Glossary

A-scan: a range-measuring system that records the time for an ultrasonic pulse to travel to an interface in the body and be reflected back 596 absolute refractive index (n): the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in that material 365 absorption spectrum: a spectrum produced when white light is passed through a cool gas. The atoms in the gas absorb energy from the white light. (The atoms will then re-emit the light that was absorbed, but as the light will be emitted in all directions, the transmitted beam of light will be deficient in light at those energies or wavelengths.) When this light is analysed, it will show a continuous spectrum of the white light with a series of narrow dark lines across it. 516 acceleration: the rate at which an object changes its velocity 51 accelerationtime graph: a graph that displays the motion of an object with time on the horizontal axis and acceleration on the vertical axis 57 accretion: the process of the growth of a body by gathering, or accreting, more matter 336 accuracy: a measure of how well a measurement agrees with a set or standard value 11 acoustic impedance (Z): a measure of how readily sound will pass through a material. It is measured in kg m2 s1. 593 active wire: the wire in a circuit that is connected to the 240 V rms (root-mean-square) supply at the switchboard 482 air resistance or drag: the force applied to an object, opposite to its direction of motion, by the air through which it is moving 170 ammeter: a device used to measure current 462 ampere: (A) the SI unit of current 459 amphometer: a device that acts on a principle similar to VASCAR except that the car entry and exit points are activated automatically 49 amplitude: an objects maximum displacement from its rest position while undergoing periodic motion 265, applied force: any force applied to an object with the intention of changing its motion 69 atomic mass unit: (amu) a unit of mass used for very small masses: 1 amu = 1.661 1027 kg 546 atomic number (Z): a number equal to the number of protons in an elements nucleus. In a neutral atom, the number of protons will be equal to the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus. 544 attenuation: the reduction in intensity of a signal such as an X-ray beam 607 average speed: the total distance covered divided by the total time of travel. For very small time intervals, the average speed is approximately equal to the instantaneous speed halfway through the time interval. 48 B-scan: displays the reflected ultrasound as a spot, the brightness of which is determined by the intensity of the ultrasound 597 base SI units: seven basic units agreed upon by the International Standards Conference from which all other units are derived. These are the kilogram (kg), the second (s), the metre (m), the ampere (A), the Kelvin (K), the candela (cd) and the mole. 8 beam: the simplest type of structural component. It is generally subjected to loads that act transversely on it. 127 beam bridge: a bridge that consists of a horizontal slab supported at each end. Beam bridges are usually less than 80 metres long. 151 big bang: refers to the rapid expansion of the very early universe 330 black body: a perfect absorber and emitter of radiation. Radiation generated by the body from the conversion of thermal energy is referred to as black body radiation. 519 Bohr radius: the smallest possible radius for an electron orbital in a hydrogen atom 522 braking distance: the distance that a car travels between when the driver applies the brakes and when the car comes to a halt 92 breaking strain: the term commonly used to describe the maximum tension that a wire or string can withstand before it breaks; more technically used to describe the elongation of a material 31 brittle: displaying little or no plastic behaviour 118 buttress: an angled or arched support that props up the walls of a building (usually a stone building) from the outside 147

361

anchorages: heavy concrete blocks used at the ends of suspension bridges to moor the main cables 152 angular momentum: the rotational equivalent to linear momentum 521 antinodes: the points in a medium that are disturbed the most when standing waves form 434

650 GLOSSARY

cantilever beam: a beam fixed at one end, causing the maximum deflection to occur at the free end 130 cathode ray: a narrow beam of electrons emitted from a hot filament through which an electric current flows 603 centre of curvature: the theoretical centre of the circle of which an arc corresponds to the curvature of a particular surface, such as a concave mirror. The centre of curvature of a mirror is located at a distance equal to twice the mirrors focal length. 379 centre of mass: (of an object) the point at which a force will act as if the entire mass of the object were concentrated there 137 centring: the wooden framework that supports the stones of an arch during construction. When the arch is finished, the centring is removed. 146 centripetal acceleration: the acceleration experienced by any object moving in a circular path 212, 254, 287 centripetal force: the force acting on an object travelling in a circle that constantly either pulls or pushes the object in towards the centre 213, 254, 287 charge carriers: charged particles that move through a conductor 456 coefficient of friction (): the ratio of the frictional force to the normal reaction force acting on an object moving across a surface. It is a measure of how easily the object moves across the surface, and depends upon characteristics of both the object and the surface. 67 coherent: refers to an optic fibre bundle in which the optic fibres keep the same position relative to one another 613 compression: the process of pushing the particles of a material closer together 110 compression wave: see longitudinal wave compressions: the parts of a longitudinal wave where particles of the medium are the closest together 360 concave: see diverging conductor: a material through which electric current is able to pass 456 constructive interference: the disturbance caused when two waves reach a position at the same time and give rise to an amplitude that is greater than that due to each of the waves alone 419 contact forces: forces that arise between objects that are in physical contact with each other 22 contrast: refers to the brightness difference between parts of an image 640

