn is called caj,ill;uy rise and the soil strata in the zone of aeration that is moistened by the capillary risc of water is tern~cti as capillary fringe. In Figure 2.2, the various zones as discussed above, are shown.
ground level
//A\

t
zone of aeraHon

capillary fringe water table

7capillary frtnge
Y
+ '

ground water reservoir

62

Figure 2.2: Ground Watcr TabIe, Capillary Fringe and Zone of Aeration ia Soil Strata

2.2.3 Height of Capillary Rise in Soil


fllc continuous distribution of voids in soil acts as bundles of capillary tubes of varying i-ross-sections. As explained earlier, water rises Ulrough these capillaries. Figure 2.3 shows the basic concepts that arc involved in the computation of height of nse 01water in a capillary tube. It is obtained from the following considerations. The equation of vertical equilibrium for the forces acling at Ule tlleniscus gives, a(11,. rc . d2 . y,,./4) = rr . 1 i , T . cos a

Soil W U ~ C I

... (2.1)

In which. A. is the capillary rise. ti. is diameler of capillary tube and, T, is the surface ~cnsion of water in kN/nl unil. Thus, Ule tern1 011 L 1 1 e left side ofthe equation represcnts the self weight of colullln of water (unit weight, y,). which is balanced by vertical component of surface tension force, that acts over U 1 e periphery ol'the ~nenicus. From Ec1u:rrion 2.1. it is seen Ihirr. for constant value of a. T and y,,

Thc pressure at any poi111in thc colulllll of capillary water is negative with respect to the irtmosphcric pressure and irs magnitude is sivcn as Ity,,. (11 = heighl of poil~t irbovc water surfirce and tllis is sht~wn 111 Figure 1.3.

(a) Kist c r f Water in Capillnry ' S I I ~ ~

(b) I'ressllre within the Height of Kisc in the

Cnpillory 'rube Pigtlre 2.3

When the abovc concept is applied to soils, it must be ullderslood that, the capillary tubes that exist in Ulem have veriablc cross-sections. The maxin~um hcight of rise will correspond to thc smallesl voids (Equation 2.2). Hajl,cn (1930) proposed il formula lor , approximate determination of Lhc height of capillary risc, in the followir~g form. ... (2.3) h (nun) = C/(e.Dlo)
1 represcnts cffeclive size (null) of soil, e , represents its void ratio In the above equation, 1 C i s a constant that varies belwcen 10 nun2 to 50 um12. In Tilble 2.1, Ule approxinlate ranges of capillary rise for various types of soils are given.

Table 2.1 : Approximate Ranges of Capillary Rise in Soils


Soil Type
CL~XSC sand

Range of Capillary Rise (m)


0.12-0.18 0.3-1.2 0.76-7.6 7.6-23

Find sand
Silt Clay

Soil Water Systcnl

Ciipillary moisture in fine sands and silts makes excavation possible, on account of the stability it imparts by virtue of the induced shearing suenglh (about shelring s ~ e n g 01 h soils, you will be reading in Unit 7). Such excavations are not possible, when dry conditions prevail, or, when the soils are under water table. However. il may be noted that U~ese capillary rninscuses disappear upon saturation, due to rainfall or by cvilporation. Thus, the stability of sands and silts is a temporary phenomenon, attributable to the presence of capillary water. Bulking in moist sands is another eifecl o l capi1l;lry water. Apparent, cohesion (about soil cohesion, you will be reading in Unit 7) is induced due to the presence of capillary ninscuses, that surround thc soil grains, due to which, soil particles are held together, especially when the soil mass is in a loose state. Saturation of soil destroys the menisci and causes appreciabie reduction in soil volume.

SAQ1
i)

ii) iii) iv)

Differentiate between held waler and free water. What is capillary water and what are the factors that influericc capillary rise in soils? What is apparent cohesion? What are the significant consequences of capillarity on soil behaviour?

2.3 FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOIL


2.3.1 Total Head and Pressure Head : Gradient
Flow of water can take place in soil through inter-connected void spaces, from a point of higher energy to that of lower energy. The study of flow of water Ulrough pervious inedia such as soil, becomes necessary in certain situations where it is required to cstir~lalc quantity of underground seepage and seepage that takes place through hydraulic struclures

datum

Figure 2.4: Pressure, Elevation and Tohl Head for Flow Through Soil

such as earth darns. According to well known Bernoulli's equation, the total head, it, at a point in the domain of seepage is given by the following expression :

in whicll, the l'irst term on right side of equation represents pressure head, lhe second term represents velocity head and the third term represents datum head. Thus, the parameters, y , v are pressure and velocity of water at the point and g and y, are acceleration due to gravity and unit weight of water respectively. In the domain, where scepage takes place through porous media such as soil, the velocity of seepage becomses small and, therefore, the velocity head becomes negligible. With this consideration, Equation 2.4 is reduced to lhc following form
e

Soil Water

In Figure 2.4, the meaning o f above equation is claril'ied. If piezometers are placed at two points, A and B, the level at which water rises WA/y,,, and pn/y,,), givts pressure heads at lhese points. Their datum heads arc ZA imd Zn and total head at Ulese points (tlAand /to) represents sun~miuion of above rcl'crred components. The loss of head, Ah, between points, A and B, is given as,

The head loss txcurs due to the rcsistimce of soil to flow of water iind if the head loss is divided by the distance, L, over which it occurs (Figure 2.4), a non-tlimensiond term, i, know11,as hydrilulic gradient, is ~btilineti.

