ASAC-IFSAM 2000 Conference Montreal, Quebec Canada

Heather A. Kent Rhett H. Walker University of Tasmania

TAKING STOCK OF PLACE OF ORIGIN BRANDING: TOWARDS RECONCILING THE REQUIREMENTS AND PURPOSES OF DESTINATION MARKETING AND EXPORT MARKETING This paper reviews what has been advocated in respect of place of origin branding for destination and export marketing purposes, and discusses opportunities for reconciling these two bodies of theory to mutual benefit. Three case studies serve to highlight key issues, and the paper concludes with implications for future research.

Introduction The final two decades of the twentieth century have witnessed a rapid increase in international business, with particular impact on international tourism activity and export trade (Johansson, 1997). At the same time, however, this increasingly global perspective has intensified competition among a broad range of products (Johansson, 1997). Consequently, many goods and services are perceived to have become more homogenous as producers become ever-more adept at matching the strengths of the offerings of category leaders (Johansson, 1997). This has created a challenge for export marketers: how to differentiate goods and services in a way which is both sustainable and attractive to buyers (Aaker, 1991)? In response to this challenge, many businesses have turned to their place of origin (PO) as a means of positioning and contrasting their offerings from those of competitors in the minds of potential buyers (Echtner and Ritchie, 1993; Aaker, 1991). This PO is most commonly typified as a country (Bilkey and Nes 1982), but may also be a state, region or city (Thakor and Kohli 1996; Thode and Maskulka 1998). Stereotypes associated with the place from which a product originates have the potential to influence buyers' evaluations of its worth, effectively positioning the product positively or negatively in the minds of buyers (Johansson, 1988). Consequently, over the past decade in particular, many governments have become increasingly pro-active in coordinating campaigns to promote positive images of their respective countries, states, regions, and cities, with the aim of supporting local producers competing in both international and domestic markets (Graby, 1993; Kotler, Haider and Rein, 1993). At the same time, the creation of an image suitable and appropriate to the marketing of tourism destinations has received increasing interest among researchers as well as practitioners (Echtner and Ritchie, 1993). The importance of this has been borne out in a range of studies including those of Pearce (1982), Woodside and Lyonski (1990) and also Selby and Morgan (1996), each of which conclude that there is a strong relationship between positive destination image and positive purchase behaviour amongst potential tourists. To date, however, it appears that little, if any, attention has been given to the question of whether these two roles are necessarily complementary or might be potentially conflicting. In this paper, we argue that although it may be possible to use a single PO identity with equal effect for both export and destination marketing purposes, this cannot be assumed. Positioning strategies devised for export marketing purposes may well hold the potential to contribute beneficially to marketing a PO for tourism purposes. Conversely, the manner in which tourism destinations are marketed may create lasting impressions in the minds of potential
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purchasers of products exported by those places. By the same token, however, the requirements and purposes of export and destination marketing may also be mutually exclusive and not in any way complementary. The paper begins by reviewing what has been advocated with regard for the branding of places for destination marketing purposes. Following this we consider the nature and potential effect of PO branding for export marketing purposes, and implications of this for destination marketing purposes. We then examine case examples from different parts of the world with the aim of illustrating how each is presently being positioned for export, destination and investment marketing purposes, and comment on implications of this. Finally we discuss how research into both export and destination marketing practice can assist the one in informing the other.

