COMPUTER-AIDED PROCESS DESIGN AND SIMULATION FOR FORGING OF TURBINE BLADES Dr. Nuri Akgerman, Principle Scientist Mr.

David J. Kasik, Analyst Battelle's Columbus Laboratories 505 King Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43201 (614)299-3151 ABSTRACT Turbine and compressor blades for jet engines and gas turbines are forged from highstrength alloys and require close control of the process parameters. The design and manufacture of the dies require particular attention, for they impart their geometry to the final product. For precision forging, the die surface must be corrected for local elastic deflections and thermal shrinkage. Considering turbine blades as a geometric family, a system of programs was developed to aid in forging process design. Given data on the configuration of the blade, the material properties and the forging conditions, this system of programs calculates (a) the optimum forging plane to minimize lateral forces, (b) the required stock volume and weight, (c) the forging load and the torque on the dies, (d) the optimum flash dimensions for uniform metal flow, (e) the average temperature of the blade during forging and (f) the local stresses and elastic deflections during forging. A simulation of the process aids in preform design and in minimization of flash losses by determining the proper position of the preform in the die. This system of programs requires the ability to visualize the forging die to facilitate the design process. Computer graphics has been used in two phases to aid this visualization; first, in the design of the dies using the system and second, in explaining its capabilities to others. The first phase relies on the use of interactive graphics techniques to provide information about the die, which includes representations of (a) the preform determined by the programs, (b) the cutter paths necessary to cut the part, a n d (c) the die itself. Interactive graphics allows the user to make decisions and modify his design rapidly. The second phase uses motion picture techniques to present the findings of this project. Computer animation has been added to conventional techniques to help audiences conceptualize the forging process. The animation allows the audience to view the process in slow motion by illustrating metal flow behavior and the variations of die stresses during forging. This technique has proved to be successful in demonstrafing the capabilities of the system to a wide range of audiences. INTRODUCTION The needs of industrial nations for electrical power and for modern air, land, and sea transportation increases steadily. Consequently, more powerful and more efficient energy conversions systems, specifically steam turbines, jet engines, and stationary gas turbines are required in ever increasing quantities. Thus, extremely large quantities of blades of various geometries must be produced from various materials. A large number of these blades are either forged with an envelope, or they are precision forged. In a precision forged blade, the airfoil surface is not machined after forging; thus, the fiber structure is maintained and improved fatigue, corrosion and erosion properties are obtained. (I) In using precision forged blades, machining is reduced to a minimum. Therefore, savings are made fn stock material, and it is not necessary to invest in special-purpose machining equipment. However, the precision forging process is relatively expensive, results in longer lead times, and requires a sophisticated process desiRn and close control of process variables. ~2) The design and manufacturing of precision forging dies require particular attention because the local shrinkage and elastic deflection of the dies must be known and the original die surface must be corrected accordingly, so that the airfoil of the forged blade is within specified tolerances. In most forge plants, blade forging is still an art which requires extensive experience in die design and manufacture. Several companies, particularly Deutsche Edelstahl Werke(2) in West Germany, and TRW(3) in the U.S. have computerized, to various degrees, their precision forging operations. In a newly built plant, Westinghouse Electric Corporation uses Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) techniques for die design and manufacture. The forging dies are made by EDM using NC machined graphite electrodes. (4) Battelle's Columbus Laboratories has also developed, under Air Force sponsorship, computer programs for designing and NC machining of blade forging dies.

47

COMPUTER-AIDED

FORGING DIE DESIGN

(2)

Turbine and compressor blades constitute a geometric family characterized by an airfoil surface that is usually defined by sets of points on various cross sections. The application of CAD techniques to a well defined geometric family is economically feasible. If developed i n a generalized fashion, the computer programs would be capable of handling almost all members of the family. Thus, for each new blade, only the geometry changes; therefore, a new data package must be input to the computer program. Lead times are drastically reduced, especially if CAD techniques are integrated with CAM techniques. Conceptually, it is possible, not only to determine the cutter paths for NC machining of the forging dies, but also to develop inspection information using the same data base. A system of computer programs, called BLDFORG, capable of analysis and design of forging dies for turbine and compressor blades, was developed. This package has a modular structure based on the various functions it is required to perform, and thus, is extendable into an integrated CAD/CAM system. The major functions performed by BLDFORG are outlined in Figure i and may be classified

(3)

as:
(i) Read in and preprocess the blade geometry, including root, midspan stubs, and shroud. Check for errors in the input data and convert into internal standard form (canonical form). Calculate the necessary parameters, e.g., cross sectional area.