When Wiitcr flows Lllrough iI pipe. there ilrc two types of Ilow conditio~is, ~ l a n e l y la~niniir , llow colidition illid tur'bulcnl llow co~itlition. In Ia~ninar flow cc;ndition, water particles I'ollow a well defined pill11 without iUly crossings. In turbulent flow conditions, pilths I'ollowed by wiitcl i W ill defined, with occurrcncc of crossings. It has been observed that Ihc velocity of flow is tlircctly proporlional to the 11ydraulic.gradient (Equation 2.7), in case or laminar flow. In turbulent !low condition, velocity of flow cl~iuigcs in magnitude iuid direction Sroni point lo poilit iuid is no longer dircctly proportional to the hydraulic grildicnt. 111Iiullini~r. Ilow coatlitions, Lhc rcsistaace tc~ Ilow is milinly due to viscosity of water, wilh bount1;uy conditions not hi~ving iuly sipnil'icancc, whereas, in turhulcnt Ilow conditions, Ulc boundilry c o n d i t i o ~ ~ become s more significimt. When lhc llow of wilter takes plilcc through soil, it is ~ i opossible t L o analyse the conditions ol'1lo;w in an illdividuill void Spiicc, for obvious rciisons. Only iln averilgc condition that prcvails, ci111be analyscd. Void spaces in nlost soils are usuillly very s~riall m d Ulis makes lhc flow contlition lan~ini~r.

2.3.2 Darcy's Law


Darcy (1856) proposed a silnplc ecluation for Ulc velocity of discharge of water Ulrough soils and it is as given hclow, v =k. i
...( 2-8)

in which, v , represents discharge velocity and is the anlount of water that flows in unit time, through a unit total cross-sectional ilrca of soil, with direction perpendicular to Ulat of flow, i, represcnts hydraulic gradient and k, is a constmt ol' proportionality, known colmnonly as pernicahility coefficient. As sccu from Ule above equation, it has dimensions of velocity. The above e q u a t i o ~ is~based on the observations made by Darcy in connection wiUl experiments on flow of water through clean silndq, w d , it is valid for a widc range of soils with laminar flow conditions. In Equation 2.8, v, represents Ule discharge velocity of water, based on total cross-sectional area of soil. However, the actual velocity of water or its seepage velocity, will be higher han v. BYreferring b Figure 2.5, a relation between discharge velocity, v, ilnd seepage velocity, V,, c;ul be obtained.

unit length

area ot void i n the crosss e c t i o n :A,


a r e a of soil solids in t h e cross -sectio

il~gure 2.5 : Dcriv:ttior~I

I ~

This figure shows ;I soil elen~enl of unit length, with ;I total cross-scctio~~al arcti of A. [t' lhc quantity of water that [lows througl~ the soil element in unit time is denoted iLS Q, then,

in which, A, represents the arca of voids in U I cross-section ~ of Lhe clement. The total iISCiI, A, of the cross-section of the element is the sum of area of voids, A, and tllc area of solids A,, Thus,

From Equalions 2.9 and 2.10, one obtains,

From Ule above equation and Equation 2.9, Vy,is given as, (A, +A,) v,,. =v
AV
= v(A, +A,) x

unit length ofelement A,, x unit lengLh of eleluent


...(2.11)

or,

v,y= v (v, + V,)/ v,,

in which, V,, represents volunle of voids and, V,, represents volu~ne of solids in the element. I1 is possible to write Equation 2.1 as,

wl~crc, c and n represent void ratio and porosity of Uie soil element. Tllus, Equation 2.12 distinguishes belween the velocities, v and V,. The velocity, v, is also referred iiS superficial velocily.

2 . 3 . 3 Validity of Darcy's Law


As given by Equation 2.8, Darcy's law is applicable fcr the conditions of laminar flow

Lhrough the pore spaces of soil. Sii~ce then, several sludies have been reported regarding Ihe range over which it is valid. A criterion using Reynold's number (Rn), has been suggcslecl as folIows.

In the above equation, v, is the discharge velocity (cdsec), D is average particle size (cm), p is Ule fluid (water) densily and ~r, [gmlcm. sec] is its viscosity. For laminar flow conditions in soils, it has been experimentally observed that,

The above condition is generally valid for sand, silt and clay. With coarse sands, gravels and boulders, turbulent flow may be expected.

2.3.4 Factors Influencing Permeability m e permeability of soil which rellects its resistance iu flow of water through it, depends upon such factors as grain size, void ratio, composition of soil particles, soil structure and temperature. In.respect of grain size, the following approximate formula is available, which expresses me dependence of permeability on grain sizc, for sands, with effective size, D10between 0.01 and 0.3 cm.

