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AEROFAN

INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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1. CHANGES OF CRUISE / STRAIGHT AND LEVEL FLIGHT For instrumental flights, three types of cruise are established depending on the A/C and /or simulator:

C-172 Low cruise: High cruise: 2. TURNS 80Kts 100 Kts

F33A 100 Kts 120 Kts 140 Kts

C310

F-101G

120 Kts 100 Kts 140 Kts 120 Kts 160 Kts 140 Kts

Normal cruise: 90Kts

Do the turn always maintaining the altitude and the airspeed The bank angle during standard turns (3 per second) shall be between 15-25 depending on airspeed we shall apply the following formula = TAS/10 + 7 The bank angle during S turns shall be 20. Anticipate finishing the turn with a number of degrees equal to 1/3 of the bank angle set. The maximum bank angle for instrumental flights: 30 3. COMPASS TURNS: When turning towards E/W roll out when compass at desired HDG When turning towards N/S roll out 30 before/after desired HDG Turns performed using the compass a reference.

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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4. CLIMBS AND DESCENDS 1000 ft. climb and descent maintaining airspeed. This maneuver must be performed maintaining a particular heading and in a continuous turn (20 of bank). When turning you must finish the maneuver with wings level The rate of descent and climb must be 500 ft/min and the airspeed normal cruise. The anticipation to level off will be 10% of the rate of climb/descent. 5. COORDINATION MANEUVERS Maneuver of instrumental flight based on climbs and descents with constant airspeed. Four types of "S" with turns are established: So - S2 - S3 - S4 o So Straight (No Turn). o S1 Change turns DOWNWARDS, (at the bottom). o S2 Change turn UPWARDS.(at the top) o S3 Change turn UPWARDS and DOWNWARDS, (change alternately at the top and at the bottom) o S4 Maintain initial turn during the entire maneuver. So- STRAIGHT. "S" This maneuver can be performed while climbing and/or descending. The following explanation is valid for descent. Adjust airspeed to normal cruise. Maintain initial heading during the entire maneuver Reduce power in order to descend 400 ft., while maintaining airspeed, initial heading and 500 ft /min rate of descent.

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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Apply the necessary power sufficiently in advance (30-40 ft 10% of the rate of climbs/descend) and at the same time change the position of the aircraft's nose in order to climb the aforementioned 400 ft, maintain airspeed and heading during the transition. Once the climb is established: maintain normal cruise and a rate of climb of 500 ft/min. Reduce power again, sufficiently in advance to initiate descending 300 ft. again while maintaining the parameters as mentioned before. Apply power sufficiently in advance and at the same time raise the aircraft's nose in order to climb 300 ft. Carry out the same technique in order to descend and climb 200 ft. At the end of the maneuver, carry out the CRUISE/LEVELOFF procedure, while maintaining airspeed and heading. NOTE: Taking into account the torque during climbs and descents, it shall be necessary to apply sufficient rudder correction (pedals). This means the right foot for climbs and the left foot for descents in order to maintain heading during the entire maneuver. S1 - DESCENDING TO THE LEFT This maneuver can be performed while climbing and or descending and turning to the right/left Adjust airspeed to normal cruise. Reduce throttle sufficiently in order to make the aircraft descend 400 ft., maintaining airspeed and at the same time turning the aircraft 20" to the left.

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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Once the descent is established, maintain normal cruise and a rate of descent of 500 ft./min. on the vertical speed indicator. Apply enough power sufficiently in advance, so that the aircraft climbs the aforementioned 400 ft, maintaining airspeed and at the same time changing the turn to the right. During the climb, maintain: o The aforementioned airspeed. o Bank angle and vertical speed indicator. o Reduce throttle again sufficiently in advance in order to make the aircraft descend 300 ft., maintaining the same parameters as in the aforementioned leg, without changing the turn. Apply enough power again, sufficiently in advance to make the aircraft climb the aforementioned 300 ft., maintaining the same parameters and at the same time, changing the turn to the left. Repeat the maneuver, descending and climbing 200 ft. and changing the turn downwards. At the end, carry out the CRUISE/LEVEL-OFF procedure, while maintaining airspeed and initial altitude. S2- DESCENDING TO THE RIGHT This maneuver can be performed while climbing and or descending and turning to the right/left Adjust airspeed to normal cruise. Reduce throttle sufficiently in order to make the aircraft descend 400 ft., maintaining airspeed and at the same time turning the aircraft 20 to the right. Once the descent is established, maintain 120 Kts and a rate of descent of 500 ft./min. on the vertical speed indicator.

