Lab Report

Subject: Lab-VI

Submitted to: Miss.Tafsila Submitted by: R/no: Class: Department: Mohsin Waqas 12060810-044 MSc (2nd) Physics.

Examples:
Value 27 @ 10% 56 @ 10% 180 @ 5% 390 @ 10% 680 @ 5% 1.5 k @ 20% 3.6 k @ 10% 7.5 k @ 5% 10 k @ 5% 47 k @ 10% 820 k @ 10% 2.2 M @ 20 % Band 1 Red Green Brown Orange Blue Brown Orange Violet Brown Yellow Gray Brown Band 2 Violet Blue Gray White Gray Green Blue Green Black Violet Red Brown Band 3 Black Black Brown Brown Brown Red Red Red Orange Orange Yellow Green Band 4 Silver Silver Gold Silver Gold None Silver Gold Gold Silver Silver None

Colors red-red-black-silver blue-gray-black-gold brown-green-brown-gold orange-orange-brown-silver green-blue-brown gold brown-red-redsilver red-violet-redsilver gray-red-redgold brown-black-orangegold orange-orange-orangesilver blue-gray-yellownone green-black-green-silver

Resistance 22 68 150 330 560 1200 2700 8200 10000 33000 680000 5000000

Tolerance 10% 5% 5% 10% 5% 10% 10% 5% 5% 10% 20% 10%

Minimum 19.8 64.6 142.5 297 532 1080 2430 7790 9500 32670 544000 4500000

Maximum 24.2 71.4 157.5 363 588 1320 2970 8610 10500 33330 816000 5500000

I.C. internal configurations:

There is different I.C.s used for different logic operation. So, there are different types of gates in their internal configuration.

Internal Configuration of ICs (74series)

Analog Quantity: It is the quantity having continuous values such as used in electronics, up to now the values of voltages are continuous so called analog values. For such an analog system any value is applicable. Digital Quantity: It is the quantity having discrete values such as 0 or 1. There are no between values of 0 and 1. Such a system in which only 0 and 1 are used is called Binary system. In this system 0 and 1 each is called a bit. LOGIC FUNCTIONS: Any decision that can be answered yes/no or true/false can be mathematically represented as a combination of logic functions. History: George Boole invented and published this form of mathematics (Boolean algebra) in 1847. Many of things are those which have only two possible conditions like a circuit is ON or OFF. There is no third possibility. Those things which have only two possible conditions are called Boolean Variables. These have only two values 1 and 0. Different operations of Boolean Variables: The 3 basic logic functions, which can be used to solve any Boolean equation, are: Basic Operations of Digital Electronics: (1) NOT operation (2) AND operation (3) OR operation (Inverting operation) (DOT . operation) (ADD + operation)

(4) Fundamental Logic Gates: The electronic circuits which implement the various logic operations are called logic gates.In these gates the high and low state, i.e., 1 and 0 states are simulated by certain voltage levels. Ideally one particular voltage level represents a high (1) and another voltage level represents a low (0). In practical digital circuits, however a 1or high can be any voltage between a specified minimum value and specified maximum value. Like 0 or low can be any voltage between a specified minimum and a specified maximum shows the range 1 and 0

levels for a certain type of digital gates. Thus if a voltage of 3.5V is applied to a gate, it will accept it as high or 1. If a voltage of 0.5V is applied, the gate will recognize it as 0 or low. There are three basic logic gates.

(1) OR Gate (2) AND Gate

(3)

NOT Gate

OR Gate:
OR Gate as symbolically represented in Fig. implements the logic of OR operation. Logic Symbol:

It has two or more inputs and single output X=A+B. The mathematical notation for OR operation is +. Logic operation for OR gate: The output has value 1 when at least one of its inputs A and B is at 1. Thus output will be zero only when both the inputs are 0. Thus it implements the truth table of OR operation. Truth table: This is a table that tells us all the possible outputs for all the possible combination of all the inputs. The combination of inputs N can be determined by the formula example, for three inputs n=3, the No.of combination of inputs is Four inputs n=4, the No. of combination of inputs is The truth table of OR operation for two inputs is as follows: . For .Similarly for

Truth Tables For OR Gate

(Input 1) A 0 0 1 1

(Input 2) B 0 1 0 1

(Output) X=A+B 0 1 1 1

(Input 1) A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

(Input 2) (Input 3) (Output) B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 C X=(A+B)+C 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