controlled chain reaction: a fission reaction in which some of the neutrons are absorbed before they can cause further reactions, allowing the number of reactions per second occurring to be manipulated 560 conventional current direction: moves from the positive terminal of a power supply through a conducting pathway to the negative terminal 462 converging (or convex): describes a lens that bends incident parallel light rays towards a focus 379 convex: see converging cosmic background radiation: a pattern of background radiation from space that represents the afterglow of the heat of the early universe. Today it is in the form of microwaves. 330 coulomb: (C) the unit of electric charge 456 critical mass: the minimum mass of fissionable material needed to sustain a chain reaction. This depends upon the distribution of the fissionable material in the sample, the samples surface area and the size of the sample. 559 crest: the highest part of a transverse wave 359 curtain walls: the outside walls of a skyscraper, usually made of slabs of reinforced concrete 151 cycle: a complete variation in an alternating voltage 482 dead load: the load acting upon a structure that results from the weight of its own material components such as its beams, rafters, floors, walls and pillars 127 decay chain or decay series: a sequence that occurs when unstable nuclei decay into nuclei that are also unstable. The nuclei will continue the decay sequence until stable nuclei are formed. 548 decay product or daughter nucleus: an atom formed from the radioactive decay of another atom 548 deceleration: the negative acceleration displayed by an object that is slowing down with respect to time 51 density: the mass per unit volume of a material 107 derived units: units derived from the base SI units. For example, 1 newton (N), which is the derived unit of force, is defined as being equal to 1 kilogram-metre per second squared (kg m s2). 8 destructive interference: the disturbance that occurs when the sum of two superimposed waves is zero 420 diffraction: a phenomenon exhibited by waves when waves either bend behind a barrier or the wavefront is broken up into many small sources 531

GLOSSARY 651

diffuse reflection: occurs when parallel light rays striking a surface are scattered when reflected 366 direction: the line along which a vector quantity acts toward a specific point in space 23 dispersion: the separation of light into a spectrum of colours as the result of refraction 394 displacement: a vector quantity representing the location of the destination relative to the origin of motion only, irrespective of the path actually negotiated between the two points 45 displacementtime graph: a graph that displays the motion of an object with time on the horizontal axis and displacement on the vertical axis 56 distance: the total length of the pathway taken between the origin and the destination point 45 diverging (or concave): describes a lens that bends incident parallel rays away from each other 391 Doppler shift or Doppler effect: the effect in which the frequency and wavelength of sound and light waves from a source are perceived by an observer to change when the source moves relative to the observer 50,

electric charge: a basic property of matter. Charge can be positive (like the charge on a proton) or negative (like the charge on an electron). 455 electric current: the rate of movement of charge carriers from one part of a conductor to another 459 electric shock: a violent disturbance of the nervous system caused by an electrical discharge or current through the body 484 electrical potential energy: the potential energy of charge carriers due to their position in a circuit 460 electron volt: a unit of energy used for calculations at the subatomic level: 1 eV = 1.6 1019 J 523 emission spectrum: produced when a gas is excited by heating the gas or by passing an electrical discharge through it. The emission spectrum is a series of narrow coloured lines on a dark background. Each element has its own characteristic spectrum, and this can be used to identify the gas. 515 empirical: (formula) a formula that has no theoretical basis but can be used to calculate correct values 518 endoscope: a tube used to view the inside of the body. It transfers light to and from the area being examined. 612 enrichment: the process in which the percentage of uranium-235 in a uranium sample is increased so that it may sustain a chain reaction. Rather than the 0.7% U-235 found in normal uranium ore, enriched uranium may contain between 1% and 4% U-235. 562 equilibrant: the force that, when added to an unbalanced system of forces, brings the system into equilibrium 34 excited state: a stationary state in which an electron has more than the lowest possible amount of energy 523 far-sightedness: see hyperopia fibrillation: disorganised, rapid contractions of separate parts of the heart, causing it to cease pumping blood 484 field vector: a single vector that describes the strength and direction of a uniform vector field. For a gravitational field, the field vector is g. 283 filter: a coloured transparent material that allows light of a selected colour to be transmitted while all other colours are absorbed 396
1 1 first lens equation: 1 = + f u v