The Branding of Destinations: Role and Significance Brands have become an increasingly valued tool within the marketer's repertoire. The images and attributes attached to a well-managed brand have been acknowledged as extremely powerful elements with the capacity to "add other dimensions to differentiate [one product] from other products designed to satisfy the same need" (Keller, 1998:4), to build what is termed brand equity. By this is meant an intangible asset deriving from a blend of brand awareness, loyalty and positive associations that combine to create a perceived degree of quality in the minds of consumers, and to simplify decision-making (Aaker, 1991). Brand images play a critical role in the process of product positioning, frequently cited as one of the key ingredients of marketing strategy (Heath and Wall, 1992), and often are the primary source of competitive advantage. Correspondingly, the identification of marketable image dimensions of tourism destinations has emerged as an important theme in academic literature focused upon tourism marketing (Selby and Morgan 1996; Palmer 1999). Research conducted between the mid-1970s and early 1990s has consistently shown that the basic features which attract tourists to particular destinations can be leveraged to brand and promote places successfully as desirable locations. For example, climate and natural beauty, have been shown to be key selection criteria commonly used by potential tourists when considering holiday destinations (Echtner and Ritchie, 1993). Consequently, salient natural attributes have been increasingly utilised by marketers for the purpose of branding and positioning tourism destinations (Hu and Ritchie, 1993). At the same time, however, Selby and Morgan's (1996) relatively recent research into the frequently changing nature of place images raises a number of significant considerations for destination marketers. For example, while acknowledging that the positioning policies of private and public tourism bodies have a significant effect upon the way in which holiday destinations are perceived, Selby and Morgan (1996) argue that images, and potential visitors impressions of places, are open to influence from a far wider range of 'organic', or nontourism sources. Consequently they suggest that a more objective and comprehensive understanding of positive and negative perceptions may be derived by acknowledging images contributed by other avenues including the media, educational and business experience. The impact of impressions derived from sources external to the tourism sector is also acknowledged in the research of Palmer (1999) who notes that Tourist images do not operate in isolation, they are part and parcel of alternate visions of the nation, such as those emanating from the political or sporting arena" (Palmer, 1999:320). She notes that these images of history and culture frequently interconnect with other images to construct a more complex national identity, both in the minds of the citizens and of potential visitors. Her call for investigation into the relationship between aspects of tourism branding and a nation's identity is reinforced by Momsen's (1999) view that Linkages between tourism and other sectors of the economy are of increasing
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importance" (Momsen, 1999: 212). This is born out in Ahn and Ahmed's (1994) research into the marketing of South Korea as a desirable tourism destination. Their findings highlight the negative impressions associated with media reports of unethical business behaviours, and also the damaging stereotypes associated with low-quality goods in industrial and consumer markets, as considerable barriers to attaining an appropriate and positive image for the nation as a holiday venue. What Selby and Hunt (1996) have to say, however, raises at least two other related considerations. Firstly there is the matter of determining the breadth of what they term 'organic' influences, and secondly there is the challenge of ascertaining the ways in which these influences contribute to the formation of overall place images. In addition, the degree to which negative organic images can be modified (Selby and Morgan, 1996:293) also needs to be investigated. This points to a need for further research into the nature and impact of place images and how they are formed, possibly with reference to the use of PO branding campaigns designed as a part of export marketing efforts. Place-of-Origin Branding in Export Markets: An Overview of Current Theory and Its Implications A product's PO can have a potentially significant influence on the decision-making of buyers (Papadopoulos and Heslop 1993). While this may seem almost intuitive, the precise nature of the effect is yet to be fully determined. Researchers have sought, with mixed results, to unravel a network of influences upon purchase decisions to determine when, where and amongst whom PO has its greatest effect. In a climate of intense competition, international marketers are eager to understand circumstances under which PO effects occur and, more importantly, how these can be maximised for optimum outcomes in terms of sales and profits. Research into PO effect has tended to focus on whether PO information is attended to by purchasers, and has also involved empirical testing of how and why this effect may differ across product categories, the nationality of surveyed respondents, and the origin of the product itself (Johansson, 1988). During this time the importance and impact of stereotyped views of countries has remained a key pillar of interest (Bannister and Saunders, 1978; Johansson, 1988). Many researchers have observed buyers quick acceptance of goods such as Swedish furniture and Italian ceramics, and a corresponding