AND Gate:
The AND Gate shown in figure has two or more input is and a single output. Logic Symbol:

Logic operation for AND gate: It is designed in such that it implements the truth table of AND operation, i.e., its output X is 1 only when both of its inputs A and B are at 1 and for all others combinations of the values of A and B, X is zero shown in table. The mathematical notation for AND operation is . and the truth table for AND Gate with two inputs is as follows:

Truth Tables For AND Gate

(Input 1) A 0 0 1 1

(Input 2) B 0 1 0 1

(Output) X=A.B 0 0 0 1

(Input 1) A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

(Input 2) B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

(Input 3) C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

(Output) X=(A.B).C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

NOT Gate:

It performs the operation of inversion or complementation. That is why it is also known as inverter. It changes a logic level to its opposite level, i.e., it changes 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. The symbolic representation of NOT gate is shown figure. Logic Symbol:

Whenever a bar is placed on any variable, it shows that the value of variable has been inverted. The bubble (o) in figure indicates operation of inversion. Its truth is given in table. The mathematical notation for NOT operation is . The truth table for NOT Gate is as follows: (Input 1) A 0 1 (Output) X= 1 0

OTHERS LOGIC GATES: FUNCTIONALLY COMPLETE GATES Any Boolean logic equation can be implemented with a combination of: AND gates & NOT gates OR gates & NOT gates Some gates are functionally complete. These gates can implement any combinational logic equation. These gates are: NAND gates (contain both AND function & NOT function) NOR gates (contain both OR function & NOT function) So these gates are called Universal Gates. NOR Gate: In NOR gate the output of OR gate is inverted by a NOT Gate. Logic Symbol:

Logic operation for NOR gate: The output has value 1 when its both inputs A and B are at 0. Thus output will be zero when at least one input is 1.Its truth (Input 1) A 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 (Input 2) B (Output) X= 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 (Input 1) A 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 (Input 2) B 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 (Input 3) C (Output) X= 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

table for two inputs is

NAND Gate:
In NAND gate the output of AND gate is inverted. Its symbol is shown in figure.

The bubble in this figure shows that the output of AND gate is inverted. Logic operation for NAND gate: The output has value 0 when its both inputs A and B is at 1. Thus output will be one when at least any one input is at 0.The truth table is implemented by it is shown in table. (Input 1) A 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 (Input 2) B 1 1 1 0 Output 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 The truth table for NAND Gate with four inputs is as follows: 1 (Input 1) A 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 (Input 2) B 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 (Input 3) C (Output) X= 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

I.C.(Integrated circuit):
An I.C. has many logic gates of different kinds inside it.It has many legs.The no. of legs of an I.C. depends on the no. of gates and the no. of inputs and outputs in each gate.For example if there are four gates in an I.C. with two inputs in each gate and one output then there are 14 legs. If there are four gates in an I.C. with 3 inputs in each gate and one output then there are 18 legs.

Corbon Resistors:
The resistor is perhaps the most fundamental of all electrical devices. Its fundamental attribute is the restriction of electrical current flow: The greater the resistance, the greater the restriction of current. Resistance is measured in Ohms. The measurement of resistance in unpowered circuits may be performed with a digital multimeter. Like all components, resistors cannot be manufactured to perfection. That is, there will always be some variance of the true value of the component when compared to its nameplate or nominal value. For precision resistors, typically 1% tolerance or better, the nominal value is usually printed directly on the component. Normally, general purpose components, i.e. those worse than 1%, usually use a color code to indicate their value.

What is a breadboard?
A breadboard is used to build and test circuits quickly before finalizing any circuit design. The breadboard has many holes into which circuit components like ICs and resistors can be inserted. A typical breadboard is shown below: The bread board has strips of metal which run underneath the board and connect the holes on the top of the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below. Note that the top and bottom rows of holes are connected horizontally while the remaining holes are connected vertically.To use the bread board, the legs of components are placed in the holes. Each set of holes connected by a metal strip underneath forms a node. A node is a point in a circuit where two components are connected. Connections between different components are formed by putting their legs in a common node. The long top and bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply connections. The rest of the circuit is built by placing components and connecting them together with jumper wires. ICs are placed in the middle of the board so that half of the legs are on one side of the middle line and half on the other.