ISBN 91-973125-0-9
2004 PLT and DEC. v 5.0 E
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PCBs
Fig. 27-1
Fig. 12A-1
Fig. 0-1
Fig. 33-3
Copyright 2004 by
Preben Lund Technology (PLT) and DATA Electronic Consult (DEC).
All rights reserved. No part of this CD-ROM or printouts from the CD-ROM may be reproduced in any
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The buyer of this course material, however, is entitled to use and copy the material in any
quantity needed but only for in-house use, and only within his own company and only at one location.
Use of the course material for open public courses is not permitted.
Neither the publishers nor the author and designer guarantee the accuracy or completeness of
any information published in the CD-ROM, and neither the publisher nor the author/designer shall be
responsible for any errors, omissions, damages or patent infringements arising out of using the
information given in the CD-ROM.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Preface .............................................................................................. 19
Chapter 1 .......................................................................................... 20
Introduction ..................................................................................... 21
1.
Laminate ........................................................................................... 23
Material Description .............................................................................................. 23
Survey of Resin Systems ......................................................................................... 24
Copper Foils .......................................................................................................... 24
Base Material ......................................................................................................... 25
Laminate Thickness (including copper foil) ........................................................... 26
Panel size................................................................................................................ 26
Green PCBs ........................................................................................................... 27
Most Common Type of Laminate .......................................................................... 27
2.
3.
4.
4 A.
Lamination ....................................................................................... 41
Purpose of Lamination ........................................................................................... 41
Process ................................................................................................................... 41
4 B.
Registration ...................................................................................... 43
Purpose of Registration .......................................................................................... 43
Principles ............................................................................................................... 43
Optical Registration to the PTH Pattern Using Diazo Film ................................... 43
Optical Registration to Registration Holes in the Panel Area .................................. 44
Pin Registration to Registration Holes Drilled or Punched in the Panel Area ......... 44
Combination of Optical Registration and Pin Registration .................................... 45
Automatic Registration .......................................................................................... 45
4 C.
Exposure ........................................................................................... 46
Purpose of Exposure ............................................................................................... 46
Process ................................................................................................................... 46
4 D.
Developing ....................................................................................... 47
Purpose of Developing ........................................................................................... 47
Process ................................................................................................................... 47
Plotting the Film .................................................................................................... 47
Phototool (Film) Development .............................................................................. 48
Inspection and Touch-up ....................................................................................... 48
Coating of the Phototool ....................................................................................... 48
Exposure of the Plating Resist ................................................................................ 49
4 E.
5.
Electroplating ................................................................................... 54
Purpose of Electroplating ....................................................................................... 54
Principle of the Electrolytic Process ........................................................................ 54
5 A.
5 B.
5 C.
Tin Plating........................................................................................ 61
Purpose .................................................................................................................. 61
Process ................................................................................................................... 61
Application ............................................................................................................ 61
5 D.
6.
7.
Etching ............................................................................................. 65
Purpose of Etching ................................................................................................. 65
Process ................................................................................................................... 65
Treatment .............................................................................................................. 66
Etch Factor ............................................................................................................ 67
Undercut, Overhang and Outgrowth ..................................................................... 67
Track Width vs. Copper Foil Thickness.................................................................. 68
Progress of Etching................................................................................................. 69
8.
Reflowing ......................................................................................... 71
Purpose of Reflowing ............................................................................................. 71
Technology Change ............................................................................................... 71
Process ................................................................................................................... 71
Reflowing Problems ............................................................................................... 72
Coverage of Hole Knee .......................................................................................... 72
Coverage of Track Edges ........................................................................................ 73
Overhang ............................................................................................................... 73
Warp and Twist ...................................................................................................... 73
9.
10.
11.
11 C. Registration ...................................................................................... 88
Purpose of Registration .......................................................................................... 88
Process ................................................................................................................... 88
Optical Registration to Pad Pattern by Using Diazo Film ....................................... 88
Optical Registration to Registration Pads in the Panel Area .................................... 88
Pin Registration to Registration Holes Drilled or Punched in the Panel Area ......... 88
Combination of Optical Registration and Pin Registration .................................... 89
Automatic Registration .......................................................................................... 89
11 D. Exposure ........................................................................................... 90
Purpose of Exposure ............................................................................................... 90
Process ................................................................................................................... 90
12.
Solderability Preservation.................................................................. 92
Purpose of Solderability Preservation ...................................................................... 92
Methods ................................................................................................................. 92
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
10
Chapter 3.
31.
32.
33.
Prepreg............................................................................................ 157
Purpose of Prepreg ............................................................................................... 157
Process ................................................................................................................. 157
Selecting Prepreg Thicknesses ............................................................................... 157
Resin Filling of Openings in Ground and Voltage Planes ..................................... 158
Lamination Voids ................................................................................................. 158
Hole Wall Pull-Away ............................................................................................ 158
Barrel Cracking and Deformation of Pads ............................................................ 159
34.
11
35.
36.
37.
12
Chapter 4.
13
Chapter 5.
51.
52.