hesitation over items such as Russian automobiles or Japanese pizza (Morello, 1993), but the question remains: why does this occur? Significantly, Roth and Romeo (1992) have found that if a high degree of fit exists between a countrys image and the important attributes of a product category, the potential that PO effects will be included in decision-making processes is maximised. Correspondingly, their findings also suggest that products to be promoted using PO branding require careful selection and that, if endeavouring to promote a seemingly incongruous match, a strategic use of marketing communication materials to modify the country image (CI) or the salience of product dimensions is likely to be necessary. Lampert and Jaffe's (1998) investigation into the impact of PO along a product's life cycle also contributes significantly to management's knowledge of when and why the PO effect is likely to be greatest. They propose that a product moves through its life cycle from an introductory period, where there is no experience of a product and the country image halo effect is dominant, through to the maturity phase where the effect of country image is minimal. They also contend, however, that the degree of 'image crystallisation' is a fundamental issue. By this they mean that if, while a product is in its growth/maturity stage, other products emerge from the PO which have salient dimensions in common with the initial product, the projected and perceived country image may become strongly unified and crystallised. Although yet to be researched further, implications of this model centre upon the possibility of modifying negative images, or confirming positive stereotypes,
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using long-term strategies which support the intended product/country reputation through crystallisation. Thode and Maskulka's (1998) research conclusions provide a basis for differentiating products from within a single country through positioning strategies that emphasise the geophysical attributes and qualities unique to a particular area. They propose that naturally differentiating characteristics such as these have the potential to be leveraged to powerful competitive advantage, and to gain enhanced profitability from what is marketed. These findings hold considerable implications for more geographically-specific programs, such as those of states and cities. For example, in a country as large and diverse as Australia, it is conceivable that the benefits of a more isolated, clean environment, such as Tasmania's island state, may be used to position its products and services away from those of other states when seeking to attract global interest. In sum, research across a wide range of product categories and cultures shows that PO perceptions are used by consumers in at least two ways: (i) as a surrogate evaluative variable, particularly in situations where there is little familiarity with a given product or service; and (ii) as a means by which consumers typify products and services originating from a particular place. The implications of this collective body of research for destination marketers are several. Firstly, if a perceived CI has some bearing on how prospective buyers assess products and services emanating from that country, and if that country also markets itself for tourism purposes, then it needs to be considered whether the two sets of images are complementary or not. The image, attraction and appeal of wilderness and world heritage areas, and the socio-cultural environment of certain developing countries, for example, may well serve to entice tourists. These same attributes, however, may do little to support, and indeed may even detract from, the export marketing activities of producers of export goods and services emanating from those countries. Secondly, if export products and services, including how they are positioned and marketed, contribute to CI, then it would need to be considered whether or not this CI is suitable and appropriate for destination marketing purposes, or whether it may need to be modified in some way. A PO image suitable for export marketing purposes may not necessarily suit destination marketing purposes. Manufacturing precision and quality control, for example, may be highly attractive and appealing attributes for export marketing product positioning purposes, but may have little relevance for the purpose of attracting tourists. Thirdly, if, as Roth and Romeo (1992) point out, the potential exists for incongruous matching between an extant CI and products selected for PO branding purposes, then surely the same potential exists in services selected as part of a concerted destination marketing campaign. This means that destination marketers may need to consider carefully the likely effect of an extant CI on future marketing initiatives and, correspondingly, the likely effect of these initiatives on the extant CI. Fourthly, if CI is crystallised by a countrys exports, it is plausible that destination marketing activities might also contribute to this process of crystallisation. Furthermore, if, as Lampert and Jaffe also propose, the effect of CI is minimal during product maturity, this raises questions as to the relative importance and likely effectiveness of attempts to re-position tourism destinations the image of which is already well established. Fifthly, Thakor and Kohli (1996) suggest that it is possible to create and sustain a range of individual origin images to support goods and services originating from different parts of one country, state or region. If so, a question is raised as to the likely impact of these potentially disparate images on CI for export and destination marketing purposes. These considerations raise a number of questions. For example:

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Do the objectives of increasing the export trade and tourism activity of a particular place necessarily complement each other or might these objectives potentially conflict with each other? If so, in what circumstances? Can these objectives be achieved simultaneously using a single campaign or might separate strategies be required? Is there a potential for conflict in situations where export marketing strategies are utilised by a country and also by separate geographical regions or locations within that same country, and where both the country and its regions engage in independent destinational marketing? If so, how might these potential conflicts be overcome or avoided? What effect do the results of independently pursued export and destination marketing activities have on the shared PO image, and the overall CI? What effect do independently pursued export and destination marketing activities have on the capability of each to achieve their respective objectives?

In the discussion that follows we briefly examine three case studies, each of which serves to illustrate how export marketing support is being combined with destination marketing in three different parts of the world. We then discuss implications arising from this experience and ways in which both export and destination marketing research and practice may benefit each other.

Place of Origin Branding in Export Markets: Three Case Studies (i) The New Zealand Way

Conceived and managed jointly by the New Zealand Tourism Board (NZTB) and Trade New Zealand (Trade NZ), The New Zealand Way (TNZW) is a national branding strategy designed to redress what was considered to be a fragmented image of New Zealand in export markets. Based upon the premise that successful brands with global recognition are a valuable and profitable strategic asset, the coordinators of TNZW developed a strategic branding campaign for the express purpose of projecting a unified and consistent image of New Zealand. Significantly, its primary aim, to build the world's most powerful national brand, on a per capita basis, to our chosen consumers by 2005 (TNZW, 1997a:5), has been defined with reference to two target markets: export customers and international tourists. Six 'Brand Values' were adopted as the key positioning dimensions. These core values include environmental responsibility, achievement, innovation, quality excellence, integrity and cultural diversity. All have been used to 're-image' New Zealand, through advertising, promotion, events and public relations, in markets served by the countrys exporters and, also, in those which account for most of the countrys international visitors. Not all of these values are necessarily of equal importance for the purposes of both export and destination marketing, but all are used nonetheless to position New Zealand as an exporter of quality goods and services, and as an attractive tourism destination. Over 170 businesses have been approved as 'Brand Partners', representing the top 20 per cent of companies in the tourism and trade sectors. Their activities are supplemented by the high profile activities of 'Brand Champions'. This select range of international experts/celebrities are chosen for their ability to attract attention. By making strategic use of these ambassadors, TNZW management taskforce claims to have gained a considerably enhanced profile in tourism markets as well as amongst potential export customers (TNZW, 1997b). Significantly, the activities of the Brand Partners accounts for more than twenty per cent of overall exchange earnings, or the equivalent of just over $4 billion in foreign trade (TNZW, 1997b). Clearly therefore, the initiative has been successful in harnessing the support of those who are likely to hold the greatest potential
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to build and convey a positive image of New Zealand. It bears noting that the impact and claimed success of TNZW campaign to date has been registered primarily in the context of export marketing. This is not to say that there has not been a beneficial affect on tourism, but the precise nature and size of this affect has yet to be fully determined. Furthermore, it is not known which of the six brand values are most relevant and effective for export, as distinct from destination, marketing purposes. (ii) Brand Oregon

The Oregon Economic Development Department's (OEDD) Brand Oregon strategy was formulated for reasons and purposes almost identical to those of TNZW, i.e. to support the marketing of goods outside the state, to promote tourism interest and investment in the state. Rather than choosing a single positioning strategy, believing that this may stifle industry and community development (OEDD, 1997), all local businesses are encouraged to incorporate one or more of four major 'Oregonian' attributes within their marketing materials. These attributes include:
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Quality of life and related focus on quality products/services; Environmental awareness and sensitivity; An entrepreneurial, creative environment that fosters innovation; and Natural beauty (OEDD, 1997).

While companies are urged to consider including the word 'Oregon' in their business name, they are also encouraged to develop their own, unique 'place-positioning' dimensions. In this way, the overall image of Oregon continues to be augmented by new and additional attributes which evolve progressively to the potential benefit of all stakeholders. Despite the potential for inconsistency, the strategy has achieved its aims, particularly in supporting emerging businesses and key industries, including tourism (OEDD, 1997). In fact, the Oregon Tourism Commission (OTC) has played a key role in building the Oregon brand, reaping its own benefits while assisting many other businesses in the process. In assessing the effectiveness of the Brand Oregon initiative, the OTC reports that its key performance indicators of tourism income and visitor volume have witnessed dramatic increases over the past ten years. In addition, it is claimed that sales of products capitalising upon the Brand Oregon image have also experienced considerable increases. One particular winery attributes an ability to claim leader status in premium markets upon leveraging the increasingly well known environmental purity of its Oregon origins (OEDD, 1997). Further, this company notes that the Oregon image has been pivotal in attracting human and financial capital, investments which have not only allowed the estate to expand, but which have contributed to the cycle of further enhancing and promoting the Brand Oregon image (OEDD, 1977). One of the key elements claimed to contribute to Brand Oregon's success to date lies within the combined efforts of the tourism and trade sectors. Because the effectiveness of the OTCs place branding initiatives resulted in many companies mimicking their approach, it seemed only logical to instigate a coordinated campaign which reaped the benefits of unified voice, ultimately promoting consistent positive images to build equity in the Oregon brand (OEDD, 1997). What, however, is not known is which of the four main attributes work best in achieving each of the OEDDs stated objectives. (iii) Brand Tasmania