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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Apply enough power, sufficiently in advance to make the aircraft climb the aforementioned 400 ft., maintaining the same parameters and without changing the turn. Reduce throttle again sufficiently in advance to make the aircraft descend 300 ft., maintaining the same parameters and changing the turn to the left. Repeat the same technique in order to make the aircraft climb the aforementioned 300 ft., maintaining the same parameters. Repeat descending and climbing 200 ft. After the final leg, carry out the CRUISE/LEVEL-OFF procedure, while maintaining airspeed and initial altitude. S3 - CLIMBING TO THE LEFT This maneuver can be performed while climbing and or descending and turning to the right/left Adjust airspeed to normal cruise. Apply sufficient power to make the aircraft climb 400 ft., maintain airspeed and at the same time carry out a 20 bank turn to the left. Once the climb has been established, maintain normal cruise and a rate of climb of 500 ft./min. on the vertical speed indicator. Reduce throttle enough, sufficiently in advance to make the aircraft descend 400 ft., maintaining the same parameters and at the same time changing the turn to the right. Apply enough power, sufficiently in advance to make the aircraft climb 300 ft., maintaining the same parameters and changing the turn to the left. Repeat the 300 ft. descent, changing the turn and maintaining the parameters.

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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Repeat the same technique in order to climb and descend 200 ft. At the end of the maneuver, maintain airspeed and initial altitude. S4 - CLIMBING TO THE RIGHT This maneuver can be performed while climbing and or descending and turning to the right/left Adjust airspeed to normal cruise. Apply sufficient power to make the aircraft climb 400 ft., maintain airspeed and at the same time carry out a 20 bank turn to the right. Once the climb has been established, maintain normal cruise and a rate of climb of 500 ft./min. on the vertical speed indicator. Reduce throttle enough, sufficiently in advance to make the aircraft descend the aforementioned 400 ft., maintaining the aforementioned parameters without changing the turn. Repeat the same technique in order to climb and descend 300 ft. without changing the turn. Repeat the same technique in order to climb and descend 200 ft. without changing the turn. At the end of the maneuver maintain airspeed and initial altitude. NOTES: Initial heading in S1 y S3 will be approximately the same (30) than the final heading. All the S's with turns shall be carried out with a bank angle of 20 and airspeed of normal cruise. The beginning of each maneuver shall be carried either to the right or to the left and either climbing or descending. Before initiating the S's the pilot shall indicated which type of "S with turn" he is going to carry out: climbing or descending and either to the right or to the left (e.g.: "S2 descending to the left").

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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Also remind the student before starting the maneuver to set all indications on the instruments to the desired position. Remember to anticipate the changes from climb to descend or vice versa with a 10% of the rate of climb/descend. (500ft/min>50ft; before reaching the desired altitude). 6. TIMED TURNS Airspeed to the corresponding normal cruise. Set the proper bank angle according with the airspeed to maintain a standard rate of turn (3 per second) Maintain normal cruise and the altitude during the turn Carry out the turn while maintaining the initial delay of 7/8 which shall coincide every 15 seconds with 45 of turn (approx). This maneuver has 360 amplitude and 2 minutes duration At the end of the maneuver maintain cruise and level flight at normal cruise NOTES: In the event of a delayed turn, when reading the timer (every 15 seconds) the pilot observes that the heading has delayed more than 7-8, the bank angle shall be increased sufficiently in order to obtain at the next timer reading a =30 max the heading is put forward until the ideal position (7-8 retard). If this ideal position has not been achieved yet, maintain the new bank angle until it is obtained and thereafter, recover to the initial bank angle In the event of an advanced turn, when reading the timer (every 15 seconds) the pilot observes that the heading has delayed less than 7-8", the bank turn shall be decreased sufficiently, so that the heading is retarded to the ideal position (7-8 retard). Bank angle 10 min.