.....

G. . . . . .

~-~t-

....................

Material, Forg,ng Conditions

Determine the flow stress under the forging conditions, lubrication, temperature, and equipment characteristics, based on available experimental data. An average flow stress is calculated on the basis of an average temperature. Experimental flow-stress data, obtained from literature, is stored in a separate subroutine for each material and is used in an interactive procedure to find the average forging temperature and flow stress. Determine the forging plane, based on minimum side loading of the dies during forging. The turbine blade is rotated around its stacking axis in small increments till the position with minimum resultant horizontal force is determined. Load calcula- (.. tions are based on the "Slab Method"~ D) The stress distribution on the dies, the expected forging load and the center of loading are calculated. Figure 2 illustrates an airfoil cross section which is expressed as a set of points that define consecutive deformation elements. Starting from the two flash lands, the contribution of each deformation element to the stress, and the horizontal and vertical load on each die half are determined. The neutral surface is found at the intersection of the two stress profiles. The summations of the horizontal and vertical loads on all cross sections give the resultant loads acting on the two die halves. The "optimum" forge plane position is where the horizontal forces on the dies are minimized. This in turn minimizes die shift during forging, resulting with improved tolerances on the product.

~ign,

Int~active

~ l ~ l a t e Geometric Parame~rt of Forging

OptimumFork Pla~

"

......

........

t t t
~ e u l a t e Loml E I = t E Oie ~ f ~ e Geom~w

.......... "Uniform

M~al Flow'" t~ R~lt$

-1 ] I

2. Minimize FI~ L~ | .... =..........

1. Insure

Die C ~ i W Fill

~mmarize in E n ~ n ~ i n g Terms

for Vicar inspection ....... .......

i
FIGURE 1 . OUTLINE OF PROGRAMMING SYSTEM FOR THE DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE OF DIES FOR TURBINE BLADES

FIGURE 2.

AN AIRFOIL DIE CROSS SECTION, ITS DEFORMATION ELEMENTS AND THE EXPECTED STRESS DISTRIBUTION OF DIE CLOSURE

48

Modify leading edge flash geometry so as to bring all neutral surfaces on the same line. This criterion is expected to yield a more uniform metal flow and result with uniform flash losses. (5) A simulation of the forging process is carried out in order to determine the best position of the preform in the die cavity. This position not only insures die cavity fill during forging, but also flash losses may be minimized by using the minimum preform dimensions indicated. (6) Summarize the results. Provide a printout of all the results obtained in a concise format in engineering terms. (7) Provide a 3-D display of the die surfaces together with the flash land as designed by the computer programs. The user can rotate the blade in space and view in perspective or orthographic projection and modify the calculated forge-plane position if deemed necessary. BLDFORG is an interactive system. Means are provided for the user to explore the effects of various changes in geometry as well as forging conditions. It is possible to loop within a major module or rerun BLDFORG. During these user interactions, the programming system makes use of previous results as much as possible, thus, economizing on computer time.(6) After the user is satisfied with the design, the die cavity geometry, together with boundary stress state, is made available to specialized finite element elastic deflection analysis routines. These consist of two major modules. The first one prepares the grid system and the second one performs the actual finite element deflection analysis. Where necessary, the local elastic deflections may be superimposed on the gross deflection of the particular press bed. The die surface coordinates are corrected for the expected deflection during forging and are output in a special format for use by part programming routines for NC machining. NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED MACHINING OF DIES NC machining of dies, or EDM electrodes, naturally follows the CAD phase. Since computer programs that can generate the cutter paths for complex surfaces are not readily available, a special-purpose program, BLDSURF, was developed to calculate the cutter location points for airfoils. Figure 3 is a three-dimensional representation of cutter paths, as determined by BLDSURF, for an airfoil die surface. The specific choice of cutter paths is made without major difficulty since the surface between each cross section is defined as a "ruled surface". The die, or the EDM electrode surface is divided into five regions on any one cross section, namely Left flash gutter Left flash land Airfoil surface