53.
Manufacturing Processes ................................................................. 188
53 A. Single-Sided Flexible Circuits.......................................................... 189
Phototooling ........................................................................................................ 190
Cutting and Flattening ......................................................................................... 191
Tooling Holes ...................................................................................................... 191
Imaging ............................................................................................................... 191
Etching ................................................................................................................ 192
Resist Stripping .................................................................................................... 192
Covercoat ............................................................................................................. 192
Lamination .......................................................................................................... 193
Lamination by means of a Hot-Roller Machine.................................................... 193
Lamination in a Lamination Press ........................................................................ 193
Screen-Printed Covercoats.................................................................................... 195
Solder Coating and Hot-Air Leveling ................................................................... 195
Drilling/Punching ................................................................................................ 195
Contouring .......................................................................................................... 195
14
15
Chapter 6.
16
Chapter 7.
17
Chapter 8.
Chapter 9
Appendices
18
Preface
n our discussions with PCB manufacturers worldwide, we discovered, quite surprisingly, that many of
the layouts they receive from their customers are of unacceptable quality. To prevent this and other
manufacturing-related problems, it is imperative that all persons involved in PCB fabrication - from PCB
designers and circuit engineers and those working in the fabrication shop - have sufficient knowledge of the
different process steps in order to achieve total quality.
The purpose of this material is to give a general overview of what takes place in a PCB
manufacturers plant. This material has been written for in-house education/training. Almost every process
description includes a picture of a PCB cross-section. As the process moves forward, each part of the process
is added to the preceding picture.
The original manuscript and drawings have been prepared by:
Preben Lund
Preben Lund Technology (PLT)
Rolighedsvej 36, 3460 Birkerod, Denmark
Fax. +45 45 82 82 42
e-mail: prebenlund@plt.dk
www.
The text was then edited; all pictures digitized, redrawn and colored; and the complete educational
material designed and produced on CD-ROM by:
Gran Clarmo
DATA Electronic Consult KB (DEC)
Freningsgatan 16 E, 411 27 Gteborg, Sweden
eFax +44 - 870 130 4008
E-mail : info@dataelectronic.com
Web: www.dataelectronic.com
The complete course material was prepared in digital form on Apple Macintosh and is available
on a CD-ROM so that the pages can be viewed on a computer screen and color printouts can be made by
the customer. Printouts can be made from any ink-jet printer, laser printer or from a color laser copier. The
complete CD-ROM contains a text- and figure -section with 275 pages in color. Each figure and table is
included in a separate section 285 pages long for printing out in color as overhead transparencies or slides.
Preben Lund
Gran Clarmo
19
Chapter 1
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Fig. 12A-1
Chapter 1
20
Fig. 12A-1
Process
After pickling (a light etching), the board (a) is clamped in the clamp fixture (b) of the solder coating
machine, ( Pictures A and B of Figure 12A-2). After fluxing and preheating, the board is immersed in a
solder pot (c) for a specified dwell time. The molten solder, which has an alloy composition of 60/40 or
63/37 (tin/lead), wets the exposed copper areas, including the edges of the tracks and pads. Edge coverage,
unlike that of ordinary reflowed boards, does not depend on the amount of tin/lead on the surface because
the edges are in direct contact with the molten solder.
It should be noted that the board receives a certain thermal shock when immersed in the solder
pot. If the copper in the through-plated hole is not sufficiently ductile, barrel or corner cracking can occur.
During withdrawal from the solder pot, the board passes between a pair of air knives (d). The hot
air jets (e) produced by the air knives level the solder on both sides of the board by removing the excess
solder. After cooling, the board is automatically passed to a cleaning station where the flux residues are
cleaned off.
It is possible to equip an ordinary hot-air leveling machine with rollers just below the air knives
so that most of the excess solder is removed by the squeezing action of the rollers before the final leveling
takes place.
93
Horizontal hot-air leveling machines have been on the market for several years. The advantage
is that the pads become more flat than in the case of vertical hot-air leveling machines. In production, the
advantage is a continuous workflow because of the conveyorization of the horizontal machine.
When the machine is properly adjusted, there is no perceptible difference between solder holes
that have been tin/lead plated and reflowed or solder coated and hot-air leveled. The advantage of the solder
coating and hot-air leveling process is that there is no tin/lead on tracks or ground planes to cause wrinkling
or flaking of the solder mask during machine soldering.
B
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d
c
Fig. 12A-2
94
Speed of Withdrawal
After solder coating, the board is passed between air knives where the speed of withdrawal plays an
important part. Insufficient speed causes excessive removal of tin/lead, and under worst-case conditions
only a very thin coating, similar to that of hydrosqueegee-treated boards, is left. Because of the very thin
layer, the formation of intermetallic tin/copper compounds can create solderability problems later.
Excessive speed leaves too much tin/lead on the board with a risk of blocked holes. A
manufacturer of solder coating equipment warrants that no more than 0.1% of the holes will be blocked
provided the ratio between the board thickness and the hole diameter is kept less than 2. This assumes,
however, that the machine is adjusted correctly.