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If this ideal position has not been achieved yet, maintain the new bank angle until it is achieved and thereafter, recover to the initial bank angle. Timed turns will be caned out in high, medium or low cruise. During the entire maneuver, the initial altitude and airspeed shall be maintained. In aircraft where it is installed, the initial heading shall be marked with the "heading bug" (heading indicator), and shall be monitored during the entire timed turn. 7. STRAIGHT TIMED CLIMBS AND DESCENTS

Adjust airspeed to normal cruise. Set power reference for descending or for climbing Maintain normal cruise and 500 ft/min Carry out 2 minutes climbs and descents of 1000 ft climbs and descent. In this maneuver you must recover the initial retard, the lost or gain of altitude must coincide with the time (125 ft. every 15 seconds) When you finish the maneuver carry out level off procedure maintaining normal cruise, the anticipation will be 10% of the rate of descent. NOTES: In the event of a delayed descent, the vertical speed indicator rate shall be increased and the throttle shall be adjusted sufficiently to make sure that the corresponding altitude will be reached at the next timer reading. In the event of the descent being too advanced, the vertical speed indicator rate shall be decreased and the throttle shall be sufficiently adjusted to make sure that the corresponding

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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altitude will be reached at the next timer reading. Timed climbs and descents shall have a range of 1,000 ft. and duration of two minutes. During these maneuvers, the initial retarding shall be recovered while making the variation of altitude (125 ft.) coincides every 15 seconds. During timed climbs, the airspeed shall be sacrificed for the vertical speed indicator rate, if necessary. Therefore, the propeller should be adjusted to FULL FORWARD (2,700 RPM on F33A) before initiating the maneuver. The initial heading shall be maintained during the entire maneuver. In aircraft where it is install led, the initial heading shall be indicated with the "heading bug". 8. SPIRALS The spiral is a timed maneuver which is formed by a combination of a timed turn and a timed climb or descent. This maneuver shall be initiated with a quadratic heading (90, 180, 270 and 360) and at an altitude in round 1,000 or 500 ft. (6,000, 5,500, 5,000 etc.). Spirals can be carried out either climbing or descending and either turning to the right or to the left. Airspeed normal cruise. Switch the timer ON. Initiate a descent or a climb, adjusting sufficient power in order to maintain airspeed and a vertical speed indicator rate of 500 ft./min. At the same time carry out a standard turn (3 per second) with the corresponding bank turn. Check every 15 seconds whether the initial heading passes every heading mark (the notches situated on the exterior of the rose of the heading indicator), with an approximate retard of 7-8 and the altimeter indicates a difference of 125, 250, 375, etc. ft. After the first minute has passed on the timer: the initial

AEROFAN

INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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heading shall coincide with the original heading plus 180 minus the aforementioned retard of 7-8. After the second minute has passed the timer: the initial heading should be in a position of 7-8 retard and the altimeter should indicate a difference of 1,000 ft. with the initial altitude. NOTES: Spirals shall have a range of 1,000 ft. and duration of 2 minutes. During climbing spirals, the airspeed shall be sacrificed for the vertical speed indicator rate, if necessary. Therefore, the propeller shall be adjusted to FORWARD position (2,700 RPM on F33A) before initiating the maneuver. In aircraft where it is installed, the initial heading shall be indicated with the "heading bug". When flying below 5000 ft do not use more then 1500ft/min on the VSI (for descending). 8. FIGURE "B" The figure "B" consists of a series of straight timed legs, timed turns and maneuvers combined amongst them. It shall be performed as follows: Adjust airspeed to NORMAL CRUISE (120 Kts) Initiate the maneuver with a quadratic heading.(ie;360). Switch the timer ON. Maintain on the first straight leg: NORMAL CRUISE, ALTITUDE and HEADING. After the first minute has passed, carry out a timed turn of 45 to the left.(315) In the next straight leg, maintain HEADING, NORMAL CRUISE and ALTITUDE. After one minute from the beginning of this leg, carry out a timed turn to the right of 180 in amplitude (135), while