(4)

Right flash land Right flash gutter. Each of these regions is treated as a separate ruled surface in proper relationship with its neighbor. In this way, it becomes possible to avoid undercut and gouging problems. Once the cutter location points for the airfoil are determined, the problem of blending the root and the shroud is tackled. In these regions, the difficulty encountered by most general purpose complex surface machining routines, such as BSURF and FMILL, is one of definition. Many more points on the blend areas must be calculated and input to these programs than are given on a typical engineering drawing of a blade. BLDSURF on the other hand, being a special-purpose program, incorporates pattern recognition logic to deduce the geometry of the blend areas from the information given on the blade drawing. After the cutter paths for the airfoil are calculated, BLDSURF determines the cutter locations to form a blend of given radius. For blend radii less than or equal to the cutter radius, as in Figure 3, only one point is calculated and the blend is formed by the cutter radius. Blend radii larger than the cutter radius are formed by climbing up the root surface. Optionally, BLDFORG can machine the platform area on the root and the shroud as indicated in Figure 3. The rest of the root and the shroud would be machined by short APT programs. The geometry definition file that is input to BLDSURF is normally prepared by BLDFORG. The cutter geometry (radius and draft angle) and selection of other options such as the number of passes are input separately at this time. The output is in the form of properly sequenced APT "GOTO" statements to which other APT statements may be added. This approach gives added flexibility and enables the use of the editing capabilities of APT as well as making BLDSURF compatible with all APT systems and postprocessors.

FIGURE 3.

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF CUTTER PATHS FOR NC MACHINING OF EDM ELECTRODE OF A TURBINE BLADE DIE

49

SYSTEM COMMUNICATIONS In using these programs, the designer is allowed to interact with the system and to view the results on a direct view storage tube* (DVST). He can explore the effects of variations in process parameters; he can alter his die geometry and inspect the results of his actions immediately. Communication of the results to user has been enhanced by incorporating 3-D graphics into the system. Thus, the forging die cavity may be displayed in orthographic or perspective projections in any orientation. Problem areas, if any, become obvious to the user and may be corrected immediately. As well as communicating to the engineer using the system, a method of providing insight into the physical process of forging was needed. A series of plots from the simulation cannot convey the sense of motion inherent in this process. Therefore, the best means available for conveying this computer generated information was through the preparation of a computer animated film. The preparation of the film was done in steps. More time was spent in the design phase than in the actual coding and debugging of the film. A detailed storyboard of the film was prepared. The sequence of motions and actions contained in the storyboard was chosen carefully to allow the pictures to convey some of the factors involved in the forging process itself. The viewer is thus introduced to some of the technical considerations in the project. By using pictures of the forging process, much of the confusion of the written and spoken word is also avoided. (7) The storyboard describes an animation done in both two and three dimensions. It shows how the forging dies are positioned at the optimum forge plane angle, a factor calculated before the actual forging is simulated. Various factors necessary in the forging process, such as horizontal and vertical loads, torque, and friction factor, are calculated once the dies are positioned correctly. To aid the viewer in the perception of the stress on the metal being forged, the entire forging simulation is repeated four times: first, looking at one cross section being forged in time with the stress curve also changing; second, looking at the same section again but leaving a time trace of the stress curve; third, looking at a whole piece of metal forged in three dimensions; and fourth, (as illustrated in Figure 4), looking at a whole piece of metal with the associated stress surface changing in time. The film itself was programmed and completely debugged using a FORTRAN-based animation package developed at Battelle. (8) The entire process consumed less than two manweeks. The animation program used data produced by the simulation directly; the original system of programs required no change other than

insertion of WRITE statements to save the parts of the process needed in the animation. Thus, the simulation was actually done once and the animation program used and reused this data base to create the animation sequences. This may suggest that the computer animation was easy to program. That, in fact, proved to be the case. There was little to worry about in the technical end of the animation because of the animation package so more effort could be concentrated on what the animation portrayed rather than on how to portray it. Having spent the time in the design phase of the film also enabled faster debugging and coding procedures. This computer-aided design system used computer graphics heavily in all phases of communication. The actual design phase relies on interactive graphics techniques, and the mechanism for reporting the results of the project incorporates computer'animation.