Adjustment of Air Knives
All air knife adjustments have to be correct. This applies particularly to the:
air pressure
clearance between the air knives and the board
offset between the air knives
Incorrect adjustments can cause the following faults:
a thin tin/lead layer with the risk of solderability problems
a thick tin/lead layer with some solder holes too narrow, or even totally closed
an unacceptable front-to-back variation in the tin/lead thickness
Webbing
If the solder pot level is too low, flux can accumulate on the surface of the molten tin/lead and become tarlike because of evaporation of the solvent. The flux can now become intermixed with the tin/lead, which
is circulated just as in a wave soldering machine, or it can stick to the surface when the board is withdrawn
from the solder pot. Small tin/lead drops can form during the leveling, and when these drops are trapped
by the sticky, tar-like flux, they can possibly solder to the pattern and create short-circuits.
Solder Sagging
When the board is withdrawn from the solder pot and leveled, the molten tin/lead tends to run downwards.
This so-called solder sagging can form uneven surfaces of the solder pads, which can be very problematic
with SMT boards. Great care must be shown when adjusting the machine to minimize solder sagging as
much as possible.
Measurements of the evenness of solder coated and hot-air leveled pads show that there is a fairly
big difference in solder thickness over a pad. This is illustrated by Figure 12A-3. At one end of the pad,
the thickness can be as little as 1 or 2 m (0.04 to 0.08 mil) and at the other end as much as 40 to 50 m
(1.6 to 2 mils), although the illustration only shows about 25 m (1 mil).
95
m
25
20
SnPb
15
10
5
Cu5Sn6
Cu3Sn
Cu
Fig. 12A-3
Intermetallic Compounds
As discussed in Section 8, "Coverage of Hole Knee", intermetallic compounds such as Cu3Sn and Cu5Sn6
are formed at the interface between tin/lead and copper with a thickness of 1 m (0.04 mil). This could be
even more dependant upon the temperature and time conditions of the solder coating and hot-air leveling
process and in the customers stock room. Cu5Sn6 crystals can grow up through the thin tin/lead layer to
the surface and become oxidized, which causes reduced solderability. The formation of intermetallic
compounds is shown in Figure 12A-3.
Copper Contamination
If the tin/lead in the solder coating machine is contaminated with more than 0.5 % copper, a tin/copper
eutecticum can form and create solderability problems with the finished boards. The cause of this
contamination is copper dissolving from the copper surface of the boards. This is why the copper contents
of the solder pot must be analysed on a regular basis.
96
Fig. 12B-1
Fig. 12B-2
97
Process
Electroless nickel is deposited by an autocatalytic process based on a precious metal catalyst and an internal
reducing agent. The deposition takes place as long as the chemistry is active. In general, the deposit is stopped
at a thickness of 5 m (0.2 mil) with the deposition rate being about 5 m (0.2 mil) in 15 to 20 min. The
minimum thickness required to be an effective barrier for copper migration from the underlying copper is
2.5 m (0.1 mil.).
Since nickel is a fairly active metal, which quickly oxidizes so that it becomes difficult to solder to
the nickel surface after a short period, the nickel layer must be coated with immersion gold.
Immersion gold deposition follows the nickel deposition and is based on an exchange reaction
where the nickel on the surface is replaced with a thin layer of gold. This reaction stops automatically when
all of the exposed nickel at the surface is replaced with gold. In other words, the process is self-limiting at
a gold thickness of 0.2 m (8 in.). In order to protect the nickel, the minimum layer thickness of gold is
about 0.025 m (1 in.).
These processes are carried out by immersing the boards in tanks where the non-electrolytic
deposition takes place. It should be noted that in many articles the word "plating" is used instead of
"deposition", but in its deeper sense, plating means an electrolytic process (see Section 5 about electroplating).
There are two alternative deposition methods. With one method, nickel/gold is deposited
selectively in plated through holes and on pads not covered by the solder mask, which has been applied
before the nickel/gold process. This requires a minimum usage of gold and is the most common execution.
Nickel/gold can also be deposited all over the board on all tracks and pads, after which the solder
mask is applied. This method is more expensive and is primarily used in cases where the boards are exposed
to very harsh environments because all tracks are encapsulated by nickel/gold. Keep in mind that solder
masks are more or less permeable so that bare copper under the solder mask can be attacked.
Ni/Au
Fig. 12B-3
Some PCB manufacturers, often those located in the Far East, use the so-called flash gold, which
is actually a very thin layer of gold on nickel. The layer thickness is so low [0.01 m (0.4 in.) or less] that
it does not offer any protection to the underlying nickel, which soon becomes oxidized. In other cases, it
turns out that the nickel/gold is electrolytically plated, which means that it has been used as an etch resist,
leaving the edges of tracks and pads in bare copper. Sometimes, it is very difficult to clarify what the PCB
manufacturer means when specifying nickel/gold.
98
4000
2000
Ni/Au
T
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1
13
25
37
Months
Fig. 12B-4
Solderability
Solderability is high but the soldering time is a little longer (about 5 sec.) compared with wave soldering (3
sec.).