600

double cantilever beam: a beam fixed at both ends. These beams are usually used in building to form horizontal spans for doors and windows. 130 drag: the force that resists the motion of an object through a fluid such as air 66 driving force: the force supplied by a cars engine to turn the wheels, causing the car to move 69 ductile: used to describe materials that are able to be drawn out to form wires 118 dynamic equilibrium: the situation that exists when the net force acting on a moving object is equal to zero 70 dynamic load: the load due to factors that exert sudden forces on a structure, such as wind or seismic spasming of the ground 127 earthing: the process of connecting a part of a circuit to the Earth; also known as grounding 456 elastic collision: a collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved 203 elastic limit: the point at which further increase in load will result in irreversible deformation of a material 117 elastic potential energy: the energy stored in an object as the result of a reversible change in shape 236

386

652 GLOSSARY

flying buttress: a structure typically consisting of a small buttress carried on a half arch that extends from the upper part of a wall to a pier located further away, carrying the combined weight of the walls and roof of large stone structures 147 focal length: (of a lens or mirror) the distance between the geometric centre and the principal focus 380 focal plane: (of a lens or mirror) the plane set at right angles to the principal axis and passing through the focus 380 force: an external influence that is able to alter the state of motion of an object. It is a push or a pull that has both magnitude and a direction. 22 forced vibration: occurs when an object, surface or medium is made to vibrate at the same rate as an adjacent vibrating object; also known as forced resonance 422 free-body diagrams: simplified diagrams of force vectors shown as acting on or originating at a single point 26 free radical: an uncharged fragment of a molecule resulting from a covalent bond being broken 606 frequency (f): (of a wave) equal to the number of waves that move past a given point in 1 second 360 frequency: (of an event) how many times per second the event happens. The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz): 1 Hz = 1 s1 209, 254 friction: a force resisting the motion of one surface across another 65 fuse: a short length of conducting wire or metal that melts when the current through it reaches a certain value, breaking the circuit 486 g : the symbol used to represent the acceleration due to gravity. This is a vector quantity that has a magnitude equal to about 9.8 m s2 on the Earths surface and is directed toward the centre of the Earth. 31 geodesic dome: a dome made up of triangular trusses 150 geostationary orbit: an orbit at an altitude at which the period of the orbit precisely matches that of the Earth. This corresponds to an altitude of approximately 35 800 km. 291 globular cluster: an old cluster of tens of thousands up to a million stars 339 gravitational potential energy: the energy stored in an object as a result of its position relative to another object to which it is attracted by the force of gravity 237

ground state: the state in which an electron has the lowest possible amount of energy 523 half-life: (of an isotope) the time taken for half of the atoms in a sample of the material to undergo radioactive decay 548, 622 hard X-rays: X-rays of relatively high frequency and energy 607 hertz: (Hz) the unit of frequency: 1 Hz = 1 s1 254 HertzsprungRussell diagram: a graph of a stars luminosity (as the vertical axis) plotted against its temperature or colour 337 Hookes Law: states that the elongation that elastic bodies, such as springs, experience when pulled by a force is directly proportional to the size of the force itself 177 Hubbles constant: a measure of the rate of expansion of the universe. It is related to the age of the universe. 330 hydroplaning: the motion of a car when water between the cars tyres and the road prevents the tyres from making solid contact with the road 91 hyperopia: (also known as long-sightedness or farsightedness) a condition in which the sufferer has a near point that is further away from the eye than is normal, causing them to have difficulty seeing close objects 390 igloo: a dome-shaped structure constructed of blocks made of ice. Igloos were traditionally built by the Inuit peoples for shelter. 149 illuminated bodies: bodies that reflect light from another source and are not able to produce light by themselves 363 impulse: the change in momentum of an object. It equals the product of a force and the time interval over which the force acts. 194 incandescent: refers to materials and objects that give off light when they reach a high enough temperature 363, 515 inelastic: (collision) a collision in which kinetic energy is not conserved 203 inertia: the tendency of an object to resist change to its state of motion 78 inertial frame of reference: a non-accelerated environment. Only uniform velocity or zero velocity is allowed. 310 instantaneous speed: the speed of an object measured at a specific time 48