FIGURE 4.

A STEAM-TURBINE BLADE FORGING AS SIMULATED BY THE COMPUTER PROGRAM AND THE CALCULATED STRESS DISTRIBUTION

CONCLUSION The various steps involved in applying CAD/CAM techniques to turbine blade forging has been described. The design and manufacturing operations have been automated to a large extent and are being used at least by a major blade forger in the States. (4) Because blades could be treated as a geometric family, the programs and their application has been especially eaonomical. In terms of computer time and the necessary staff time for data preparation, savings have been realized. The interest we have observed so far has been attributed to the graphical representation of results at all phases of the design process. From the beginning, due to the large amount of geometry manipulation involved, computer graphics was found to be an indispensible tool. First, as a debugging aid, and second as a very

Tektronix

4012

50

effective means of communicating with the designer. Secondly, as is the case in nearly all research projects at Battelle-Columbus, we were faced with the prospect of writing a final report for the agency sponsoring the research. The task of disseminating the information to both technically and non-technically oriented audiences outside the immediate scope of the project was a consideration. In short, we had a problem of technology transfer. The traditional avenues for presenting results fall far short of the flexibility and power of presentation it was felt was needed. Final reports have a tendency to become jargonized and are usually read only by a project's immediate sponsors. Papers on the results given to technical conferences and journals become severely restricted by space and time limitations. Finally, either technique requires an explanation of the scope of the project by person who is technically competent in the area under study. Given these criteria, it was decided to expand the final written report to include a short film describing the entire range of programs and developments made in the project. A film provides the flexibility and the power that was needed for presenting the results. It was purposely oriented in such a way as to be able to communicate with non-technical as well as technical audiences. Using a film also provides more opportunities to present the results of the project. It can be copied and distributed with the knowledge that the concepts will be presented correctly. The methods used in this film range from standard filming techniques to computer animation. The standard techniques provide the general overview needed to define the scope of the system. Computer animation allows the viewer an insight into the simulation of the forging process itself. The film has met our needs of transferring the technology developed in this project to both technical and non-technical audiences. As important as satisfying our immediate needs, we have found a powerful new tool in communicating project results to sponsors and others. At Battelle-Columbus, we Rave the resource of a professional group of film makers readily available in our Communications Research Laboratory. However, even if that resource is not available, the capability for computer animation does exist at most installations. Virtually any computer graphics capability, ranging from direct view storage tubes to large microfilm recorders, can he and has been used for computer animation. Once the method for making a film has been developed, costs are minimal. Computer animation can be used to provide insight into virtually any problem to help explain a concept that is difficult to present verbally. It is expected that during the next few years, similar CAD/CAM systems using computer graphics for efficient user communications will be developed for most areas of manufacturing technology.

REFERENCES

(1)

Tarmann, H., et Turbine Blades, and Materials", Huttenmannische p 351.

al., "P~ecision Forged Manufacturing, Properties, (in German) Berg-und Monatshefte, 112, No. ii,

(2)

Voigtlander, O., "The Manufacturing of Blades for Turbines and Compressors: Precision Forging of the Airfoil", (in German) Industrie-Anzeiger, 91, No. 40, p 908. Hoffmanner, A.L., "Plasticity Theory as Applied to Forging of Titanium Alloys", paper presented at the Symposium on Thermal Mechanical Treatment of Metals, London, May i, 1970. Anonymous, "Computerized Forging", Manufacturing Engineering Management, February, 1974, p 19. Akgerman, N., and Altan, T., "Modular Analysis of Geometry and Stresses in Closed-Die Forging: Application to a Structural Part", ASME Trans. J. Engr. for Industry, Vol. 94, Series B, p 1025. N. Akgerman, T.L. Subramanian, T. Altan, "Manufacturing Methods for a Computerized Forging Process for High-Strength Materials", Technical Report AFML-TR-73-284, January, 1973. Huggins, W.H., and Entwistle, D.; Iconic Communications; The John Hopkins University Press; Baltimore, Maryland, 1974. Kasik, D.J.; "FLIP--A Superset of the Integrated Graphics System (IGS) for Movie-Making"; UAIDE Proceedings, 1973.

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