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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maintaining ALTITUDE and reducing airspeed to LOW CRUISE (100kts). Duration of the turn: 1 minute Maintain during 30 sec, LOW CRUISE, ALTITUDE and HEADING. After those 30 sec canny out a timed turned of 45 to the right.(180) In the next straight leg, maintain during 2 min LOW CRUISE, ALTITUDE and HEADING, after 2 minutes from the beginning of this leg, carry out a timed turn of 45 to the right (225), while maintaining LOW CRUISE and ALTITUDE. In the next straight leg, maintain during 45 sec LOW CRUISE, ALTITUDE and HEADING, after 45 seconds from the beginning of this leg, carry out a timed turn of 225 to the left (360), while increasing airspeed to HIGH CRUISE (140Kts) and maintaining ALTITUDE. In the next straight leg, maintain initial HEADING (360), HIGH CRUISE and ALTITUDE. After two minutes from the beginning of this leg, carry out a timed turn of 180 to the right (180), while reducing airspeed to NORMAL CRUISE and maintaining ALTITUDE. In the next straight leg, maintaining NORMAL CRUISE, HEADING (180) and ALTITUDE, carry out the APPROACH PROCEDURE, 10 seconds before the two minutes are completed, set flaps to TAKE-OFF position (10). After the aforementioned time has passed, carry out a 180 and five hundred feet descending spiral to the right maintaining a 500 ft/minute rate of descend and NORMAL CRUISE. In the next straight leg, maintain ALTITUDE and HEADING while reducing airspeed to LOW CRUISE, five seconds before the minute is completed set the LANDING GEAR DOWN, and when the minute is completed carry out a five hundred feet descend maintaining 500 ft/minute rate of descend. Completed the LANDING CHECKLIST before reaching minimums.

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Maintain minimums during 30 sec and then carry out the go around procedure to the initial altitude (1000 ft), during this procedure maintaining 100 kts and HEADING.

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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10. TRACKING Most of IFR flights are done within a route (Airway) designed between two Radio navigation AIDS (or station) for this reason the A/C must follow (Track) certain routes but here comes the problem as you can follow then INBOUND (Arriving) or OUTBOUND (Departing) the station. Generally speaking tracking is following a certain ROUTE / COURSE inbound or outbound to/from a station in the case we are dealing with OBI, as well as HSI we should keep the CDI centered in desired course, when dealing with RMI we should keep the needle pointing to the desired route. For practical purposes we are going to call the tip of the needle, COURSE and the tail of the needle, RADIAL.

HSI

OBI

RMI

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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11. INTERCEPTIONS We are going to distinguish between to main types of interceptions, INBOUND and OUTBOUND INBOUND When proceeding inbound to a station, ATC may require you to arrive via a different route, which means that you have to intercept and proceed on a new inbound course. Before continuing any further we should explain that when arriving to a station the radial and the course are opposite. (They do not coincide) In arrivals we will always using inbound course. The max intercepting angle will be 90. For arrivals the following rule shall be applied.

D C 30
Meaning: D: Desired course. C: Current course. We can determine 4 types of arrivals depending on the angles between D and C. 1. When the angle between D and C (x) is lower or equal than 15; (X <. 15) you must apply double X.

D C 2X
2. When the angle between D and C (x) is higher than 15 or is lower or equal than 60 , (15 < X S 60), you must apply 30.

D C 30

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3. When the angle between D and C (x) is higher than 60 or is lower than 90 (60 < X < 90; you must apply Z.

