NDT in the field weld inspection

How to inspect pipeline girth welds and what to inspect for: choice between ultrasonic testing and radiography.

10.6.1 AUT inspection technique on pipelines

Application of automated ultrasonic testing on pipeline welds is advancing rapidly through new innovations in AUT technology. AUT is replacing radiographic inspection techniques as the industry standard for inspection of pipeline welding and is recognized as the quickest, most reliable and beneficial weld testing method available.

10.6.1.1 AUT Inspection Principle

Pipeline AUT uses fully automated ultrasonic equipment travelling circumferentially around the pipe girth weld on a welding (guide) band in a linear scan, with the array pulsing to cover all the weld zones. An electric motor drives the scanner and an encoder measures positions around the circumference. The vertical cross-section of the weld is divided into approximately equal sections (zones,) with the height of each zone roughly equal to the height of a single welding pass. Each zone is assessed by a pair of ultrasonic search units (probes) on either side of the weld, the total of these ultrasonic search units called an array. The probe array is in a fixed position with respect to the weld centreline, resulting in a series of pulse-echo probes with their beams positioned to intersect the weld bevel centred on each vertical zone. To ensure that the ultrasound energy and reflected signals are transferred from the probe to the pipe surface, water is used as a couplant or in freezing climates; a water methanol mix is used. The ultrasonic information from the scanner / probe array is transferred to a computer through an umbilical cable. The computer is used for data presentation and analysis and is housed inside a 4WD vehicle. A trained ultrasonic technician / operator evaluates the returning data and assesses the results. The display consists of multiple strip charts where each strip represents a specific zone on either side of the weld. Each strip displays both signal amplitude and also the time-in-the-gate for defect location in the weld. This allows more accurate interpretation as to the vertical height of a flaw or indication and its position within the weld, whether lack of fusion on the weld bevel or a volumetric type flaw within the weld body. To establish a reference point as to the start of the weld bevel and be able to assess the vertical height of an indication, the system is calibrated on a calibration block made out of identical pipe material using surface notches and/or side-drilled holes to represent weld imperfections on the weld fusion line, each zone having a dedicated reflector. For each pipe diameter, wall thickness and weld bevel design a specific project specific calibration block is used. Step by step AUT inspection After weld bevel preparation and prior to fit-up/welding, a scribe line is put on the pipe end to be used as a reference line for the position of the guide band relative to the weld centreline. After welding, the OD surface on both sides of the weld is cleaned of weld splatter to allow proper coupling of the ultrasonic probes to the pipe surface. The weld is identified and marked with a unique number prior to inspection. The zero point, (usually top centre,) and the direction of the scan are clearly marked on the pipe.

The guide band is placed around the pipe using the scribed line as a reference for exact position in relation to the weld centreline. A calibration on the cal block is performed to establish the start of the weld bevel and the required inspection sensitivity. The scanner is placed on the guide band, at the zero datum point described in point 4. A scan is performed over the entire weld circumference using the unique weld ID number for weld identification and as part of the filename. Evaluation is performed in real time as the scanner moves around the circumference of the pipe. Data is stored immediately following final evaluation and determination as to weld acceptability dependant on client specification or code. Rejectable welds are documented and can be reported immediately following the weld scan. Defects are identified in the data file and file is stored. During data analysis by the ultrasonic technician, the scanner technician will remove the scanner and guide band, and prepare for the next weld or calibration as required.

10.6.1.2 Applications
10.6.1.2.1 Onshore Mainline This is usually a 4 man crew able to scan up to 200 welds in a 12 hour working day; smaller crews may be applied when production rates are lower. Welders are provided with immediate results due to the AUT crew being able to remain approximately 3 to 5 welds behind the capping crew. When automatic welding is used process control is a key factor with this near instant feedback with results which assists in keeping the repair rate as low as possible. Furthermore with the ability to size flaws vertically, relative to height and depth, an ECA may be applied to further reduce unnecessary repairs. The inspection cycle involves mounting the scanner, scanning, analysing, removing the scanner and driving to the next weld. This can usually be performed in around four (4) minutes on large bore pipes up to 42" or larger diameter pipe.

10.6.1.2.2 Onshore Tie-ins

This consists of a 2 man crew able to scan as many as 20 to 30 welds per day dependant on accessibility of the welds, geographic location and diameter. Tie-ins are manual welds that are only accessible on the outer diameter (OD) of the pipe and where results are desired immediately due to open excavations that could need to be closed as soon as possible. The crew is generally able to provide results immediately on final completion of the weld scan as opposed to the long exposures and development times needed for a radiographic tie-in crew.