Stressing of Boards
Because the boards have not been exposed to high temperatures, no stressing of the plated-through holes
will occur. Under unfortunate conditions, this could otherwise lead to barrel and innerlayer cracks. Another
advantage of the low-temperature processes is that no delamination of the laminate will take place.
Dimensional Stability
Since the boards are not subjected to temperatures above 90 C (194 F) during manufacture, the
dimensional stability is high. This is of great importance when screen-printing solder paste on fine-line SMT
boards because a better fit between the stencil and the pattern is achieved than in the case of solder coated
and hot-air leveled boards.
Contamination of Board Surface
Since there is no flux residue on the board surface as there is with solder-coated and hot-air leveled boards,
surface contamination is considerably lower. Measurements recently published indicate a 4.5 g NaCl/
sq.cm (29 g NaCl/sq.in.) contamination of solder coated and hot-air leveled boards and just 1.5 g NaCl/
sq.cm (9.6 g NaCl/sq.in.) contamination of nickel/gold boards.
Fiducials
Fiducials, also called optical targets, achieve a better definition because of the thin nickel/gold layer.
99
Chapter 2
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Fig. 26-1
Chapter 2
123
Nonplated-through-hole boards are usually single-sided, but in some cases, it is necessary to use
double-sided boards although competition does not allow the use of plated-through holes. The descriptions
given in Sections 21 to 27 are based on single-sided boards. However, double-sided boards can be produced
by transferring the image to both sides of the board in close registration.
When double-sided nonplated-through-hole boards are used, it is frequently necessary to establish
via connections. The simplest way is a clinched jumper wire soldered to the pads on both sides of the board.
See Picture A of Figure 20-2. It is not good practice to utilize component leads as via connections.
Another approach is to use eyelets, which are hollow solder or tin plated copper rivets. Eyelets can
be funnel-flanged and soldered in place on both sides of the board. See Picture B of Figure 20-2. Or, they
can be flat-flanged and fused (reflowed) on both sides of the boards. See Picture C of Figure 20-2. This
requires, however, that the pads be tin/lead covered.
Fig. 20-2
A more modern way of establishing via connections is to use PTF (polymer thick film) technology.
It has been used for many years in the manufacture of high-temperature thick-film hybrid circuits, and has
also found applications in the PCB marketplace. PTF technology can be used for producing tracks, straps,
resistors and printed-through holes on laminates for PCBs at a low costs.
The technology of producing double-sided boards with PTF printed-through holes instead of
ordinary plated-through holes is addressed in the following. This technology is well suited for mass
production since it is based on a number of screen-printing, drying and curing processes for PTF paste.
PTF paste consists of a conductive element, usually silver particles, polymer organics and a solvent,
which provides the necessary viscosity for screen-printing.
125
As Figure 20-3A shows, silver paste is screen-printed on the copper foil of the top (side A ) of the
board. By drawing a vacuum, the silver paste is pulled down through the hole until it covers about 2/3 to
3/4 of the hole wall whereupon it is dried. The board is then turned upside down. See Figure 20-3B. Silver
paste is screen-printed on the copper foil of side B, and vacuum is drawn to pull the silver paste down into
the hole so that it overlaps the first applied layer of silver paste. After drying and curing, a printed-through
silver hole is created. The hole offers a good electrical connection from side to side. It should be noted,
however, that such holes shall never be used as component mounting holes only as via holes. If solder from
a wave soldering process comes into contact with the silver, it will dissolve the silver. This phenomenon,
which is called leaching, is well known from bipolar SMT components such as chip resistors where a nickel
or palladium barrier under the silver is required.
PTF Silver Paste Screen-Printed on Side A
Vacuum
Table
Fig. 20-3A
Vacuum
Table
Fig. 20-3B
Printed-through holes must, therefore, be protected by screen-printing a solder mask across the
holes. In some cases,they must be further protected by screen-printing dots on top of the holes, e.g., when
screen-printing the component notation.
It should also be noted that silver has a tendency to migrate, which means that silver ions move
between two neighboring tracks under the presence of an electric field and humidity. This can cause a
leakage current or even a short-circuit. A protective layer such as solder mask can prevent such unfortunate
problems.
126
20.
Laminate
Fig. 20-4
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Fig. 32-7
Chapter 3
142
32.
Innerlayer Laminates
Process
The most predominant and simple types of innerlayer laminates are produced in very much the same way
as nonplated-through-hole boards. The main difference is that innerlayer laminates are very thin and
inclined to flexing during manufacturing, such as during etching, unless special precautions are taken. In
general, innerlayer laminates are not drilled until lamination has been completed.
Innerlayer laminates with via holes (buried via holes and blind via holes) are produced by means
of more complicated processes involving through-plating of the via holes. Therefore, the via holes have to
be drilled prior to the plating and lamination processes.
