ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI 614 403 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROCESS CALCULATIONS-DEFINITIONS

SYSTEM OF UNITS The system of units composed of: Fundamental Units (or Base units): These are the units for basic quantities such as length, mass, time etc. Derived Units: These are the units obtained by multiplying and dividing the base units. e.g. cm2, m/sec etc. Multiple Units: These are units which are multiples or fractions of base units. e.g. hour, minutes, seconds etc. VARIOUS SYSTEM OF UNITS (CGS,FPS,MKS,SI) SYSTEM CGS QUANTITY LENGTH MASS TIME TEMPERATURE LENGTH MASS TIME TEMPERATURE LENGTH MASS TIME TEMPERATURE LENGTH MASS TIME TEMPERATURE UNIT Centimeter - Cm Gram - gm Second - s Celsius - C Foot ft Pound lb Second s Fahrenheit - F Meter - m Kilogram kg Second - s Celsius - C Meter m Kilogram kg Second - s Kelvin - K DIMENSION L M T L M T L M T L M T

FPS

MKS

SI

SOME IMPORTANT CONVERSIONS a. LENGTH 1 inch = 2.5 centimeters =25 millimeters 1 centimeter= 0.4 inch; 1 inch = 0.083 foot 1 foot =0.33 meter =30 centimeters 1 meter= 3.3 feet =100 cm= 1.1 yards 1 foot = 0.33 yard =12 inches=30 cm 1 yard = 3 feet =36 inches 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers= 5280 feet =1760 yards 1 kilometer = 0.62 mile =1000 meter
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b.MASS 1 kg=2.204 lb=1000gm 1 t = 1000 kg (metric ton) 1 gram = 0.035 ounce 1 ounce =0.0625 pound = 28.35 grams 1 pound =0.45 kilogram=16 ounces C. TEMPERATURE C=(5/9)(F-32) F=(9/5)C+32 0 K (absolute zero) = - 273 C (or) 0 C = 273 K d. VOLUME and CAPACITY 1 lit = 1000 ml = 1000 cm3 = 0.264 US gal 1000 lit = 1 kilo lit = 1 m3 e. PRESSURE 1 atm=760 mmHg=14.69 psi =101.325 kPa =1.013 bar=1.033 kgf/cm2 1 kPa = 0.01097 kgf/cm2 =0.145038 psi 1 bar = 0.1 MPa = 1.0197 kgf/cm2=14.5 psi 1 torr = 1 mm Hg= 133.32 Pa f. ENERGY and POWER 1 J =0.238 cal (IT)=0.101972 kgf.m =2.777 X 10-7 kWh=9.478 X 10-4 Btu (IT) 1 kWh =859.84 kcal (IT) = 3412.14 Btu (IT) 1 kcal (IT) = 4.18 kJ = 3.968 Btu (IT) 746 kWh = 1 hp g. FORCE 1 N = 0.101 kgf = 0.2248 lbf h. VARIOUS SPECIFIC GRAVITY SCALES Twaddell ( TW) TW = 200 (SG 288.7/288.7 1.000 ) Baum ( B) B = 145 [145/ SG 288.7/288.7) -for liquids heavier than water B = [140/ SG 288.7/288.7) 130 - for liquids lighter than water For Petroleum products API = [141.5/ SG 288.7/288.7) 131.5 (API American Petroleum Institute) For Sugar industry Brix = [400/ SG 288.7/288.7] 400

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i. DIMENSIONAL FORMULAS OF COMMON QUANTITIES QUANTITY Mass Length Time Velocity Acceleration Force Momentum Energy Area Volume Density Pressure Action Viscosity TYPE Fundamental Fundamental Fundamental Distance/time (Derived) Velocity/time (Derived) Mass x acceleration (Derived) Mass x velocity (Derived) Force x distance (Derived) Length squared (Derived) Length cubed (Derived) Mass/volume (Derived) Force/area (Derived) Energy x time (Derived) Force per unit area per Unit Velocity Gradient (Derived) DIMENSIONS M L T LT -1 LT -2 -2 MLT MLT-1 ML2T -2 L2 L3 ML-3 ML-1T -2 ML2T -1 ML-1T -1

