1. Convert the following octal numbers to base 10. a. 273 b.

1021 273 = 2 x 8 2 + 7 x 8 1 + 3 x 8 0 = 187 1021 = 1 x 8 3 + 0 + 2 x 8 1 + 1 x 8 0 = 529

2. What is a logic gate? A type of circuit that regulates the flow of electricity (or optical signals in fiber optic computing systems) that determines the Boolean logic computers use to make complex logical decisions. The three simple gates-AND, OR and NOT-combine to perform complex decision making processes. The on or off state of a logic gate corresponds to the binary values.

3. Minimize the following functions using Quine-McCluskey tabular method: a. b.

f ( A, B, C , D ) = 0,1,3,6,9,10,11,12,14,15 f ( A, B, C , D, E ) = 0,1,5,8,11,12,14,16,20,21,25,27,28,30,31

(with dont care terms 2,7,13,22,23)

4. Design 2-bit comparator using gates.

5. Define Sequential Circuits. A digital logic circuit or system is usually made up of combinational elements such as NAND and NOR gates and memory elements which may, for example, be discrete flip-flops or latches. Alternatively, an interconnection of these devices may be found in a shift register, a counter, or in a variety of MSI and LSI packages. With the introduction of memory elements as components in digital systems, an additional variable, time, has been introduced and must be taken into account when designing digital systems. In effect, logic operations can be performed sequentially, information being stored in a memory element and released at some specified instant later so that it can take part in a controlled combinational operation. Systems operating in this way are called sequentially operated systems. There has always been considerable confusion over the use of the terms latch and flipflop. It will be assumed that a flip-flop is a device which changes its state at times when a change is taking place in the clock signal. The flip-flop is said to be either leading edge or trailing edge triggered, the edges referred to being those of the clock signal. On the other hand an asynchronous latch, without a control line, is continuously monitoring the input signals and changes its state at times when an input signal is changing. A synchronous latch is also continuously monitoring the input signals but in this case a change of state at the output can only occur when the control signal is active.

6. Give any two applications of shift register. One of the most common uses of a shift register is to convert between serial and parallel interfaces. This is useful as many circuits work on groups of bits in parallel, but serial interfaces are simpler to construct. Shift registers can be used as simple delay circuits. Several bi-directional shift registers could also be connected in parallel for a hardware implementation of a stack.

Shift registers can be used also as a pulse extenders. Many computer languages include instructions to 'shift right" and "shift left' the data in a register, effectively dividing by two or multiplying by two for each place shifted. Very large serial-in serial-out shift registers (thousands of bits in size) were used in a similar manner to the earlier delay line memory in some devices built in the early 1970s.

7. Explain the working principle of 4 bit Johnson counter with a neat diagram. A Johnson counter is a special case of shift register, where the output from the last stage is inverted and fed back as input to the first stage. A pattern of bits equal in length to the shift register thus circulates indefinitely. These counters are sometimes called "walking ring" counters, and find specialist applications, including those similar to the decade counter, digital to analogue conversion, etc. In some cases, we want a counter that provides individual digit outputs rather than a binary or BCD output. Of course, we can do this by adding a decoder circuit to the binary counter. However, in many cases it is much simpler to use a different counter structure, that will permit much simpler decoding of individual digit outputs.

8. Explain temperature and weather forecast system with a neat circuit diagram. Temperature and Weather Forecast Systems 1 -wire Barometer Assumptions/Design Criteria: The barometer will be operated indoors. This will minimize output variations caused by temperature and will lengthen the calibration intervals. It also means the circuit board will not have to be weatherproofed. Will be easy to calibrate. This means there will be a maximum of 1 calibration adjustment. The operating range will be from 28.00 inHg to 32.00 inHg Resolution will be greater than .01 inHg from sea level to 10,000 feet The interface will be standard Dallas Semiconductor 1-wire. Because the unit will be designed for indoor operation, It can be externally powered. Will utilize the Motorola MPX4115A pressure transducer. Based on these assumptions, table 1 was generated. This table calculates the station pressure for both the minimum (28.00) and the maximum (32.00) pressures for altitudes from sea level to 10,000 feet in 1000 foot increments. The station pressure is then converted to MPX4115A pressure sensor volts. Looking at the table, I discovered the predominant change in altitude in the offset voltage of the pressure sensor. I decided that this will be the adjustable parameter, and that the circuit gain would be fixed. The OA Offset column is the op amp offset voltage that compensates for altitude. This will be the only calibration variable. Since the instrumentation amplifier is a rail-to-rail device, in theory it will operate down to 0 volts. However, to provide some margin, the offsets were chosen to allow a minimum of .2 volts at the lowest pressure. The gain of 10 was chosen to allow maximum output voltage swing for all altitudes. The resulting op amp output voltages are listed in OA Output column. This is the voltage applied to the DS2438 Vad input.