Soil Water

With increasing void ratio, Ihe permeability obviously increases because of lesser volume of solids. In case of sands and silts, conlpositioii of soil particles is not important, In case 01' soils that contain clay minerals, this becornes important. For these soils, permeability is related to the thickness of witter that adheres to the soil particles, which in tum is a hlnction of' cation exchange capacity. valence ol'dle cation etc. If other factors are idcnlica I, the cc,)efl'icient of permeability decreases with increasing thickness of the llifl'r~scd doublc liryer. Finc grxined soils which possess flocculitted suucture, exhibit higher coefficient of pcrllicirbilit~ as compared to the fine-grained soils with dispersed structure. This is (ul sxpsrimcntally observed phenomenon. For soils. the pernleiult or fluid Ulat flows through thcir structure is water, the viscosity of which is dependent on temperature, being lcss for higher tempernturc. The perrlleability is lcss li~r higher viscosities. It is, therefore, common practicc to record water tenlpcraturc during pcrlneitbility deterrrGnation and convert thc computed permeability valuc to stallditrd temperature of 27"C, with thc use of following expression,

whcrd, k7. ancl kZ7 arc permcitbility coefficients for temperature, C and 27' C ~esp~'ctiveIy and 1 1 . 1 . i\nd pa7 arc cot-rosponding viscosities of water. !';tble 2.2 givcs typicill vitlucs of coefficient ofpcrrllcrthility for various types of soils. Table 2.2 : Typicill Values of Permeability Coefficient

I
Pilie snntl, loosc

Soil Type

Coefficient of I'ermcability (cmlsec)

i
I

silt

lo-.5.-

lo-3
-0-5 10-"

Ilclisc slit, clayey silt


Silly c~;iy, c~:iy
!

SAQ 2
i) ii) iii) Explain what is d;~lum head and pressure head. Give two cxitmpl~s of situations where knowledge ofpcrmeability is required. What is Ule dirfercnce belween

a) seepage velocity and superficial velocity ?


iv) b) 1ikrnin;ur flow and lurbdenl flow ? Comment on the validily of Darcy's Iaw.

2.3.5 Measurement of Permeability in Laboratory


Two slandard laboratory procedures are available for the determination of coefficient of pcrmeabilily of soils,
a) the conscant head test, and b) falling head test.
The dcscriplion of these lests are given below.

a) Constant Head Test Typical test setup is shown in Figure 2.6. The water supply in the inlet of the soil sample is adjusted such U~at the head difference between the inlet and the outlet is maintained constant over Ule duration of the test. After ensuring constant rate of flow, it is collected in a graduated container for a known interval of time.

gradua fed

Figure 2.6 : Constant Head Permeability Test

The total volume of water (Q), that flows through the specimen, in time, t, is given as,

For, v, substitution from Equation 2.8 is made to give,

& = A . (k. i). t


where, A represents cross-sectional area of the soil sample. The hydraulic gradient, i, that appears in the above equation is obtained by dividing head difference, h, under which the flow takes place, by the length, L, of the soil sample as shown in Figure 2.6, i.e.,

Substitution of above equation in Equation 2.17 gives the following result,

from which,

Constant head tests are more suitable for coarse grained soils such as sands or silty sands, since it is possible to obtain me'asurable amount of discharge over a relatively shorter period of time.

Soil Watcr

In constant head permeability test, a soil sample 15 cm in diameter and 20 cm in length is tested. The drop from head water to tail water is 28 cm and water weighing 3.415 kN passes through the sample in 4 hours and 15 minutes. Find the permeability coefficient.
Solution

From the data, h = 28 cm and L = 20 cm / . 14 5~/4 = 176.7145 cm2 The area of sample, A = n . ~ ~ = n The weight of water that flows in 4 hours and 15 minutes is 3.415 kN and the corresponding volume, V, is, V = weight of water/unit weight of water (9.81 kPJ/m3)
= 3.415/9.81 = 0.3481 m3 = 0.3481 x 106cm3

Substituting above values in Equation 2.19, the permeability, k, is obtained. Time, t = 4 hours, 15 minutes = 255 x 60 seconds

b) Falling Head 'rest

The test arrangemnent for this kind of test is shown in Figure 2.7.

Figurc 2 . 7 1 Palling Head Test

There is a stat~dpipe through which water is allowed to flow through the soil sample. The test starts with recording of initial head difference, h l , that.causes flow, at time t = 0. With the continuing flow of water, this head difference decreases and at time t = t2 it is recorded as h2. During the progress of the test, the rate (&) a1 which water flows through the sample (length, L) a1 elaps& time, r, is given as,

in which for, v, subslitulion usirlg Darcy's law (Equation 2.8) can be made to give,

where, A represents cross-sectional area of sample, k is the coefficient of permeability and the gradient, i, at time, t, is given as h/L, corresponding to a head difference of h. The quantity of flow, Q, is also obtained, if the area of cross-section, a, of the standpipe is multiplied by the rate of fall of head, dhldt, which represents the velocity of flow at time, r. Thus, The presence of negative sign in the above equalion indicates decrease of head difference with time, and equating the expressions as given by Equalions.2.20 and 2.21, the following result is obtained.

Integration of above expression with limits 0 tot for t and hi and h2 for 11, can be performed to yield the following result.