THINGS FOR REMEMBRENCE

1. Units and Dimension: For measuring and expressing various quantities some sort scale in form of system is required and is used to express properties, process variables and design parameters and is called system of units. eg.CGS, FPS, MKS and SI. Various quantities are measured with different scale in different unit systems. But it requires some basic concept or quantity in common to all unit systems are called as dimension. Any quantity could be expressed by this basic concept. eg. Dimension of length is L and volume is (length X Breadth X height) ,so dimension of volume is 2. System: This refers to a substance or group of substance under consideration. eg. Fuel in a tank 3. Process: Change taking place inside a system is called as a process.eg. Reaction between two substance in a system of reactor. 4. Gram atom= 5. Kg atom = 6. Gram mole = 7. Equivalent weight = 8. Molarity =
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9. Molality =
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10. Normality = 11. Gram equivalent = Consider a mixture (system) consists of two components A and B, then 12. Weigh % of A = 13. Mole % of A = 14. Volume % of A = 15. Weigh fraction of A ( 13. Mole fraction of A ( )= )= )= and similarly for B and similarly for B and similarly for B and similarly for B and similarly for B and similarly for B

14. Volume fraction of A ( 15. Mole ratio =

16. Sum of the mole fractions in a system is equal to one. 17. Sum of the weight fractions in a system is equal to one. 18. Concentration in g/L = normality X equivalent mass 19. Traces of materials are expressed in ppm (parts per million) 1 ppm = mg/L 20. Specific gravity(SG): Specific gravities are used for indirect measurement of concentrations. ( ) Specific gravity( ) ( ) Various specific gravity scales are used as follows: 21. Twaddell( ) ( )

22. For liquids heavier than water,

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Baum (

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23. For liquids lighter than water, Baum( ) [ ] Note: are used to measure the concentration of caustic lye, sulphuric acid strength, Hydrochloric acid strength etc. 24. For petroleum products API (American Petroleum Institute) scales are used. API = [ ]

25. For sugar industries Brix is used. 1Brix = 1% mass of sugar Brix = [ ]

26. Raoults Law: The vapour pressure of the solvent in a solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent. VP of a solvent in a solution = VP of pure solvent X mole fraction of the solvent

27. Ideal gas law: Boyles law: and Charles law: Combining above two laws gives ideal gas law.ie pV=RT R is Universal Gas Constant
( ( ) ) ( ( ) ) ( )

=10.73

28. Non ideal gas equation (or) real gas equation (or) equation of state (or) van der Walls equation: * +( ) where and ,

29. Compressibility factor(Z): For ideal gases Z =1 30. Density of gas = 31. Density of a gas mixture = 32. Specific gravity of a gas = (OR)

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33. Average molecular mass =

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34. Daltons law : It states that the total pressure exerted by a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of partial pressure of the constituting component gases. , and so on. (OR)

35. Amagats law: It states the total volume occupied by a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial volume of the constituting component gas. , (OR)

36. Steady state operation: The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass of various components involved remains constant during an operation or process. Input = output + Accumulation For steady state operation; Input = Output 37. Unsteady state operation: In unsteady state operation the flow condition or quantity involved changes with time. Input Output 38. By-pass operation: In these operations a fraction of the feed stream to the process is diverted around the unit and combined with the output stream from the unit. This is practised to have an accurate control in composition or concentration is expected.
Process Unit

Feed Bypass

Product

39. Purge or Purging: In the purging operation a quantity of stream is bled off or purged off to avoid the increase in concentration of inert or unwanted material in the recycle stream.
Process Unit

Feed Recycle

Product

Purge Stream 39. Stoichiometric Equation: It is the chemical reaction which is a statement indicating relative moles of reactants and products that take part in the reaction.eg. , indicates one mole of CO reacts with two moles of to produce one mole of methanol. 40. Stoichiometric Coefficient: It is the number that precedes the formula of the component involved in a chemical reaction. eg.in the reaction , the stoichiometric coefficient of CO is 1, that of is 2 and methanol is 1.