Established in 1999, the Brand Tasmania initiative aims to build a positive brand image of this Australian state in order to encourage increased economic activity, particularly in the trade and tourism sectors. Once again, the campaign has been developed in acknowledgement that the projected images of Tasmania are often fragmented and uncoordinated. The inherent risk that the
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inconsistent activities of individual enterprises could create a disparate and potentially confusing array of perceptions regarding Tasmania as a PO is also recognised. To counteract this, it is intended that a branding strategy will be implemented to heighten the profile, perceived quality and value of Tasmanian products and services and thereby: 1. increase export trade opportunities; 2. attract additional economic investment; and 3. enhance the profile of Tasmania as a tourism destination (Principals, 1998). The convergence between tourism marketing and export promotion strategies is explicit and, interestingly, although the initiative is based firmly within private enterprise, it receives considerable guidance from the state's tourism authority. In essence, the Brand Tasmania initiative seeks to position an image of the state based upon the attributes of superior quality of products and services, together with a high degree of innovation and creativity. The branding strategy will simultaneously aim to leverage characteristics associated with Tasmania's relatively unique 'distant island' status, including its untouched natural beauty and aura of mystique, in order to strengthen the positive dimensions of the state's existing image and to counteract potentially less advantageous associations with the island's geographic location (Kent, 1999). Adopting a similar approach to other international campaigns, it is anticipated that the Tasmanian branding initiative will be executed by exporting enterprises, acting in harmony with all key tourism marketing agencies. Short-term performance measures for Brand Tasmania focus upon adoption of the strategy by local businesses and the level of export sales generated by participating enterprises. Media exposure of the state in key markets will also be measured and research will be conducted to gauge awareness of the state and the nature of perceptions driving its prevailing image in export and tourism markets. Clearly, the Brand Tasmania initiative exhibits the characteristics of what appears to be an increasing trend in place branding strategy. The concept is explicitly designed to meet both destination and export marketing objectives with a single, cohesive image, to be conveyed uniformly by enterprises from two previously diverse industries. Although early indicators are encouraging, it remains to be seen whether these twin purposes can be successfully achieved through such an approach. Implications Table 1 summarises and compares attributes used by each of these places for export and/or destination marketing purposes. Two attributes, innovation/creativity and quality, are common to all, whereas most appear to be more or less unique to the respective marketing of each PO. In Table 1 we also assess the apparent suitability of each of these attributes for export and destination marketing purposes.

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Table 1 Comparative Summary of Suitability of Place Branding Attributes Positioning Attributes Common Attributes Innovation and Creativity Quality of place, life and products Balance of Attributes New Zealand Achievement Integrity Cultural Diversity Environmental Responsibility Oregon Environmental Responsibility Natural Beauty Tasmania Island State Attributes Uniqueness Export Marketing   Destination Marketing ? ? Investment Marketing  