The falling head permeability lest is more appropriate for fine-grained soils with low permeability, since it is based on head loss rather than quantity of dischzge. A measurable , unduly long time, while a measurable head loss in the amount of discharge requires m small diameter stand pipe takes very little time. Example 2.2
A sample of clay has cross-sectional area of 80 cm2 and a length of 5 cm, is subjected to falling head permeability test. The area of standpipe is 0.55 cm 2 and during the test, head dropped from 78 cm to 38 cm in 1 hour and 25 minutes. Compute the permeability coefficient.

Solution
Thc relevant equation is Equation 2.23.

From the data, a = 0.55cm2, L= 5 cm, A = 80 cm2, t = 1 hour, 25 minutes = 85 x 60 sec, hl =78cmandh2=38cm Substituting the values, permeability, k, is calculated as,

2.3.6 Measurement of Permeability in the Field


Pumping Test

Field tests are more reliable than laboratory lests particularly in situatiohs where flow take place through sandy deposits, in which case, it becomes difficult to obtain the undisturbed samples. In field tests, the sample is large oil mass, with nzinimum dislurbance and the effects of local variations are averaged out.

shown in Figure 2.8, a test well is bored in the field, with a perforated casing, upto illlpervious stratum. If impervious stratum is not encountered, the boring is taken to a rr.eaterdepth. The size and spacing of the perforations should be such that there will be no lime lag between the entry of water into the bored well and its arrival near it.
AS

Soil Water

Additional wells, known as observation wells, are bored into the soil deposit at various ra(Jia1distances from the test well and provided with perforated casing, as shown in Fipure 2.8. The test is started by initial recording of water table level in the test well and ohscrvation wells. Water is then punlped out at uniform rate from the test well and it is colltinued until steady conditions are reached. The condition of a steady state is indicated wherl the water level in all the bored wells renlains constant. The data that is collected, includes steady rate of discharge as rneasured from Ule test well, the radial distances to the ohsorvation wells as measured fronl Ule test well and drop in elevation at each well (refer Figure 2.8).

own d r a w d o w n curv

'layer
Figure 2.8 : Field Pcrnlcabilily Tc%t

At steady state conditions, a zone of intluence appears around test well ns shown in Figure 2.8. Its shape is approxi~nated to that of an inverted hyperbolic cone. The flow of water to thc tcst well can be corlsidcrcd as radial, since it comes fro111all the directions. At a radial distance, r, as shown in the figure, Ule hcad is, h, and since it varies with r, Ule hydraulic gradieril will be, dlddr. The areal extent of soil over which Ule water approaches Ule test well is cqual to that of a cylindrical s u r k c of radius, r, and height, h , that is, 2.7c.r.lt.Thus, the anlount of water L), Ulat flows into the test well in unit time is,

The limits of integration for r are rl and r2, which are the radial distances of two observation wells and correspondirlg limits for It are hl and h2 (Figure 2.8). WiUl these limits, the hllowinp integrations can be performed.

frorn which, Ule permeabilily, k, is expressed as,

Example 2 . 3

In a Field permeability test steady state condition is reached under a pumping rate ol 7870 cm3/ sec from the test well (Figure 2.8). The test well bored upto impervious stratum and elcvations of water level at the observation wells, A and B, are 10.40 m and 10.49 m respectively, the radial distances of these wells from the test well are 20 nl and 33 m respectively from the test well. Compute the permeability coefficient of the deposit. Solution
From Equation 2.25, the permeability coefficient, k, is given as,

where,
Q = 7870 cm3/sec, h l = 10.49 m = 1049 cm, h;!= 10.40 m = 1040 cm,

rl = 33 m= 3300 cm and r2= 20m = 2000 cm


Substituting the above values.
7870
7c ( 1 0 4 9 ~

k=

10402)

3300 - 0.06672 cm&c log, 2000

2.4 EFFECTIVE STRESS CONCEPT


2.4.1 Intergranular Stress, Total Stress and Pore Water Pressure Soil is ari assemblage of solid particles with the enclosure of continuous void spaces.
These void spaces contain in general, water and air. Volumetric changes in the soil skeleton will occur when loads are applied and these volulnetric changes are attributed to the rearrangenlent of solid particles, primarily by sliding and rolling wilh respect to each other. For a fully saturated soil, it may be realized that water is incompressible and therefore, volunletric changes are possible, if water escapes from the void spaces. For a soil skeleton that contains both air and water, volumetric change will take place by the compression of air in the voids. In this context it may be noted that shelv stresses (about shear stresses, you will be reading in Unit 7) will be resisted only by the solid particles with stresses that are developed at heir conlacts. The normal stresses are resisted by soil skeleton, again, through the particle contacl and in case OF a fully saturated soil, normal stresses are also carried by water, with an increase in its pressure which is referred to as pore water pressure. Thc concept of intergranular pressures (or stresses) and pore water pressure in a soil skeleton can be explained further in a more lucid manner by referring to Figure 2.9 (a).
IQ
rigid plate

Figure 2.9 : Concept of Intergranular Stress and Total Stress for a Dry Soil

The figure shows a container filled with dry soil. Load, Q, that is applied through a water-tight piston, is transnlitted.to the soil grains through their contacts and this induces compression in the soil skeleton. This compression can have two componenls, one being elastic compression of the grains themselves at their points of conlact and the other being

sliding and rolling between the grains. For level, XX, shown in the above referred figure, the average vertical stress, o,,, is given as,

Soil Water

~t may be realized that lhe actual stresses that exist at grain contacts are relatively high.