Innerlayer laminates are divided in the following groups:
D
Fig. 32-1
150
C
Fig. 32-2
Innerlayer laminates with buried via holes are produced in the same way as bare-copper platedthrough-hole boards, see Section 10. When innerlayer laminates with buried via holes are laminated, the
via holes are filled with epoxy resin originating from the prepreg sheets. The via hole should be 100% filled
with resin, and the thickness of the copper wall should not be less than 13 m (0.5 mil).
Fig. 32-3
151
Fig. 32-4
Fig. 32-5
152
Because of the panel plating of the outerlayer, the copper layer is 25 to 30 m (10 to 12 mils) thicker
than usual. Unless an ultrathin copper foil is used, such as a 9 m (0.25 oz.) foil, serious undercutting can
take place when etching the board.
Blind via holes are often specified with a finished diameter of 0.20 or 0.25 mm (8 or 10 mils), which
means that the holes can be drilled by means of 0.3 mm (12 mils) drill bits. These via holes are often located
in footprint pads.
Figure 32-5 shows that the blind via hole is closed by a "copper lid". In order to avoid soldering
problems, some PCB customers set requirements to the flatness of the copper lid. A possible depression shall
not be more than 25 m (1 mil), but often nothing about projections is specified. Projections should be
considered most problematic when soldering SMT components, such as BGAs.
Figure 32-6 shows an example of a closed blind via hole with a virtually flat surface of the copper
lid. The via hole should be 100% filled with resin, and the thickness of the copper wall should not be less
than 13 m (0.5 mil).
Fig. 32-6
153
The other method is based on a drilling machine that can lower and raise the drill bit in a very
precise way. Thin laminates are produced as double-sided innerlayer laminates etched on one side only, with unetched copper on the outerlayers. Following lamination, all holes to be plated-through are drilled.
The blind via holes, however, are drilled just through the copper pads of the adjacent innerlayer, which
requires precision drilling in depth. See Figure 32-7. The board is now processed as a normal platedthrough-hole board. Although the via holes are not going through the entire board, all through-plating
processes are possible since the depth of the holes is rather limited, e.g. 0.2 to 0.3 mm (8 to 12 mils) in depth.
The insulation from the bottom of the drilled hole to the underlying copper layer, should not be less than
0.25 mm (10 mils).
Fig. 32-7
154
RCC
Fig. 32- 8A
D
d
Fig. 32- 8B
Fig. 32- 8C
155
The build-up of the boards outerlayer, including the dielectric material between the outerlayer
and the adjacent innerlayer, is based on RCC (a registered trademark of Allied Signal Laminate Systems
Inc.), meaning resin coated copper foil. In some cases, it is called RCF meaning resin coated foil. It consists
of a layer of resin supported on electrodeposited copper foil. As shown in Figure 32-9, the resin contains
two layers: one layer of C-stage epoxy resin, which is fully cured, and another layer of B-stage epoxy coating,
which is partially cured. There is no glass reinforcement so that the formation of microvia holes can be made
easily by means of laser or plasma processes. The underlying layers are made of FR-4 (see Figure 32-8).
The thickness of the copper foil is usually 18 m (0.7 mil), and the resin layers can be obtained
in different thicknesses: for the B-stage and C-stage from 25 m (1 mil) to 35 m (1.4 mils).
Another approach is to use Thermount (a registered trademark of DuPont) laminates and prepreg
sheets based on epoxy and nonwowen aramid reinforcement.
Copper foil
C-stage resin
B-stage resin
Fig. 32-9
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Chapter 5
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CHAPTER 5
HOW TO PRODUCE FLEXIBLE CIRCUITS
Introduction
This chapter addresses the production of flexible circuits and flex/rigid circuits. Most of the manufacturing
processes, i.e. imaging, plating and etching, are quite similar to those used when producing plated-through
boards. However, there are differences due to the thin and floppy materials used in flexible circuits.
Additionally, special processes are necessary for producing and laminating the coverlays and for contouring
the flexible circuits.
A breakdown of a flexible circuit shows that it consists of three basic elements: copper foil,
dielectric material and adhesive.
The following sections describe, in detail, how to produce flexible circuits and flex/rigid circuits,
including two examples of how flexible circuits can be used as interconnects as shown in Figure 50-00.
Fig. 50-00
Fig. 50-01
174
50.
Polyimide
Adhesive
Copper Foil
Adhesive
Polyimide
Covercoat
Flexible
Circuit
Fig. 50-1
Holes for components or connector pins are drilled or punched in the flexible circuit to provide
nonplated- through holes. Holes in the covercoat are drilled or punched before bonding the covercoat to the
flexible circuit. See Figure 50-2.
Annular Ring of Pad, Copper
Adhesive
Polyimide
Fig. 50-2a
Polyimide
Adhesive
Adhesive
Polyimide
Fig. 50-2b
175
Covercoat
Polyimide
Adhesive
Covercoat
Copper Foil
Adhesive
Polyimide
Adhesive
Copper Foil
Adhesive
Polyimide
Flexible
Circuit
Covercoat
Fig. 50-3
Plated-through holes in double-sided flexible circuits are usually drilled, instead of punched. See
Figure 50-4.