10.6.1.3 Advantages of AUT as opposed to Radiographic inspection

Engineered critical assessment (ECA) criteria vs. a good workmanship criteria can be applied which can avoid unnecessary repairs, due to zonal discrimination and the ability to size flaw height and depth. Process control can be applied with far more accuracy as to the nature and cause of the imperfection and with quicker feedback to the welding crew. Higher probability of detection. Weld to weld inspections generally of 5 minutes or less. No radiation hazards reduced HSE issues. Real-time and computer-aided analysis increases productivity and accuracy. All digital data archived electronically eliminating the need for huge filing and archiving rooms to store film.

Digital data archiving allow emailing of weld scans to allow next day assessment by clients or project management and audit. The AUT systems are deployed on the OD of the pipe only as compared to a radiographic crawler which must enter the ID of the pipe. This avoids possible delays due to crawlers being stuck, as well as time spent with crawler battery changes each shift.

10.6.2 Radiography inspection technique on pipelines

Application of radiographic approach to inspect pipelines was the preferred inspection method in the past until the arrival of ultrasonic inspection technique. It is however doubtful that automated UT will ever supplant radiography due to the relative simple application and relative low cost.

10.6.2.1 Inspection Principle

A source of radiation is placed on one side of the pipe and a recording medium (film) is placed on the other side. It is based on the ability of X-rays and gamma rays to pass through metal to obtain photographic records of the transmitted radiant energy. All materials will absorb known amounts of this radiant energy and, therefore, X-rays and gamma rays can be used to show discontinuities and inclusions. As the X-ray absorption coefficient depends strongly on material density, radiography is particularly effective at detecting volumetric defects, which have either extra mass or less mass (such as porosity or slag inclusions).Thus, the radiation that reaches the film in a potential flaw area is different from the amount that impinges on the adjacent areas. This produces on the film a latent image of the flaw that, when the film is developed, can be seen as an indication of different photographic density from that of the image of the surrounding material. Digital Radiography is one of the newest forms of radiographic imaging. Since no film is required, digital radiographic images are captured using special phosphor screens containing micro-electronic sensors. Captured images can be digitally enhanced for increased detail and are easily archived as they are digital files. Real-Time Radiography (RTR): is the latest application for inspecting pipelines that allows electronic images to be captured and viewed in real time allowing cycle times of 4 minutes or less like AUT. Step by step radiographic inspection Weld will be identified by client with a unique number prior to inspection. Surface area will be cleaned to avoid masking of any imperfections. Zero point and direction of scan will be clearly marked on pipe. Location markers shall be placed around the pipe for circumferential reference Films shall be clearly identified by lead numbers, letters or flash cards, or any other method foridentification Film is placed in the desired location A source of radiation is put in place and activated for a set time Radiation is shut down and film is removed Film is developed in a dark room and evaluated for film quality and weld imperfections Film is stored immediately Rejectable welds are documented and can be reported immediately

10.6.2.2 Application
10.6.2.2.1 Onshore Mainline

This is usually a 4 man crew using an internal crawler; smaller crews may be applied when production rates are lower. The X-Ray Crawler is similar to conventional radiography however an x-ray source tube on a crawler device is run inside the pipe to each weld. Film is wrapped around the welds and the source tube is excited. The film is then developed in a mobile dark-room on location. The technique is quick and can inspect on average 150 welds per day. The advantages of x-ray crawlers are their speed and the short exposure time. The quality of the image is far better due to the x-rays passing through less material compared to conventional radiography. The disadvantages are that the tool must be run into the pipe and the testing must be performed a significant distance from the welding crews for radiation safety and the potential risk of risk of crawlers being stuck in the pipe. 10.6.2.2.2 Onshore Tie-ins This consists of a 2 man crew able to inspect up to 15 welds per day depending on diameter, wall thickness and accessibility of the welds. Tie-ins are manual welds that are only accessible on the OD of the pipe. The xray film is placed on the external surface of the pipe section to be inspected and the x ray source is placed against the pipe wall on the opposite side. This way, the section of the weld joint is radiographed through two walls. Multiple exposures are needed to cover the entire circumference of the pipe that may result in a relative long period of time before the weld quality can be evaluated.

10.6.2.3 Advantages opposed to AUT inspection

More sensitive at detecting volumetric imperfections Less coating cut back required Able to inspect materials that are not suitable for ultrasonic inspection Able to deal with relatively large wall thickness variations Requires no dedicated calibration or reference blocks resulting in less preparation tim