The chosen plane, XX,does not necessuily pass through all contact points and quite a few grains will be cut by this plane as shown in Figure 2.9 (b). In reality, the plane or surface (xrXr),that cuts through points of contact only, will appear in a wavy form. However, from practical point of view, it is convenient to use the average stress. This stress brings about deformations or volume changes in the soil mass and is referred as intergranular or effective stress, or. Therefore, it is possible to write,

It may be realized that in the above discussion, self weight of the soil was not considerd. Self weight of soil also induces stresses in the soil skeleton and these stresses ccmbe calculated and added to the stress as indicated by Equation 2.27. If, y, is t;~ken as soil unit weight, the total weight of soil hat lies above plane XX (Figure 2.9(a)), is yZ4, where, 2, being the depth of plane, XX, as shown in the figure. Therefore, the stress, a", at any point on plane, XX, due to self weight of soil is,

a" = Y E = yz
.A
The above referred stress is also an intergranular or effective stress and the total intergranular stress, o,, on the plane, XX, now can be written as,

...(2.28)

An examination of expressioll as given by Equation 2.28 shows that in a dry soiI mass, tile stress at any point on pl'mule, XXsitunted at depth, 2, below the ground surface (Figure 2.10 (a)) is simply obtained as the product of soil unit weight and the depth, 2 . Terzaghi (1943) referred to this stress as effective stress and for a dry soil, he also referred to it as total stress. Thus, total stress and effective stress carry the same meaning when dry conditions prevail, Wile11there is a presence of water table in the ground, tile total stress at a point lias two components, one being the intergranular stress and otlier being the stress or pressure that is preseyt in pore water. n ~ e s stresses e can bc calculated by referring to Figure 2.10 (b), in which the presence of water table is sllown at a depth of Z1, below ground level. A plane, XX,is considered at depth &, below lhe water table and it is required to calculate the total a , ) and pore water pressure (u) on this plane. stress (o),effective stress(
b

z l

s o i l unit weight ,Y

l1

x-,,,

- - A----.---a

soil unit weight, Y

f --( b)

"--GUT ' 8

I I I i

'j
'I

x-----.---t,---,x
saturated soil unit weight= Y sat

,1

I!
il
I

Figure 2.10 : Concept of Totnl Strcss, Effective (Intergranular) Stress nndPore Wnter Pressure

1i '1
I

I\

Above the water table, the unit weight of soil is y, and below tlle water table, its saturated unit weight, y,&, is considered. The total stress, 0 , as per h e definition given earlier, is givcn as, ...(2.30) (J = yZI I - y s Q t . q= G e + U

Stnl Water System

Below the water table, the weight of soil grains is reduced due to buoyancy effect of water and there will be an effective unit weight (y ') of soil which is given as,

where,

y ' represents unit weight of water.

Since, y', represent.; actual or effective unit weight of soil below water, the stress calculated using this quantity will obviously be the effective stress and thus on the plane, XX, that has been considered, the effective stress, a,, is given as,

From Equations 2.30 and 2.31, the pore pressure, u, is therefore given as,

= Yw. Z2 ...(2.33) and it is equal to the product of depth, 22, of plane, XX, below water table and the unit weight of water.

Example 2.4 The profile o f a soil deposit is shown in Figure 2.1 1 (a), in which there is a 4 m thick sand layer, underlain by clay layer, the water table is present at a deyth of 2 rn from ground level. Above water table, the unit weight of sand is 17 kN/m' and bclow water table, its saturated unit weight is 19.81 k~/m! m e saturated unit weight of clay is 16.91 k ~ l r n ' . Draw the variation of effective stress, pore water pcessure and total stress upto a depth of 7 m. Ignore capillary effects. Take unit weight of water (y,,.), as 0.81

~NIJ.

clay

c PI

6i k ~ l r n ~ )

Fiqure 2.11 : Figure for Example 2 4

Solution

Upto a depth of 2 m from ground, since there is no presence of water, the pore waler pressure will be zero and the total stress will be equal to effective stress. i) Thus, at depth, 2 m, from GL, a = a, = y, Z with = 17 k ~ / ~ n % d Z = 2 ~ n o , = a, = 17 x 2 = 34 kN/m 2 ii) At depth, 4 m, from GL, the total stress will include component of pore water pressure and U~ese stresses are calculated as given below. Total stress, ct = y, Z1+ ysal (sand) . f i with y = 17kN/m3, 21 = 2 m , ySal=19.81 k ~ / r nand ~ Z 2 = 2 m , (Z1+Z2=4sn) Total stress, o = 17 x 2 + 19,81 x 2 = 34 + 39.62 = 73.62 kN/rn2 a1 h e above referred depth, pore water pressure will be due to 2 m (Z2)water depth and is given as,
I

Therefore, at depth, 4 rn from GL, the effective stress o,, is given as,

Soil Water

iii)