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41. Limiting reactant: It is the one which decides the extent to which the reaction can proceed. The limiting reactant is always present in less than the stoichiometric proportion with respect to the other component. 42. Excess reactant: It is the one which is in excess of theoretical or stoichiometric requirement. The excess component always found in product stream though the reaction proceeds to completion. 43. Percent excess: The excess reactant involved in the reaction is generally specified in terms of percent excess. Consider the reaction and if A is the excess reactant, then,
[( )]

44. Percent conversion: Consider the reaction , and if A is the limiting reactant, then percent conversion on of A is the percent of A consumed in the reaction.

45. Percent yield: Consider the reaction , where C is the desired product, and in turn C gives D, where D is the undesired then,

46. Selectivity: Consider the reaction , where C is the desired product, and in turn C gives D, where D is the undesired then,
( ) (

47. Recycle: Recycling operation is feeding back a part of the stream leaving a system with the fresh stream entering the system. It is done for many purposes like, increasing the yield, enrich the product, avoid the wastage of raw material, to conserve the heat etc.
SYSTEM

Feed (F)

Mixed Feed (M) Recycle Feed (R)

oduct

Remaining product (P)

Purge(P) i. ii. iii. iv.

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48. Sensible Heat : Is the heat that is added or removed to a substance without changing the phase. Q = H = m T, Where m = quantity of the substance = Heat capacity of the substance at constant pressure T = Temperature difference between initial and final condition 49. Latent heat : Is the heat that is added or removed to a substance with change in phase. Q = H = m, Where m = quantity of the substance = latent heat change 50. Specific Heat capacity or Specific heat: It is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of one gram of substance by one degree. Heat capacity is generally expressed on a unit mass or unit mole basis. When it is expressed on unit mole basis it is termed as molal heat capacity. Its unit is Kcal/kgmol .k 51. Heat change for a gas between the temperature Q = H = m dT (at standard condition) and

For ideal gases at one atmosphere absolute and is denoted by = a + bT + c + d Where, a,b,c,d are constants

52. Mean molal heat capacity of gases: The above method is a lengthy procedure and to avoid it is convenient to use mean molal heat capacity. Assuming a base temperature in K and T is the temperature to which the substance to be raised , then mean molal heat capacity is given as: =
( )

Heat change between two temperatures, and , with reference to the reference temperature as is calculated as follows: Let > and and mean molal heat capacity between and Then the heat change for n kgmole of a gas is given by: Q = H = Q = H = n { ( ) ( )}

Similarly heat capacity of gaseous mixture, = Where, mass or mole fraction of mixture. Heat change for n moles of gas mixture is given by, Q = H = n (T) dT

component in the gas

If mean molal heat capacity data of components of gas mixture is provided then, = ( ) ( )

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If and

and and and

)

are mean molal heat capacities of gas mixtures between then,

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Q = H = n *

)+

53. Some important values: Specific heat of water = 1 kcal/kg.K (or) 4.18 kJ/kg.K Latent heat of water vapour = 538 kcal/kg = 2260 kj/kg Sensible heat of ice = 0.502 kcal/kg = 2.1kJ/kg Latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 kcal/kg = 336 kJ/kg Specific heat of air = 0.2404 kcal/kg.k = 1.005 kJ/kg.K 54. Standard Heat of reaction ( ): The enthalpy change resulting due to a reaction between the given reactant at pressure of 1 atm and temperature of 25C. If Standard heat of formation is available then, = ( ) ( ) If Standard heat of combustion is available then, ( = ) ( ) 55. Standard Heat of Formation ( ) : It is the heat of reaction when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements at pressure of 1 atm and temperature of 25C. 56. Standard Heat of Combustion ( ) : It is the heat of reaction of one mole of a substance with molecular oxygen at pressure of 1 atm and temperature of 25C. 57. Hesss Law: It states the enthalpy change (i.e heat evolved or absorbed) in a particular reaction is same whether the reaction takes place in one or several steps. Consider A reacts to give B Path 1: A B, Heat change = H Path 2: A B