Circuit Design: The following circuit design satisfies these requirements. I selected the INA122 instrumentation amp for several reasons: it eliminated several external resistors and it provides a very stable gain over a wide temperature. It also provides excellent rail-to-rail operation allowing full use of the 10 volt input range of the DS2438. The 40.2K ohm resistor sets the gain to 10. The variable resistor allows adjustment of the offset voltage from 2.0v to 4.0v. All parts are available from Digikey except the pressure sensor, which is available from Newark. Calibration: Hardware calibration is simply a matter of setting the offset voltage to the value listed in table 1 for your altitude. A jumper on the input of the DS2438 allows the use of the DS2438 to measure the offset. Put the jumper in the A-C position and using the iButton Viewer for the DS2438, set the voltage to the table value using the 25-turn pot. Once it's set, put the jumper in the A-B position to read pressure. For altitudes in between the values listed in the table, simple interpolation will give accurate results. An Excel spreadsheet will be also available online to calculate intermediate values.

9. Explain the functioning of digital multimeter. A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. A standard multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. There are two categories of multimeters, analog multimeters and digital . A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as batteries, motor controls, appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems. Quantities measured Contemporary multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are: Voltage in volts. Current In amperes. Resistance in ohms. Additionally, multimeters may also measure: Capacitance in farads. Frequency in hertz Duty cycle as a percentage. Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit. Conductance in Siemens. Inductance in herirys:1 Audio signal levels in decibels.

10. Write a short note on ADC. The resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete values it can produce over the range of analog values. The values are usually stored electronically in binary form, so the

resolution is usually expressed in bits. In consequence, the number of discrete values available, or "levels", is usually a power of two. For example, an ADC with a resolution of 8 bits can encode an analog input to one in 256 different levels, since 28 = 256. The values can represent the ranges from 0 to 255 (i.e. unsigned integer) or from -128 to 127 (i.e. signed integer), depending on the application.

Where: Q is resolution in volts per step (volts per output code), EFSR is the full scale voltage range = VRefHi - VRefLo and M is the ADC's resolution in bits. The number of intervals is given by the number of available levels (output codes), which is: N = 2M

Response type Linear ADCs Most ADCs are of a type known as linear, although analog-to-digital conversion is an inherently non-linear process (since the mapping of a continuous space to a discrete space is a piecewise-constant and therefore non-linear operation). The term linear as used here means that the range of the input values that map to each output value has a linear relationship with the output value, i.e., that the output value k is used for the range of input values from m(k + b) to m(k + 1 + b), where m and b are constants. Here b is typically 0 or -0.5. When b = 0, the ADC is referred to as mid-rise, and when b = -0.5 it is referred to as mid-tread.

Non-linear ADCs If the probability density function of a signal being digitized is uniform, then the signal-to-noise ratio relative to the quantization noise is the best possible. Because of this, it's usual to pass the signal through its cumulative distribution function (CDF) before the quantization. This is good because the regions that are more important get quantized with a better resolution. In the dequantization process, the inverse CDF is needed.

Accuracy An ADC has several sources of errors. Quantization error and (assuming the ADC is intended to be linear) non-linearity is intrinsic to any analog-to-digital conversion. There is also a socalled aperture error which is due to a clock jitter and is revealed when digitizing a time-variant signal (not a constant value).

Aliasing All ADCs work by sampling their input at discrete intervals of time. Their output is therefore an incomplete picture of the behaviour of the input. There is no way of knowing, by looking at the output, what the input was doing between one sampling instant and the next. If the input is known to be changing slowly compared to the sampling rate, then it can be assumed that the value of the signal between two sample instants was somewhere between the two sampled values. If, however, the input signal is changing fast compared to the sample rate, then this assumption is not valid.

Dither In A to D converters, performance can usually be improved using dither. This is a very small amount of random noise (white noise) which is added to the input before conversion.

Application to music recording ADCs are integral to current music reproduction technology. Since much music production is done on computers, when an analog recording is used, an ADC is needed to create the PCM data stream that goes onto a compact disc.