D C Z
NOTES: Up to a max a of 90" which means Z will be an amount of 10 or 20 never to exceed 90 between D -> Z 4. When the angle between D and C (x) is equal to or higher than 90, (X t 90), it is considered an OFFSET ARRIVALS we will follow the next procedure. a. Set HDG of desired radial b. Wait for "abeam" the station. c. Count 1 minute. d. Turn 90 towards the station. e. Turn 90 again to the same side you did before to intercept inbound. f. Wait until intercepting the desired course. OUTBOUND When departing a station RADIAL AND COURSE is the same thing. The angle of interception will be 45 in all cases. We shall apply the following rule:

C D 45
Meaning: C: Current course. D: Desired course.

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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We can determine 3 types of departures depending on the angles between C and D. 1. When the angle between C and D (x) is lower or equal than 15 (X <, 15) you must apply X

C D X
2. When the angle between C and D (x) is higher than 15 or is lower or equal than 90 , (15 < X <, 90), you must apply 45.

C D 45

3. When the angle between C and D (x) is higher than 90, (X > 90), it is considered an OFFSET DEPARTURE we will follow the next procedure.

1. Set HDG of desired radial 2. Wait for "abeam" the station. 3. Turn 45 towards from the station. 4. Wait until intercepting the desired course.

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12. HOLDING PROCEDURES A holding procedure is a procedure used to lose time or lose altitude. There are two types of holding procedures: Standard (all turns to the right) and Non Standard (all turns to the left). Also the timing varies with the altitude: for Holding Patterns above 14,000 feet the legs will be of 1.5 minutes, and at or below 14,000 feet the legs will be of 1 minute. A holding procedure can be defined over a VOR, an NDB, a VOR/DME, an interception of two radials, or even on a radial and a distance.

STANDARD

NON STANDARD

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There are three ways to enter in a Holding Pattern depending where you are coming from: -Sector 1 Procedure (false). PARALLEL. -Sector 2 Procedure (teardrop). OFFSET. -Sector 3 Procedure (direct). DIRECT.

Sector 1 Entry in the Holding Pattern. FALSE We will proceed to the station (ref), after passing we will proceed on the departing heading and when the time comes turn inside the Holding Pattern (if all the turns are to be done to the right then it will be to the left, and so on). After the turn we will try to interception the inbound course and if within 30 seconds we cannot make interception we will proceed straight in to the station (once over the station we will fly a normal Holding Pattern).

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Sector 2 Entry In the Holding Pattern. TEARDROP We will proceed to the station (ref), after passing we will turn 30 away with the inbound heading towards the inside of the Holding Pattern. We will maintain that course/radial for one minute. When the time comes, we will turn (if all the turns are to be done to the right then it will be to the left, and so on) to intercept the inbound course and if within 30 seconds we cannot make it we will proceed straight in to the station (once over the station we will fly a normal Holding Pattern).

Sector 3 Entry In the Holding Pattern. DIRECT We will proceed to the station (ref.) after passing we will turn to outbound heading (+/- wind drift correction) and proceed for a certain time (one minute +/- time corrections). After that we will turn to intercept the inbound course and proceed.

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NOTE: A five degree margin at both sides of the sector is permitted in such a way that if the heading to enter the holding procedure is within this area you can choose the kind of entrance you want to make (if you have to choose the order will be first Teardrop, then Direct and the last option, False). Timing in the Holding Pattern. Adjust the outbound leg in such a way that the inbound leg takes one minute to reach the station. The general rule will be: As a general rule, the outbound leg shall be adjusted by adding double what is remaining or by subtracting half of what is over, above the standard inbound minute When entering the Holding Pattern: If the angle between our desired heading and our current heading is less than 30, we will start taking times when passing over the station. If the angle between our desired heading and our current heading is more than 30, we will start taking times when finishing our desired heading and with the wings leveled.