GLOSSARY 653

insulated: refers to an object that is electrically isolated from its surroundings but not earthed 457 insulator: a material that contains no charge carriers 456 intensity: an objective measure of how much energy a sound is able to transfer to a 1 m2 area of surface at a specific distance from the source 415 interference: the disturbance caused by the interaction of two or more waves at the same location 419 ion: a charged atom formed when the atom either loses or gains electrons 543 ionisation energy: the amount of energy that needs to be added to an electron in its ground state to remove it from its atom 523 isotopes: atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but differing numbers of neutrons 544, 620 joint: a point at which two or more beams in a structure meet 142 keystone: a wedge-shaped stone at the top of an arch that locks it together 146 kilogram: (kg) the base SI unit of mass, internationally agreed to equal the mass of a platinumiridium cylinder kept at Svres, France 7 kilowatt-hour: the amount of energy transformed by a 1000 W appliance in 1 hour 495 kinetic energy: the energy associated with the movement of an object 201 Kirchoffs loop rule: states that the total amount of potential rises experienced by charges as they move around any single loop of the circuit must be equal to the total amount of potential drops 471 Kirchoffs point rule: states that, at any point in a circuit, the total amount of current entering the point must be equal to the total amount of current leaving that point 473 Law of Conservation of Energy: states that the amount of energy in the universe is constant, and it can be neither spontaneously created nor destroyed. However, energy may change form (energy transformation) or be transferred. 202 Law of Inertia: Newtons First Law of Motion. An object will continue in the same state of motion unless acted upon by a net unbalanced force. 78 Law of Reflection: states that the angle between an incident light ray and the normal where it strikes the surface will be equal to the angle between the normal and the reflected ray 366

length contraction: the shortening of an object in the direction of its motion as observed from a reference frame in relative motion 315 lens equations: the first lens equation:
v second lens equation: hi = u ho 1 1 1 = + ; the f u v

386

limiting error: the uncertainty of any measurement made with a measuring device. It is half the size of the devices limiting precision. The limiting error is also referred to as the probable uncertainty. 13 limiting friction: the maximum amount of force that can be applied to a stationary object at a particular time before it commences movement 66 limiting precision: the size of the smallest division marked on a measuring device 13 live load: the load acting upon a structure that results from the combined weight of anything in or on the structure that is not part of its essential construction. This may include the weight of people, furniture, machines and furnishings. 127 load: the force acting on a structure or building component 127 longitudinal wave or compression wave: a wave in which the disturbance moves in the same direction as the wave 360 long-sightedness: see hyperopia loudness: a subjective measure of intensity 415 low Earth orbit: an orbit higher than 250 km and lower than 1000 km 291 luminosity: the total energy radiated by a star per second 337 luminous bodies: bodies that give off light directly 363 magnitude: (of a vector) the numerical size, length or extent of the quantity represented by the vector 23 main sequence: a diagonal band from the upper left corner to the lower right corner of an HR diagram. Most stars are in this group. 338 mass: the amount of matter in a physical body 7, 31 mass defect, mD: equal to the difference between the mass of an intact nucleus and the sum of the masses of the individual nucleons of which it is made 546 mass dilation: the increase in the mass of an object as observed from a reference frame in relative motion 317

654 GLOSSARY

mass number (A): a number equal to the total number of nucleons in an elements nucleus, i.e. the number of protons plus the number of neutrons 544 mechanical waves: waves that require a medium in order to propagate 361 mechanics: the study of the effects of forces upon objects 127 medium (plural: media): a material through which a wave travels 359 metastable: describes a nucleus that is in an excited state for a period of time before decaying 621 metre: (m) the base SI: unit of length, defined most: recently as the distance travelled by light in a 1 vacuum in 2997924 58 of a second 7 MeV: million electron volts; the energy gained by one electron accelerating through a potential difference of one million volts 632 moment: see torque momentum: the product of an objects mass and its velocity 194 myopia: (also known as short-sightedness or nearsightedness) a condition in which the sufferer has a near point that is closer to the eye than for a normally sighted person, causing them to have difficulty seeing distant objects 390 natural frequency: the frequency at which an object will vibrate when stimulated. It is independent of the size of the stimulus, depending solely upon the objects size, shape and composition. It is also the rate at which resonance occurs. 421 natural vibration: the rate at which an object oscillates once set into motion 421 near-sightedness: see myopia necking down: a term used to describe the behaviour of a material under load when the materials crosssectional area begins to decrease rapidly 118 net spin: a property of a nucleus. If a nucleus has a net spin it behaves as a tiny magnet. 637 neutral: refers to an object that carries an equal amount of positive and negative charge 456 neutral wire: the wire in a circuit that is connected to the neutral link at the switch, which is in turn connected to the earth 482 newton: the derived unit of force; 1 newton (N) = 1 kilogram-metre per second squared (kg m s2) 8 nodes: the points in a medium that remain undisturbed when two waves cancel each other out due to destructive interference 434

