The relativelymlong wavelengths of visible light (3500-7500 A) interact with the macroscopic features of of mineral structures and provide

an essentially statistical view of the mineral. X-rays and gamma-rays, on the other hand, size of the individual atoms, a few Angstroms, and are a particularly delicate means of probing the details of an atomic array. Physic of x-rays X-rays and gamma-rays are the electromagnetic radiation having the shortest wavelength in the electromagnetic continuum (figure 12.9). those in the longer wavelength portion of the range are sometimes referred to as soft X-rays and those of the shorter wavelength as hard gamma-rays, especially if derived from nuclear reaction. Hard or soft in this context refers to more or less energetic radiation as represented by differing wavelength or frequency. Wavelength and frequency are related by the formula.. Where lamda is wavelength, v is frequency, and c is the speed of light, approximately 3,00 X 1010 cm/sec, further. Where delta E is the energy of the X-ray quanta and h is Planks constant. Thus, And we see that the energy of the radiation is directly proportional to frequency and inversely proportional to wavelength. X-rays are diminished by absorption by all matter through which they pass. The absorption is the of two types. Electrons lying in the path of the beam accept energy that causes them to vibrate in the phase with it and act as secondary sources of radiation. Absorption of this type is proportional to the atomic number and density of the absorber. Further, it increases progressively with wavelength, as shown by the curve in figure 13.1. the second type of absorption shows abrupt changes at wavelengths characteristic of each element-the vertical portions of the curvecritical energy (remember that wavelength and energy have an inverse relationship) at which an inner electron in an atom of the absorber is ejected. Thus, as energy impinging on an absorber increases and reaches a critical level, the new procces result in an abrupt increases in absorption. A further increases in energy (decrease in wavelength) will result in progressively less absorption by electron until the critical energy for another electron displacement is reached with a concomitant absorption jump or edge. Most X-rays used in laboratories are generated by the impact of high velocity electrons on a metal target in a vacuum tube. Electron are given off from heated wolfram filament , which serves as a chatode, and accelerated by a very high voltage to the metal target anode. The impact of electrons generates Xradiation with an energy distribution as shown in figure 13.2. the intensity increase, and both the wavelength of the maximum intensity and the minimum wavelength move toward shorter wavelengths as the tube voltage is increased. At some specific critical voltage, depending upon the target element, characteristic radiation appears as k alfa and k beta peaks of intensity above the bulge of continuous or white radiation. The radiation continuum represents the energy released by the chatode electrons as they interact with the target electrons.

The characteristic radiation coincides with the absorption edge previously mentioned. At the K absorption edges, an electron is ejected from the k shell , and electrons from higher energy levels drop into the vacated position, giving off the energy difference as characteristic radiation. A K electron may be replaced by an electron from an L shell or from an M shell, causing emission of k alfa or k beta radiation, respectively. Since the energy difference between K and M shells is greater than that between K and L shells (figure 13.3), k beta radiation is more energetic (shorter wavelength) than k alfa radiation. On the other hand, the k alfa peak has greater intensity because of larger number of L-K transition. Both K alfa1 and K alfa2 wavelength are emitted depending upon which L sublevel shell supplied the electron, but the wavelengths are very close (e.g. 1.5401 A and 1.54433 A for copper) and generally an average (k alfa) is used. A vacancy at an L or M level is filled by infall from higher levels with an additional energy release. The energy difference between energy levels diminishes, K-LL-MM-N.., and the emitted radiation above L si soft and seldom measured. The wavelength of characteristic radiation decreases with atomic number , as shown in figure 13.4 Copper K radiation is commonly used for diffraction studies, but it consist of two wavelengths, k alfa plus k beta, and monochromatic radiation is desired. Therefore, some method of eliminating the weaker k beta component is usually employed. The k absorption edge of nickel lies between the wavelengths of copper, k alfa and k beta as shown in figure 13.5. thus, placing a nickel foil in the beam path essentially eliminates the k beta radiation relative to the k alfa radiation, which although diminishe is affected to a much lasser extent. The white (continuous) radiation is variously absorbed depending upon the wavelengths of its components. The result is effectively monochromatic k alfa radiation. A second system for obtaining monochromatic radiation is through the use of crystal monochromaters. Crystals are bent in an arc such that, when placed in a beam of polychromatic radiation, preselected wavelength will be brought into focus at a desired point. Such monochromaters are the best source of monochromatic radiation because one wavelength is selected, whereas with the use of filters one wavelength band is minimized. Diffraction Friedrich and Knipping, working under the direction of Maxvon Laue, conducted the fisrt experiment demonstrating diffraction in 1912. Laue correctly interpreted and published the result of the experiment. In 1914 W.L. bragg published an alternative, simplified explanation of diffraction in terms of reflection, and braggs model has dominated the explanation of diffraction phenomena since. However, it must be realized that X-ray reflection are a convenient approximation and that the actual mechanism of diffraction is not reflection. A beam of monochromatic X-rays falling on a crystal surface is diffracted in a manner partly analogous to the reflection of light from a surface. The beam is actually scattered by each atom encountered, but the scattered rays are reinforced and may be measured only in certain specific direction in which they are in phase. In figure 13.6, a beam of X rays of wavelength lamda encounters a crystal surface with an angle of incidence; i.e.,ab and ac are normals to y and y dropped from a. the distance between parallel, adjacent atom layers is d. it may be seen that the ray y-y travels farther than the parallel ray x-x by a distance equals to e plus e. if the distance e+e is equel to zero or to a multiple of whole wavelengths,

the rays x and y are in phase and are reinforced. The length of e is dsinteta, and since abf and acf are equal triangles, e+e = 2(dsin teta) therefore, if n lamda =2(dsin teta), x rays x and y are in phase and will reinforce when n equals any small whole nmber. Ray z-z is in phase by the same reasoning. Not that when the conditions of the bragg equation are met, i=I=teta. Reinforcement of scattered rays will take place whenever the bragg equation, nlamda=2(dsin teta), is satisfied. Under these condisition, a beam of X rays will be diffracted from the crystal. It will also be observed in these circumstances that the angular difference in the direction of the incident and diffracted beam is equal to 2teta. A more correct view of diffraction is to consider that each electron in the beam path is set vibrating at the frequency of the impinging X rays. Each electron then acts as a source of X-rays, and crystal during diffraction is a three-dimensional framework containing uncounted X-rays source vibrating at the frequency of the impinging beam. A row of atomic point sources is shown in figure 13.7 at the centers of circles. Lines drawn tangent to wave fronts indicate the direction of beams preserved and strengthened by constructive interference. Destructive interference eliminates beams in all other direction . note that one wave front is parallel to the row of source , and the others are inclined at increasing angles on either side. The beam propagation directions are drawn as arrows normal to the wave fronts. These discrete, two dimensional wave fronts can be transformed into a family nested cones by rotating them about the row of sources, as shown in figure 13.8. The diffracted beams from a single row of sources are confined to a series of opposite-facing nested cones and, in crystal three different intersecting source rows must be present. In such a situation, the cones will mutually interfere and eliminate all diffracted beams axcept those lying mutually in all three cones, as shown in figure 13.9. it is these highly selected few beams that escape destructive interference and that are recorded in diffraction experiments. The diffracted beam from any two or three atom layers too weak to be recorded, and reinforcing beams from perhaps 100 layers are required for detectable beam. Diffraction becomes measurable only when a stack of atom layers is in position to satisfy braggs law. The powder method