At depth, 7 m from GL, the total stress, a,is given as,

a = y.2 1 + ysat (sand). &7 + ysat(clay)


with
y = 17kN/m3. ZI = 2m,

23

= 19.81 kN/m3, y,(clay) = 16.91 kN/m3

and

Z3=3m,(Z1+Z2+Z3=7m)

o = 17 x 2 + 19.81 x 2 + 16.91 x 3 = 34 + 39.62 + 50.73 = 124.35 kN/m2

at 7 m depth, pore water pressure will be due to 5 m (&7 + Z3) water depth, and is given as,

ruld Ihc corresponding effective stress, o , , is,

In Figure 2.11 (b), (c) and (d), the variations of these stresses are shown. The linearity is due to the fact thiit they are directly proportional to the depth.
Example 2.5
11' water table goes upto ground level in Figure 2.1 1(a), what will be the

cfl'ective stress at depth 7 nl ? Solution In this case, since the w;itcr table is now at ground level, the whole deposit will be submerged in water. Alternatively Equation 2.32 can be used to calculate tlie cl'l'eclive slress, using Ule elkctive unit weight, ?/,oC soil.

?/(clay)= ysat(clily) - ,y , = 16.91 - 9.81 = 7.10 k ~ / n l " Thus, the required effective stress, a,, is given as,
o, = ?/(sxld).ZI+ ?/(clay).Z7

'The above value is s~nallcr as compared to the earlier value in Exa~nple 2.4, for the samc depth. What will be the efrective stress at depth 7 m (Figure 2.1 l(a)), if the water table gocs down by I m? Solution Even though water table goes tlown by 1 m,the soil in that zone remains saturated (and Illerefore, Ulc total stresses will remain salnc as per calculations made in Example 2.4. The pore pressure will hawever change and accordingly the efreclive slress. Thus, thc total stress at dcpth, 7 m, l'ro~n GL, is given as (Example 2.4), The pore pressure, u,at this deplll, will correspond to a water depth of 4 m.

u = 4 x 9.81 = 39.24 kN/m2


And the effective stress, a,, will be as given below:

a ,= o - u = 124.35 - 39.24 = 85.11 kN/m2

Soil Water Systcn~

Thc above value is more as compared to the value computed in Example 2.4, for the same depth.
Example 2.7

For soil profile shown in Figure 2.12 (a), what are the values of effective stress at depths 1 m, 3 m and 5 m ? The soil is completely saturated by capillary between water table and ground surface. The saturated unit of soil is 19.81 kN/m3.

eapIIIary saturation

- --- - - - s y . 2
' . . a

Figure 2.12: pgure for Example 2 7

Solution

i)

Depth 1 m f ~ o m GL Total stress, o, remains same, irrespective of the process of soil saturation, i.e., by gravity flow of water of by capillary effect. Therefore, o = 19.81 x 1.O= 19.81 kN/m2 Since capillary fringe is present between water table and ground surface, negative pore pressure exists there (refer Figure 2.3) and its value is given as,
with, h = 1 r n and y, = 9.81 kbI/m3, u = - 9.81 lcN/m2

And the effective stress,

oe= o - u - 19.81 - (- 9.81)= 29.62 k.N/rn2


ii) Depth 3 m from GL Total stress, o = ysd - Z (y,, = 19.81 k ~ / m Z ~= , 3 m) = 19.81 x 3.0= 59.43 kN/m2 Pore water pressure, u = y,, Z ( y , = 9.81 kN/m3,
= 9.81 x 1.0 = 9.81 kN/rn2 And the effective stress, oe= 59.43 - 9.81 = 49.62 lcN/m2
= 1 m)

iii)

Depth, 5 m from GL Total stress, o = 19.81 x 5 = 99.05 k ~ / m ~ Pore water pressure, u = 9.81 x 3 = 29.43 kN/m'.
And the effective stress, o,= 99.05 - 29.43= 69.62 k N h 2

To plot the variations of above stresses, it is necessary to calculate their values at ground level. Accordingly, at GL, total stress, o = 0,O and pore pressure, u =,- 2 x 9.81 (Figure 2.3)

And the effective syress, a , = 0 - (- 19.62) = 19.62 k ~ / r n ~ In Figure 2.12 (b), (c) and (d), variations of these stresses with depth are shown.

2.4.2 Influence of Pore Water Pressure on Soil Behaviour


To explain the influence of pore water pressure on soil behaviour, soil placed in a container as shown in Figure 2.13 can be considered, in which, water lcvel touches the base of piston, thus making the soil fully saturated and submerged. If a plane. XX, is considered at a depth, Z, as shown in the figure, the total stress, o,on it will be given as

stress, o , and pore water pressure, u, will be given as, Similarly, the eff ~fctive

and

f
X

water level
X

i-

con taine r

Figure 2.13: Influence of Pore Water Prcssurc on Soil Bchnviour

The pore pressure as given by Equation 2.36 is also referred to as static wabr pressure. to increasing total When an external load, Q, is applied as shown in Ule figure, it amou~lts vertical stress in Ule soil on any plane, by UIC quantity, Q/A, where,A, represents cross-sectional area of the container. The induction of this stress results into soil particles inunedialely trying to seek new orienlations so as to corne in closer contact, which would eventyally cause an illcrease in the intergranular or effective stress. However, water being incompressible, no reorientation of soil particles is possible urlless water escapes from the soil pores. Thus, due to incompressibility ol'water, as soon as the extenla1 load is applied, it is taken increases the pressure in water above ils static value and this first by water itself and U~is induced pore water pressure due to exten1111loading is referred lo as excess hydrostatic pressure. In Figure 2.13, a valve attached to the piston is shown. If Ulis valvc is kept closed after the external load application, there is no way for water to escape and the cxcess hydrostatic pressure in water carnot dissipate. For Ulis dondition, the total stress, o on the plae, XX, is as given below.