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INSTRUMENTAL FLIGHT NAVIGATION

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Wind drifts corrections in the Holding Pattern. The general rule will be: "Correct three times the DC used in inbound when flying outbound." Sometime the triple of the DC may be too much for a certain wind. NOTE ABOUT HOLDING PATTERN. 1.Two minutes before reaching the station, adjust the aircraft to Holding Speed. 2.All turns are to be made at a bank angle of 25 degrees or a rate of 3 degrees per second. which ever requires the lesser bank (Doc 8168.PANS-OPS, Volume 1) 3.When inbound we should start counting time established inbound and over the desired course (wings leveled). 4.In the event we have finished the turn to inbound inside of the Holding Pattern. We shall start counting times once we are established with an interception angle to inbound course. 5.In the event we have finished the turn to inbound outside of the Holding Pattern, we shall start counting times when passing through the inbound heading. 6.When outbound we should start counting time crossing the "abeam radial or reaching the desired outbound heading with wings leveled. (Whichever is later) 7.In the event it has gone by 30 seconds and we haven't intercept the inbound course, we shall proceed to the station straight away, (direct to the station) 8.While doing Holding Patterns with an OBI or HSI, and after passing the station it is important to set the CDI in the perpendicular radial so as to determine the "abeam" and start counting times.

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9.When flying at MHA, we shall try to avoid entering in a False (parallel) (as you don't have any ground reference,) 10.When entering in a holding pattern with a FALSE (parallel), when turning inbound it is recommended to bank approximately 30.(Only for parallel entry) 11.When entering in a holding pattern via an OFFSET entry, the target is to be on the offset radial before 30" after passing the station. 13. DME ARC Consist of a series of 10 turns towards the same side while flying the same distance on the DME. The principle consists of flying perpendicular heading to the radial where you are at the moment DC due to the wind.

To Enter the arc we will apply the following. 0.5% x GS (anticipation in NM)

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i.e.: When flying with GS = 120 Kt 0,5% GS = 0,5% 120= 0,6 NM before reaching the desired arc we will start turning towards it. If we have IAS = 100Kt > Remember (2 kt x 1000 ft) -> GS = 120 Kt When flying the DME arc we will try to fly the perpendicular heading from 10 to 10 radials. In the event the distance is lower than the desired I will maintain the heading to return to the desired distance. But if the distance is higher than the desired one. I will turn to inbound (about 10") and wait to see the effect on the DME indicator. In case it will not be enough you should turn 10 more to the same side and wait.

NOTES: If still is not enough check alignment between 60 and compass and other instruments.

To leave the arc we will apply the following: 0.5% x GS 60/DME DISTANCE (anticipation in radials)

i.e. When flying DME ARC (GS = 120 Kt/10 d) 0,5% 120 60/10 = 3,6 4 Radials before reaching the desired one we should start turning (inbound/outbound) along the desired radial.

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Other formula could be: 3 X GS/(10 X dist) = 3 X 120/(10 X 10) = 3,6 4 Radials.

14. POINT TO POINT NAVIGATION The main point consists of drawing an imaginary vector towards the point, which you desire proceed (from any position determined by radial and distance of the same navaid). We set both points in any instruments (Radial + Distance) then we join together those two pints by means of a vector and turn parallels we get a heading very approximate to the one we should fly to proceed to the 2 point.

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NOTES: Sometimes the DME man read initially less and less distance and later on more and more distance. (Condition: Only when a is higher than 90) 15. TIME & DISTANCE TO THE STATION With RMI: 1. We place the A/C with P = 85 or 275

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2. We maintain heading until obtaining a P = 90" or 270

3. When reaching this point we start timing until P = 100 or 260

4. When reaching P = 100 or 260 we stop timing and apply the following formula. T = t (sec) / X (degrees) Meaning: T = Minutes to the station t = Time in seconds to change indications

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X" = Degrees of change indications. D = TAS (Kts) T (min) / X (degrees) 60 * TAS = Use as much as possible GS instead of TAS.

With OBI: Center CDI with To indication (Or from) Maintain a heading that differs 85 or 275 with the desired course set in the OBI. Center CDI again Start timing when the heading differs 90 with the desired course set in the OBI. Set new course in CDI (-10) when station is on the left. (+10) when station is on the right. When CDI starts moving slop timing when centered. Then apply the formula. Time to station = t (sec) /10

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