non-contact forces: forces that arise between objects that are not in direct physical contact with each other 22 non-coherent: refers to an optic fibre bundle in which the fibres are not kept in the same position relative to one another 613 non-ohmic resistor: a resistor that does not obey Ohms Law, that is, it displays different values of resistance for different values of current 470 normal: an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the interface between two media at the point where a light ray enters the interface 365 normal reaction force: the restoring force exerted by surface particles upwards on an object. It is equal in size to the total downward compression experienced by the surface. 63 nuclear fission: the process in which a large unstable nucleus splits, forming two (or more) smaller, more stable nuclei and releasing neutrons and energy 559 nuclear reactor: a device in which controlled fission is used to produce energy and new substances 562 nucleons: the particles (protons and neutrons) that make up the nucleus of an atom 543 ohm: (7 the SI unit of resistance 463 ohmic resistor: a resistor that obeys Ohms Law, that is, its resistance is constant regardless of the current passing through it 469 opaque: refers to material that does not allow light to pass through it 369 open cluster: a young cluster of several hundreds or thousands of stars 339 optical transmissivity: the ability of a material to allow light to pass through it 369 parallax error: the error that occurs when a gauge is read from the side rather than face on 49 peak voltage: the maximum voltage between an active wire and a neutral wire 482 percentage elongation: the change in length, given as a percentage, that results from strain on a component 113 period: (of a cycle or series of events) is the amount of time one cycle or one event takes to occur 209, 254 period (T): (of a wave) the length of time taken for one wavelength to pass a given point 360 phase scan: a scan produced using an array of transducers. The short time interval between the signals from each transducer may be varied to produce this scan. 598

GLOSSARY 655

pier: a bridge support that is usually placed at the junction of connecting spans of a bridge 151 piezoelectric effect: the change in shape of a piezoelectric crystal when it is subjected to a voltage. The change in shape results in the conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy. 596 pigment: a substance that is coloured due to the types of chemicals that it is made from and which in turn is used to colour other materials 397 pitch: the qualitative term used to describe the frequency of a sound 444 plastic: used to describe the behaviour of a material subjected to sufficient stress that it is no longer able to return to its original shape but instead shows permanent deformation 118 positrons: positively charged beta particles formed when a proton disintegrates to form a neutron and a positron. A positron is identical to an electron except that its charge is positive instead of negative. 631 potential drop (or voltage drop): the amount of electrical potential energy lost by each coulomb of charge in a given part of a circuit 468 potential rise (or voltage rise): the amount of electrical potential energy gained by each coulomb of charge in a given part of a circuit 468 power: the rate at which work is done, or the rate at which energy is transferred or transformed. It is usually measured in watts (W) 242, 416, 489, 594 precision: a measure of how well a set of measurements agree with each other 11 prefix: letter(s) placed in front of a unit to modify its value 8 pressure: the amount of force perpendicular to a surface area; also known as stress 110 principal axis: (of a lens) the line that passes through the centre of the lens and is perpendicular to the plane of the lens 379 principal focus: (of a lens or mirror) the point on the principal axis at which incident parallel rays are converged 380 probable uncertainty: see limiting error proportional limit: the point beyond which further increase in load on a material will result in a disproportionately larger increase in strain 117