, , and pore water pressure, u, will be as given below. Similarly, Ule effective stress, o

and,

. ..(2.38)

If the valve (Figure 2.13) is now opened, the drainage of water will take place through this opening and this gives frcedom to the soil particles to seek new positions and this causes increase in the effective or intergranular stress. I11 other words, it means that the escape of water is followed by the dissipation of excess hydrostatic pressure in water, with sd1

Soil Water System

particles coming in closer contact and thus increasing the effective stress and reducing the volume of soil skeleton. When the dissipation of excess hydrostatic pressure is complete, the flow of water stops from the open valve and the applied load gets fully converted into effective stress from its initial state of hydrostatic pore water pressure. As a result of closer contact of its particles, the soil eventually gains more strength.

SAQ 3
i) ii) iii) iv) Mention the laboratory methods of soil permeability determination and explain why each one is suitable for a particular type of soil. Explain the advantages of field permeability tests. Explain clearly what is effective stress, pore water pressure and total stress. What will be the effect of variation of ground water table on the effective stress 1

2.5

SUMMARY

In this unit various states of ground water such as held water, free water, and capillary water are discussed. Significance of capillary water is explained. With respect to flow of water in soil, Darcy's law is introduced and its validity is discussed. Laboratory and field methods of soil permeability determination are outlined and the importance of soil permeability in respect of earth structures is highlighted. Finally, the concept of effective stress is introduced and its significance with respect to soil behaviour is discussed.

2 . 6 KEYWORDS
Held Water
:

Natural soils always contain some water. If particles of colloidal size are considered, water is present in the form of a film around these particles. This film is held in place by the force of adsorption and it is hown as adsorbed film. The water is called held water. Water surrounding the adsorbed film and not held by the force of adsorption is called free water and it is free to move and fill the voids. The physical properties of this water are different from those of held water and it is this water which determines the physical properties of soil. Capillary water is that water which is drawn by so11from the ground water table by capillary action. The interconnected pores in the soil act as.capillary tubes and water rises through them due to surface tension. The height to which water rises due to capillary action is called capillary rise. The zone in the soil stratum which is moistened by capillary rise is known as capillary fringe. The menisci formed by the capillary water in the capillary pores of the soil are h o w n as capillary meniscuss. Saturation of soil destroys the meniscuss. The cohesion imparted to the soil due to the capillary menisci surrounding the particles is h o w n as apparent cohesion. This leads to temporary strength which is destroyed when the soil is saturated due to rain or when the capillary water evaporates. Flow of water takes place in soil through inter-connected void spaces from a point of higher energy to that of lower energy. The total energy expressed in terms of equivalent head of water consists of three components, according to Bernoulli. Datum

Free Water

Capillary Water

Capillary Fringe

Capillary Meniscuss Apparent Cohesion

Datum Head

head at a point is the potential energy in the WilLcr by virtue of its elevation above a stipulated datum. It is expressed in terms of equivalent head of water as the elevation of the point above the datum. Pressure Head
:

This is another component of the total head arising due to the pressure in the water. This is expressed in terms of equivalent head as the pressure in water divided by the unit weight of water. This is also a component of total head and is due to the kinetic energy in water. 'Ihis is expressed in terms of equivalent head as U1$ kinetic energy divided by unit weight of water and is equal to (v'I2g). n ~ velocities e of flow in water are usually small and the velocity head is usually negligible. In laminar flow conditions water particles follow a well defined path without crossings. The velocity of flow is directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient. The resistance to flow is mainly due to viscosity of water and does not depend on boundary conditions of flow. In turbulent flow conditions paths followed by water are ill-defined with occurrence of crossings. Velocity of flow chlmulges in magnitude and direction from point to point and is not proportional to the hydraulic gradient. The boundary condition of x 1 important role. flow play 1 In 1856, Darcy proposed that the velocity of flow of water through soil is proportional to thc hydraulic gradient. He gave a si~nplc relation between them as v = ki, where velocity v is the amount of water Ulat flows in unit time across unit cross-sectional area of soil perpendicular to the flow: k is the constant of proportionality having units o l velocity and known as the cocfficient of permeability: i is the hydraulic gradient equal tc the difference in total head per unit length of flow path. This law is valued under lanlinar [low co~lditions. This rrlay be defined as a measure of the resistance of soil to tlow of watlsr Ihrough it. It dcpcnds on grain size,, void ratio. composition of s:il particles, soil structure and temperature. This is thc gradient causing tlow of water and is equal to the difference in total head per unit Icngth of llow path. This is the velocity of flow through soil reckoned based on the total cross-sectional area of Ihe soil including h a t of solids. Since actual flow takes place only through the voids this is known as superficial velocity. Darcy's law is applicabll: under conditions of laminar flow through pores of the soil. Studies related to range of validity of the law have yielded a criterion based on Reynold's number. By analogy to flaw through pipes this number is expressed as Rn = v D plo, where v is Ule discharge velocity, D is average particle size, p is density of the fluid and o is viscosity.