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This assessment suggests that, in most instances, each attribute is suitable more for one purpose than the other, and that most attributes would not appear to be suitable for both purposes. We acknowledge that this assessment is open to debate. By the same token, however, we suggest that it serves to illustrate that positioning attributes deemed suitable for one purpose may not necessarily suit the other unless the aims and objectives of both are considered conjointly. For example, Tasmanias island state attributes would appear to suit positioning for destination marketing purposes; yet the relevance of these same attributes for export marketing purposes would seem, at least, to be questionable. Correspondingly, the innovation/creativity and quality attributes that each place appears to emphasise for export marketing purposes seem intuitively to be less appropriate for destination marketing purposes. Moreover, the fit between CI and positioning attributes salient to one purpose as opposed to another would appear to be open to question. These apparent dichotomies or, at least, uncertainties, are compounded if one also includes the purposes and requirements of investment marketing in the comparative analysis. In the same way that different marketing objectives require different strategies and tactics, the objectives of export marketing support, destination marketing, and investment marketing may be such that they may not be achievable with one common campaign, and may too require discreet strategies. This is not to say that it may not be possible to formulate these strategies in a mutually complementary manner. In some situations and circumstances this may desirable and, quite possibly, advisable. Certainly the Oregon experience suggests that this is possible. We would argue, however, that the objectives of each should be considered independently of each other before considering what opportunities may exist for pursuing them with one or more strategies, independent or shared tactics inclusive of positioning attributes. Only in this way can the suitability and likely effectiveness of strategy and tactics be best ensured. A further complication is presented by the likelihood that in each of these three places there are regions also promoting themselves for one or more of the same purposes, i.e. to support the marketing of goods produced within these regions, to attract tourism, and to attract investment. In
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this event a question is raised as to what extent these regional activities complement or detract from national or statewide campaigns, and to what extent there exists the potential for conflict between the two. Furthermore, attributes suitable for a national or statewide positioning campaign may not be equally appropriate or credible across all regions which also pursue their own marketing activities, and vice versa. A question also arises as to the likely effect on CI of independently pursued regional campaigns in addition to those of a national or statewide purview and nature. The concept of organic influences raised by Selby and Morgan (1996) and reflected in the work of others, has important implications for how places are perceived and marketed for export, destination and investment marketing purposes. What this suggests is that whatever is undertaken for one or more of these purposes is likely to affect CI and how this is perceived. Correspondingly, export, destination and investment marketing efforts undertaken independently of each other are likely to have an affect on each other and their ability to succeed in their respective purpose. Furthermore, even in situations where these efforts are planned and pursued conjointly, it is uncertain whether what is achieved will be likely to be equally relevant and beneficial. Lampert and Jaffes (1998) notion of image crystallisation may be as applicable to destination marketing as it is to export marketing. The work of Selby and Morgan (1996) suggests that negative perceptions can be redressed through an integrated marketing strategy designed purposefully to achieve positive image crystallisation for holiday destinations. The research of each, however, has considered export and destination marketing respectively and independently of each other. Consequently, a question is raised as to whether crystallisation or fragmentation would be likely to derive from export and destination marketing campaigns formulated and pursued independently of each other. Research Opportunities Each of the case studies above illustrates a common practice of developing a single branding and positioning campaign for multiple purposes. In our view this practice is questionable. Commonality of purpose and strategy may, in some situations, be achievable and desirable; in others, however, the attributes and images suitable for one purpose and market may not necessarily complement those suitable for other purposes and markets. While it has been shown that positioning strategies devised to support export products may contain elements which can effectively support the promotion of places as tourism destinations and/or investment bases, we believe that research is necessary in order to illumine: a) conditions under which this may or may not be successfully achieved; b) situations in which this may not be advisable or feasible; and c) the appropriateness and advisability of single or multiple strategies in order to fulfil multiple marketing purposes and to achieve multiple objectives. Beyond this, it is also argued that, with an increasing number of place branding campaigns emerging, the question of complementarity across geographic regions should also be investigated. While national governments may choose to instigate a strategic positioning campaign for their products in international markets, it is unclear how this might be affected by imaging campaigns of states or cities of that nation, based upon differing image attributes. Therefore additional research into the likely degree of coalescence or conflict in this regard would also appear to be needed. Cases reviewed in this paper also raise a number of additional issues warranting further research. For example, while it has been claimed that the New Zealand branding initiative has achieved success in meeting dual objectives, it is not clear which of its Brand Values, or indeed what combination of attributes, have been effective in supporting and improving export trade, as distinct from creating increased tourism activity. Similarly, the experience gained through the Brand
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Oregon program has not yet revealed which attributes in particular contribute most suitably and effectively to the creation of images which are relevant for discrete export, tourism and investment purposes. Research conducted by Selby and Morgan (1996), among others, also points towards a growing awareness of the impact of forces external to tourism in shaping consumers perceptions of a holiday destination. Although Selby and Morgan (1996) acknowledge that sources, such as the place images conveyed through the media, may have a powerful influence on such perceptions, this concept remains to be fully researched. The importance of this is heightened in situations in which places are becoming increasingly proactive in creating and projecting images for the purpose of stimulating export trade and investment. Therefore it appears timely to understand more fully how place images are shaped and formed. Research into the nature, impact and relative importance of organic sources in contributing to an overarching place image would prove useful not only to destination marketers but, also, to those active in promoting export products and investment opportunity. Findings derived from research into destination marketing and export marketing hold the potential to inform each other. Arguably, Lampert and Jaffes (1998) observation that the image of a place is created gradually over time through a process of crystallisation introduces a concept with the potential to beneficially inform tourism theory and practice. Similarly, Roth and Romeos (1992) theory regarding the need for fit between the images associated with a place and its export products also suggests that destination marketers should strive to ensure congruence between the images promoted of a destination and its tourism products. Correspondingly, the attention drawn by Selby and Morgan (1996) to how place images are formed and influenced holds potential value for practitioners and researchers interested in PO marketing to support export products. Clearly, there is considerable scope for further research into these and associated issues, and potential value to be gained from a closer integration of place branding literatures and practice. References
Aaker, D., Managing Brand Equity. New York: The Free Press, 1991. Ahn, J. and Z.U. Ahmed, South Koreas Emerging Tourism Industry, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 35 (2-1994), 84-89. Bannister, J.P. and J.A. Saunders, UK Consumers Attitudes Towards Imports: The Measurement of National Stereotype Image, European Journal of Marketing, 12 (8-1978), 562-70. Echtner, C.M. and J.R.B. Ritchie, The Measurement Of Destination Image: An Empirical Assessment, Journal of Travel Research, (Spring 1993), 3-13. Graby, F., Countries As Corporate Entities in International Markets. In Papadopoulos, N. and L. Heslop (Eds), Product Country Images: Impact and Role in International Marketing, New York: International Business Press, 1993. Heath, E. and G. Wall, Marketing Tourism Destinations: A Strategic Planning Approach. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 1992. Hu, Y. and J.R.B. Ritchie, Measuring Destination Attractiveness: A Contextual Approach, Journal of Travel Research, (Fall 1993), 25-34. Johansson, J.K., Determinants and Effects of the Use of Made In Labels, International Marketing Review, 6 (1-1988), 47-58. Johansson, J.K, Global Marketing: Foreign Entry, Local Marketing, And Global Management, Chicago: Irwin, 1997. Keller, K.L., Strategic Brand Management. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1998. Kent, H.A., Brand Tasmania. Unpublished thesis, University of Tasmania, Hobart, 1999.