quantum (plural quanta): unit of energy that can be considered to be the smallest amount of energy possible in a given situation. Plancks atomic oscillators could oscillate only with certain precise amounts of energy. 520 quantum number: the number of an allowed electron orbit in an atom 521 quarks: the elementary particles that make up protons and neutrons 333 radioactive decay: occurs when the nuclei of radioisotopes break down into smaller nuclei, releasing radiation 548, 620 radioisotopes: isotopes that are unstable and that release radiation as they break down (decay) until they become stable 546 radiopharmaceutical: a compound that has been labelled with a radioisotope 624 random error: an error that arises from temporary, irregular events affecting the value registered by a measurement device 12 range: horizontal displacement of a projectile from its starting point when it lands 180 rarefactions: the parts of a longitudinal wave where the particles of the medium are furthest apart 360 reaction distance: the distance travelled by a vehicle during the drivers reaction time 92 reaction time: the time that elapses between when an individual sees a stimulus and when they react to it 92 real image: an image through which light passes. A real image can be seen on a screen placed at the location of the image. 384 red giants: the stars in the upper right corner of the HR diagram. These are cool, giant stars. 339 redgreen deficiency: a type of colour blindness in which shades of red and green cannot be distinguished. It is caused by malformation of some of the colour receptors in the retina. 399 refraction: the change in direction that a light ray experiences when passing into a new medium 370 regular reflection (or specular reflection): occurs when parallel light rays striking a reflective surface are reflected in parallel 366 resistance: a measure of how easily charge carriers are able to move through a conductor 463 resistor: a device used in circuits to control the current flowing through, and the potential drop across, a section of circuit 462

656 GLOSSARY

resonance: occurs when an objects forced vibration is equal to its natural frequency. This has the effect of increasing the amplitude of the vibration. 422 resonate: to absorb energy when an applied frequency matches the natural frequency of an object 638 rest energy: the energy equivalent of a stationary objects rest mass, measured within the objects rest frame 319 rest frame: the frame of reference within which a measured event occurs or a measured object lies at rest 313 resultant: refers to a vector resulting from the addition of two or more vectors 26 retaining ring: a circular band, often made of metal, that is placed around the bottom edge of a dome to counteract the spreading of the dome 149 reverberation: an effect created when the audience hears a noticeable time delay between the played note ending and the dying away of that note. 423 reverberation time: the period of time that elapses between the incidence of a sound and the noise level of that sounds echo dropping below 60 dB. The reverberation time of a space depends upon its size and shape, and the nature of the surfaces and objects within it. 424 rolling friction: a combination of static friction and sliding friction that allows easy movement of an object across rolling surfaces 66 rotational equilibrium: the state in which the sum of moments around a point is equal to zero 132 safety factor: an indicator of the number of times a particular component can be overloaded before it fails 157 scalar: a quantity that has a magnitude but no direction 45 second: (s) the base SI unit of time, defined most recently as the time taken for 9 192 631 770 vibrations of a caesium-133 atom 7
v h second lens equation: i = u ho

simple harmonic motion (SHM): the motion displayed by an object that, once displaced from a rest position by a force, will continue to move in a way that causes it to move back through the rest position to an equal but opposite displacement 265 simply supported beam: a beam supported in such a way that both of its ends are free to rotate and slide 130 slab: a flat structural member that has a depth significantly smaller than its width and length. Slabs are usually used to form floors and bridge decks. 131 sliding friction: the frictional force that acts between two surfaces that are moving relative to each other 66 Snells Law: n1 sinQ1 = n2 sinQ2 372 soft X-rays: X-rays of relatively low frequency and energy 607 sound intensity level: a comparison of the intensity of a sound compared to the softest sound audible 417 spectral lines: lines in an emission spectrum or absorption spectrum 515 specular reflection: see regular reflection speed: the distance travelled by an object divided by time 46 static equilibrium: the situation that an object is in when the total application of forces on it causes it to remain stationary 30 static friction: the frictional force that acts to resist the commencement of movement of one surface across another 66 statics: the study of the forces acting on objects that do not move 127 standing wave (stationary wave): occurs at wave frequencies when there is interference between the initially generated waves and the reflected waves 433 stationary state: a state in which an electron will orbit the nucleus without emitting any electromagnetic radiation 521 stiffness: a measure of the rigidity of a material 114 stopping distance: the sum of the braking distance and the reaction distance 92 strain: a measure of the fractional change in length that a material undergoes when it is under stress 112 streamlined: refers to an object with a shape that offers little resistance to passage through a fluid (such as air or water) 86