Velocity Bead

Laminar Flow

Turbulent Flow

Darcy's Law

Permeability

Hydraulic Gradient Superficial Velocity

Reynold's Number :

Total Stress

The total normal sttess acting on any section of a soil is known as total stress. The plane over which the stress acts passes through the contacts between the grains ilnd is wavy. But, for convenience,, the average plane passing through the entire soil including the grains is used, The stress in a dry soil is resisted by the solid grains through particle to particle contact. In a saturated or partly saturated soil it is resisted by the soil skeleton consisting of both the grairis and the water. The total stress is equal to the sum of the components carried by the grains and the water.
The component of total stress, which is carried by water is called the pore water pressure. It is also referred to as the neutral

Pore water Pressure

Effective or

Intergranular
Pressure

pressure, since it does not contribute to resistance to shear stresses. The component of total stress carried by the solids through grain to grain contact is known as intergranular pressure. It is also known as the effective pressure since it is effective in resisting shear stresses which tend to dislodge the particles along their contacts.

2 . 7 ANSWERS TO SAQs
i) The moisture film adsorbed by fine soil particles is held water (Figure 2.1). This has two parts - first being solidified water which is closest to the soil particle and second being highly viscous water that surrounds the solidified water and also called, cohesive water. Surrounding the cohesive water there is water that fills the soil voids and it is called free water. Capillary water is that water which is present in soil above ground water table. Soil in capillary zone is fully or partially saturated and there exists a negative pore pressure in this zone. As indicated by Equation 2.2, the height of capillary rise depends on the size of the particle void. Therefore, in fine-grained soils, the capillary rise is more and the relationship between height of capillary rise and effective particle size of soil is indicated by Equation 2.3. Apparent cohesion is a phenomenon that is present in moist sands. The negative pore pressure that are present in the capillaries cause suction effect and this suction effect imparts cohesion to the particles and they hold the~nselves together. This cohcsion is lost when the soil sets saturated. Capillary moisture in sands and soils makes excavation in these soils possible, on account of apparent cohesion or shearing strength that is induced due to capillary effect. On a moist sand it is easier to walk as compared to dry sand. This is also due to apparent cohesion induced by capillary water.

ii)

iii)

iv)

SAQ 2

In the domain of seepage, datum head at a point refers to the elevatioi~ of the point above a chosen datum. Pressure head refers to the height to which water rises with the insertion of a peizometric lube at the point. ii) Knowledge of soil permeability is required for estimating the quantity of seepage through and underneath the hydraulic structures such as earth dams and in consolidation and settlement analysis of soil, as you will see in Unit 6. iii) a) Any cross-section of soil mass across which seepage occurs is composed of voids and soils and the superficial velocity of water is simply the amount of flow per second through the cross-section divided by its total arp. Whereas the seepage velocity is obtained from Equation 2.12, that is by dividing the superficial velocity. b) In hydraulics, there are two types of flow conditions. In laminar flow, each particle of water follows a definite path and all such paths are parallel to each other. Whereas in turbulent flow condition, the paths followed by water are ill-defined and random, with crossings.
i) iv) Darcy's law which gives a relationship between velocity of flow and hydraulic gradient, is based upon the assumption of laminar flow conditions in soil. On the basis of several experimental studies, it has been shown that the Reynold's number, Rn,as given by Equation 2.14, should be less than one, for laminar flow conditions and this is satisfied in most cases. There are two laboratory methods for soil permeability determination constant head permeability test and variable head permeability test. The constant head test is appropriate for coarse-grained soils and such as sands or

SAQ 3 i)

silty sands, since i t is possible to measure the amount of water that flows through the sample in a relatively short time. test is appropriate for fine-grained soils such The variable head per~neability as clays, since head loss even in a short-time will be measurable enough, thus permitling number of observations to be taken. There is no need of measuring the discharge which will be very small in any case.
ii)

iii)

The field permeability tcst is more adv~mtageous since a large volume of soil mass is involved and its behaviour is studied in situ without causing any disturbance. Thus, the results give a better representation of soil properly. The effective stress is defined as the stress that develops when any load, external or self weight, is resisted through interparticle contacts. This is called intergranular stress. For a dry soil the intergranular stress is same as total stress. The component, pore water pressure, comcs into play whcn soil is submerged undcr water. Consider for tlle sake of simplicity that waler table is at ground Icvel. Thcn the effective stress at m y point in the soil lnnss wrll be obtained. by the product of effective (submerged) unit weight of soil and depth of the point below ground level. The corresponding pore water pressure is equivalent to the depth of water at h a t point and Lhe sum of these two clumtities will give total stress. The uriit weight of soil above water table is more than its subnwrged or effcctive unit weight. If a point below water table is considcrcd, Uierc will bc reduction in effective stress at this point, if water table approaches ground surface and the result will he opposite whcn water table goes further down.

iv)

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