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Kotler, P., D.H. Haider, and I. Rein, Marketing Places and Nations: Attracting Investment, Industry, and Tourism To Cities, States, and Nations, New York: The Free Press, 1993. Lampert, S.I. and E.D. Jaffe, A Dynamic Approach to Country of Origin Effect, European Journal of Marketing, 32 (1/2-1998), 61-78. Momsen, J.H., The Economics of Tourism (Review), Economic Geography, 75 (2-1999), 211-213. Morello, G., International Product Competitiveness and The Made In Concept. In Papadopoulos, N. and L. Heslop (Eds), Product Country Images: Impact and Role in International Marketing, New York: International Business Press, 1993. Oregon Economic Development Dept, Brand Oregon Tool Kit. Oregon Economic Development Dept, 1997. Palmer, C., Tourism and the Symbols of Identity, Tourism Management, (20-1999), 313-21. Papadopoulos, N. and L.A. Heslop (1993), But Who Knows Where or When: Reflections on the Images of Countries and their Products. In Papadopoulos, N. and L. Heslop (Eds), Product Country Images: Impact and Role in International Marketing, New York: International Business Press, 1993. Pearce, P.L., Perceived Changes in Holiday Destinations, Annals of Tourism Research, 9 1982, 145-164. Principals, Brand Tasmania: Brand Objectives and Brand Idea. Unpublished workshop presentation, June 1998. Roth, M.S. and J.B. Romeo, Matching Product Category and Country Image Perceptions: A Framework for Managing Country of Origin Effects, Journal of International Business Studies, 23 (3-1992), 477 - 498. Selby, M. and N.J. Morgan, Reconstructing Place Image, Tourism Management, 17 (4-1996), 287-294.

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