Adhesive
Polyimide
Adhesive
Fig. 50-4
Usually the flexible circuits are provided with a covercoat on both sides as shown in Figure 50-5.
Polyimide
Adhesive
Adhesive
Covercoat
Polyimide
Adhesive
Adhesive
Polyimide
Fig. 50-5
176
Covercoat
Covercoat
Flexible
Circuit
No.1
Bond Ply
Flexible
Circuit
No.2
Covercoat
Fig. 50-6
4. Flex/Rigid Circuits
A flex/rigid circuit is a combination of rigid boards and flexible circuits, the latter creating flexible interconnects between the rigid boards to which they are laminated by means of bond plies. See Figure 50-7.
Rigid Board
Rigid Board
Flexible Circuit
( Flexible Interconnect )
Fig. 50-7
The flexible circuit is manufactured separately and bonded to the rigid boards, see Figure 50-8,
either symmetrically, i.e., in the middle of the rigid boards, or asymmetrically, i.e., to the outer side of the
rigid boards to be interconnected.
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Chapter 6
209
CHAPTER 6
HOW TO SPECIFY PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS
The previous chapters addressed how to manufacture PCBs and gave a certain understanding of the
processes necessary. Quite another problem is to present the board data in such a way that the PCB
manufacturer can quote and produce the boards without error. The challenge is to present all of the primary
manufacturing data in a complete and unambiguous way.
This chapter shows a specification form that has been used for several years with good results. This
form makes it possible to send a request for quotation (RFQ) to a PCB manufacturer and receive a quote
that is correct within a few percentage points with respect to the final quote based on the real Gerber data.
The form can also serve as a checklist for the PCB designer by assuring him/her that all of the important
information has been included in the PCB specification. The form can be downloaded into your system and
filled in line-by-line. Parameters not necessary for a particular job can be deleted so that the printout only
reflects the relevant data. The form is shown on the last pages of this chapter. The lines are numbered and
the text below corresponds with those numbers.
(8)
Panelization
It is also important to state if the board should be panelized, and if so, the overall dimension of the delivery
panel (8a) and the number of boards per delivery panel (8b).
Panelization has a certain impact on pricing. The customer`s panelization choice is not always
economical because it can lead to wasting laminate. It is better to discuss the panelization beforehand in
order to obtain the best possible fit to the size of the production panels. For reasons of fitting into the
assembly line and/or the test equipment, the only thing the customer should state is the maximum width
of the delivery panel. It is very seldom that the length of the delivery panel poses any problems.
There might be a problem if one or several of the PCBs on the delivery panel is/are defective.Will
the entire delivery panel be rejected, or can one or two defective PCBs be accepted provided they be clearly
marked, and the pick-and-place machine be able to ignore the defective PCBs ?
It is important to set a maximum limit on the acceptable number of defective PCBs per batch, e.g.
5% of the total number of panels, and a maximum of one or two PCBs per panel. This can be stated in a
vendor agreement.
A separate panel drawing indicating the layout and the width of the milled grooves separating the
individual boards, as well as the breakaway areas, should be supplied (see Item 23e).
210
(9)
Board Build-Up
In many cases, the build-up is of no special importance, so it is advantageous to let the PCB manufacturer
choose the build-up. Examples are given in Appendix 2A and Appendix 2B.
(10)
In cases where the multilayer board has controlled impedances, the build-up should be specified in terms
of layer distance and the dielectric constant of the prepreg and the hard cores possibly with an indication
of brand and type. It can be expedient to supply a cross-sectional drawing.
(11)
Test Coupon
Very few customers demand a co-delivered test coupon. The usefulness of a test coupon can be discussed
between both parties. A test coupon is usually located outside the board where the plating conditions are
better than within the board area. A disadvantage is that more copper will be deposited in the PTHs and
give a false impression of the general plating quality.
If a test coupon shows good quality, it is not tantamount to a perfect board. However, if it shows
drilling and/or plating problems, the board could be of inferior quality.
(12)
Machining (Contouring)
The usual type of contouring is routing (milling), but V-cutting, sometimes called scoring, or punching
can be specified. V-cutting is cheaper than routing but leaves tiny glass splinters along the edges so that
sanding can be necessary.
(13)
The most common laminate is FR-4 with a UL flammability rating of 94V-0. The PCB manufacturer
normally carries this base laminate, with the highest flammability rating, in stock. There is no real savings
by specifying a lower class, e.g. 94V-1, which often has to be purchased in smaller quantities and, therefore,
at higher prices. If the customer has specified 94V-1, the PCB manufacturer may chose to use 94V-0
laminates, but this just gives the customer a better board.
Some users require "green" PCBs, i.e., PCBs that can be incinerated after their life cycle without
developing toxic fumes. In such cases, it is necessary to specify FR-4 laminates that do not contain PBB
(polybrominated biphenyls) or PBBO (polybrominated biphenylene oxides).
(14)
The usual value is 1%, but in certain cases, such as when soldering BGAs, it is advantageous to specify a lower
value of 0.5%. Not all PCB manufacturers, however, will commit themselves to guarantee such low warp
and twist values .