386

sector scan: a scan in the shape of a sector. Sector scans are made up from a series of B-scans. 598 short circuit: a defect that occurs when frayed electrical cords or faulty appliances allow the current to flow from one conductor to another with little or no resistance, causing the generation of excessive heat 485 short-sightedness: see myopia

GLOSSARY 657

strength: the maximum amount of stress that a sample of a material can withstand before it fails 116 stress (or pressure): the amount of force perpendicular to a surface area 110 stressstrain graph: a graph that displays the stress experienced by a material as a function of strain. The stressstrain graphs usually also display the critical stages and transition points at which the material deforms and fails. 117 strong nuclear force: the force that acts over small distances in the nucleus to hold the nucleons together against the repulsive electrostatic forces exerted between the protons 545 subsidence: the sinking of soil, mud and sand due to the weight of a structure 156 suspension bridge: a bridge that has a road deck suspended from cables hung in parabolic shapes over towers at each end of the span 152 systematic error: an error that arises from a consistent problem with the equipment, the experimenter or the environment and has a uniform effect on all measurements 12 tension: the force that acts to resist the stretching of a material; also refers to process of pulling the particles of a material further apart 31, 110 terminal velocity: the constant velocity at which a falling object travels when the sum of the gravitational force and the force of air resistance on the object equals zero 175 thrust: the force delivered to a rocket by its engines 294 timbre: used to describe the richness of sound produced by a musical instrument. Good timbre depends upon the ability of the instrument to produce different harmonic frequencies at once. 444 time dilation: the slowing down of events as observed from a reference frame in relative motion 313 torque: also referred to as moment; the turning effect of a force about a pivot or reference point 132 traction: a tyres ability to grip a surface and, so, push a car forward 69 translational equilibrium: the state in which the sum of forces acting on an object is equal to zero 131 translucent: refers to material allows light rays to pass through it, although the rays will be dispersed 369 transmutation: the process in which an isotope changes by nuclear processes into an isotope of another element 556

transparent: refers to material that allows light to pass through it without dispersion or distortion 369 transverse wave: a wave in which the disturbance caused by the transfer of energy acts perpendicularly to the direction of motion of the wave itself 359 trough: the lowest part of a transverse wave 359 truss: a framework of beams forming a rigid structure 142 truss bridge: a bridge that uses a series of trusses to support the road deck. The trusses may be made of wood but are generally made of steel. 151 ultrasound: very high frequency sound. Ultrasound waves are sound waves that have a frequency above the range of human hearing; that is, greater than 20 000 Hz. 589 ultrasound transducer: a device for converting electrical energy to ultrasound energy or for converting ultrasound energy to electrical energy 595 uncertainty: the error implicit in the determination of any quantitative measurement 11 uncontrolled chain reaction: occurs when all of the neutrons released during a fission reaction go on to cause other fission reactions. The reaction rate increases rapidly and fission proceeds unabated. 559 uniform circular motion: circular motion with a uniform orbital speed 286 VASCAR: a device used by police to determine the speed of vehicles between two points. It is the acronym for Visual Average Speed Computer And Recorder. 49 vector: a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. A vector may be represented by an arrowed line segment. 23 velocity: the displacement of an object divided by time 46 velocitytime graph: a graph that displays the motion of an object with time on the horizontal axis and velocity on the vertical axis 57 virtual image: an image that is seen because light appears to be coming from it. It is unable to be captured on a screen. 368 voltage: the amount of electrical energy available at a point in a circuit for transformation by each coulomb of charge passing through that point. Voltage allows current to flow in a circuit. 458 voltage drop: see potential drop voltage rise: see potential rise voltmeter: a device used to measure voltage 468

658 GLOSSARY

voussoirs: the wedge-shaped stones forming the curved parts of an arch 146 watt: (W) the SI unit of power: 1 W = 1 J s1 243, 489 wave: a disturbance that transfers energy through a medium or across a distance 359 wavelength (L): the distance between corresponding points on successive waves 360 weight: the force applied to an object due to gravitational attraction; represented by the symbol w 31 white dwarfs: the stars close to the lower left corner of the HR diagram. These are exceptionally small, hot stars. 339

work: the transfer of energy to or from an object by the action of a force 234 work function: the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from a metal surface 528 X-rays: electromagnetic waves of very high frequency and very short wavelength 602 yield point: the point at which a material under stress will continue to strain without any increase in load occurring 118 Youngs modulus: a characteristic of a material calculated from the ratio of stress to strain that it exhibits under load 115

GLOSSARY 659