Some PCB manufacturers press finished warped/twisted boards under heat, but this is a short-term
cure. After soldering, most of the original warp/twist will return.
211
Chapter 7
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A
PCB M
In search of a Candidate
Factory Inspection
Plant Audit Plan
The Final Choice
Chapter 7
220
CHAPTER 7
HOW TO CHOOSE A PCB MANUFACTURER
Introduction
For a company manufacturing electronic equipment, it is risky to depend on just one PCB manufacturing
source. Something unforeseen could happen, e.g. a strike, or worse, a fire to interrupt production. Such
incidents can stop deliveries for long periods, and it is a well-known fact that it is impossible to transfer even
as few as 25 different PCBs to another PCB manufacturer, and have the deliveries resumed within a few
weeks.
Therefore, it is important that the PCB manufacturer and the new customer are thoroughly
knowledgeable about each others capabilities and expectations to ensure compatibility and cooperation.
There can easily be differences in the perception of quality, or the documentation package can seem
inadequate to the PCB manufacturer, thus requiring additional communication with subsequent adjustments, and inevitably, this takes time.
Another important advantage of having a number of regular PCB suppliers is a broader spectrum
of PCB technology at the customers disposal. This can be very significant in times of great technological
changes, especially when introducing SMT, HDI (High Density Interconnect), or laser drilled boards.
Thus, the conclusion is that any electronics company should always utilize a number of approved
and regular PCB vendors. The purpose of this chapter is to describe how to find a suitable number of
qualified PCB manufacturing candidates, and how to best choose between them.
There is a variety of information available to obtain names and addresses of prospective PCB suppliers.
Technical magazines
Advertisements
Technical articles
Supplier directories
Telephone directories (yellow pages)
Trade directories
Buyers Guide/Gold Book
Exhibitions and exhibition catalogs
ULs Recognized Component Directory
221
222
= Number of Quotations
3
1.5
11
2003 PLT and DEC. v 5.0.4 E Demo.
1.0
4
0.5
223
Fig. 70-1
Batch
Z size
Chapter 8
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DESIGN
Chapter 8
253
CHAPTER 8
DIFFICULTY FACTORS vs DESIGN VALUES
Introduction
Purpose
To provide the PCB designer an overview of the manufacturing difficulty factors and
rejection rates (expressed by percentages) for the parameters which, based on the design values
chosen, are crucial to the PCB manufacturer.
To influence the PCB designer to design boards with the lowest manufacturing difficulty factor
possible to achieve:
lowest rejection rate
timely delivery
lowest price
Procedures
Four difficulty factors (DF) are used when describing the influence of the parameter on question upon the
manufacturing conditions. Rejection rates, expressed by percentages, are assigned to the difficulty factors,
but since the manufacturing conditions vary from one PCB manufacturers to another, some variation in
the rejection rates should be anticipated. The intention is not to add, for a certain board, the rejection rates
corresponding to the various parameters in order to reach a worst-case value. The rejection rates serve
exclusively to show the PCB designer the possible consequences by choosing difficulty factors above 1.
DF
Characterization
1.
Difficulty factor 1 is fully mastered by all PCB manufacturers, and thus it is not necessary
to employ special measures to achieve a low rejection rate. The rejection rate will usually be
close to zero.
2.
This difficulty class is mastered by nearly all PCB manufacturers, but a stricter process
control than in the case of difficulty factor 1 is required. The rejection rate will normally be
somewhat higher than for difficulty factor 1.
3.
In this case, the PCB designer sets such high demands to the PCB manufacturers capability
that not all PCB manufacturers are able to manufacture the boards with a sufficiently high
yield. Manufacturing places very high demands on process control.
4.
It should be noted that during the practical design phase different difficulty factors can occur
within the very same board. However, it is not the intention to characterize the board on the basis of the
highest difficulty factor. The following discussion of the difficulty factors versus the design values, or the
design requirements, serves to give the PCB designer a quantitative understanding of the technical contents
of the difficulty factors in relation to the various parameters. It is not possible to state concrete guidelines
on how the board price is calculated by the PCB manufacturer in relation to the difficulty factors. It is quite
obvious, however, the less the difficulty factor, the lower the price.
254
HMT board
mm
inch
SMT board
mm
inch
Board thickness
Board area, BA
Layer count, LC
Hole count, HC
Hole diameter, min. HD
Line spacing, min., LS
Line width, min., LW
Annular ring width, min., ARW
Aspect ratio, AR
Solder mask clearance, min., SMC
1.6
100 x 150
2
500
0.8
0.3
0.3
0.3
2
0.3
1.6
100 x 150
6
6000
0.25
0.15
0.15
0.15
6.4
0.10
0.062
4x6
2
500
0.032
0.012
0.012
0.012
2
0.012
0.062
4x6
6
6000
0.010
0.006
0.006
0.006
6.4
0.004
The complexity factor (CF) of the SMT board can now be calculated by means of the following
formula, which equals 1 for the reference board when inserting in the formula the values stated for the
reference board.
BA
LC
HC
0.8
0.3
0.3
0.3
AR
0.3
CF = - x x x x x x x x
100 x 150
2
500
HD
LS
LW
ARW
2
SMC
BA
LC
HC
0.032 0.012 0.012
0.012
AR
0.012
CF = x x x x x x x x
4x 6
2
500
HD
LS
LW
ARW
2
SMC
When inserting the values stated for the HMT reference board, the result is 1
When inserting the values stated for the SMT board, the result is 8847. This figure should be
interpreted only as an indication of how difficult it is to design, manufacture and inspect fairly complicated
SMT boards, even when the density is rather limited as in this case. And it should not be interpreted as an
indication of how much longer it takes to design a 6-layer SMT board compared with a double-sided board.
It should also be remembered that modern designs are most often created as computer aided designs, which
certainly reduce the design time.
No wonder that it is difficult to design, manufacture and inspect fine-line SMT boards.
255
Parameter
Design Value
Conductor width, w
m (mil)
mm (mil)
DF
Reject.
%
0
4
8
12-20
Outer layers,
plated
0.30 (12) w
0.20 (8) w < 0.30 (12)
0.15 (6) w < 0.20 (8)
0.12 (5) w < 0.15 (6)
1
2
3
4
Outer layers,
nonplated
1
1
2
3
Inner layers,
nonplated
0.60 (24) w
0.50 (20) w < 0.60 (24)
Comments
Copper Foil
(mil)
35
17.5
9
= 5
(1.40)
(0.70)
(0.35)
(0.20)
0
0
4
8
70
35
17.5
17.5
(2.8)
(1.4)
(0.7)
(0.7)
1
2
0
2
= 70
= 70
(2.8)
(2.8)
0.30 (12) w
0.25 (10) w < 0.30 (12)
0.20 (8) w < 0.25 (10)
1
2
3
0
4
8
= 35
= 35
= 35
(1.4)
(1.4)
(1.4)
0.30 (12) w
0.20 (8) w < 0.30 (12)
2
3
2
4
35
(1.4)
17.5 (0.7)
Table 80-1
The 75% rule applies to all widths in the above table provided a suitable thickness of the copper
foil has been chosen, assuming an etch factor very close to 1, and pattern plating.
The 75% rule states that the remaining width of a conductor shall not be less than 75% of the
conductors nominal width (w), i.e., 75% of the design value. With an etch factor f, the undercut per side
equals the copper foil thickness divided by f. The remaining conductor width r, expressed in percentage, is
therefore:
w 2 x f x copper foil thickness
r = x 100%
w
256
For the conductor widths w and the copper foil thicknesses stated below, the formula gives the
following remaining conductor width r. See Table 80-2.
Conductor width, w
Copper Foil
Remaining cond.
width, r
mm (mil)
(mil)
0.30
(12)
35
(1.4)
77
0.20
(8)
17.5 (0.7)
83
0.15
(6)
< (0.35)
88
0.12
(5)
< (0.2)
92
Table 80-2
The 75% rule can be met by choosing the proper copper foil thickness. The PCB manufacturer
usually chooses to etch a little more (a little longer) than required by the copper foil thickness, partly to
remove the last traces of the treatment of the copper foil, and partly to ensure that copper specks are not
found anywhere on the board. The narrow conductors, particularly, will be subject to a perceptible
reduction of the remaining width. Because of light creeping during the imaging, a further reduction in the
remaining conductor width takes place, again most pronounced along the narrowest conductors. Therefore,
the remaining conductor width of 84% to 92% cannot be fully achieved, unless the PCB manufacturer
compensates for pattern shrinkage.
The fact that the difficulty factor increases with decreasing conductor width is partly due to the
above conditions, and partly to possible irregularities along the conductor sides due to imaging or plating.
Outer Layers, Nonplated (Non-PTH)
In the case of nonplated-through boards, etching is the predominant process for developing the conductors.
When using a 35 or 70 m (1.4 mil or 2.8 mil) copper foil, conductor widths of 0.30 and 0.50 m (1.2 and
2 mil) do not pose any manufacturing problem. However, narrower conductors, even when using 17.5 m
( 0.7 mil) copper foil, pose manufacturing problems, among other things, because of the stricter
requirements on the imaging and the etching.
For reasons of mechanical strength, it is not advisable to use a copper foil thinner than 17.5 m
(0.7 mil) for nonplated-through boards.
For the conductor widths stated in Table 80.3 below, with the addition of a few supplementary
widths, the remaining conductor width r can now be found, assuming that the etch factor is 1 as before.
Conductor width, w
Copper Foil
Remaining cond.
width, r
mm (mil)
(mil)
0.50 (20)
70
(2.8)
73
0.40 (16)
70
(2.8)
66
0.30 (12)
35
(1.4)
77
0.20 (8)
17.5
(0.7)
83
0.15 (6)
17.5
(0.7)
77
0.12 (5)
17.5
(0.7)
72
257
Table 80-3