C If, A A C C D D E E B Then Hesss law states, H = = +

D B, H = H = H = H = +

E H =

58. Kopps rule: The heat capacity of a solid compound is approximately equal to the sum of the heat capacities of the constituent elements. But this is applicable for a specific range of temperature.
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59. Adiabatic reaction temperature: It is the highest temperature attained by the reaction products, if the products of the reaction remain together as a single mass or stream of material, under the condition of no loss or no gain of heat from the system. 60. Theoretical flame temperature: It the temperature attained when a fuel is burnt in air or oxygen without loss or gain of heat. 61. Equation for heat of reaction at any temperature ( ): Consider the reaction, , Where A and B reactants and C and D are products, stoichiometric coefficients of A,B,C,D at temperature T. of A

Then [ [ [ Find the value ] ] ] . [ [ [

+ ] ] ]

Now heat of reaction at

is given by, ):

62. Net enthalpy change in a given reaction ( Where +

63. Humidification: Is a process where the liquid is transferred to gas phase, when a gas phase is brought into contact with the liquid in which it is essentially insoluble at a given temperature and pressure.

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64. Dehumidification: Is a process where the transfer is from the gas phase to the liquid phase.

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Normally the term saturation refers to any gas-vapour combination, while humidity refers specifically to the air-water system. 65. Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT): The temperature measured by a bare thermometer or thermocouple, in the absence of thermal radiation. 66. Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT): The temperature measured by a thermometer or thermocouple with a wet wick covering the bulb (called as wet bulb thermometer) exposed to a rapidly moving stream of the vapour-gas mixture, and measured under equilibrium condition. The WBT is always lower than or equal to the DBT. 67. Dew Point: This is the temperature at which a vapour-gas mixture becomes saturated when cooled at constant total pressure out of contact with a liquid. When the temperature is reduced below the dew point, vapour will condense as liquid dew. At the dew point the partial pressure of the vapour equals the vapour pressure of the component in liquid. 68. Adiabatic Saturation Temperature (AST): This is the temperature that a vapour-gas mixture would reach if it were saturated through an adiabatic process. For Air-Water system WBT and AST are practically same as the latent heat of water is quite high in comparison to the sensible heat content of air/water. 69. Saturated Vapour: When a gas or gaseous mixture remains in contact with a liquid surface, it will acquire vapour from the liquid until the partial of the vapour in the gas mixture equals the vapour pressure of the liquid at its existing temperature when the vapour concentration reaches this equilibrium concentration, the gas is said to be saturated with the vapour. 70. Partial Saturation: If a gas contains a vapour, in such a proportions, that its partial pressure is less than the vapour pressure of the liquid, at the existing temperature, the mixture is partially saturated. 71. Relative Saturation: It is defined as the percentage ratio of the partial pressure of the vapour to the vapour pressure of the liquid at the existing temperature. The relative saturation is a function of both the composition of the mixture and its temperature as well as of the nature of the vapour. Relative saturation also represents the following ratios: The ratio of the percentage of the vapour by volume to the percentage by volume that would be present if the gas were saturated at the existing temperature and the total pressure. The ratio of the weight of vapour per unit volume of mixture to the weight per unit volume present at saturation at the existing temperature and total pressure.

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72. Absolute Humidity =

(absolute saturation):

For Air-water System, = 73. Molal Humidity (molal saturation) = That is, = Also, Where pressure of the vapour. 74. Relative humidity/percent relative humidity/relative saturation: % Relative humidity = Where is the total pressure of the system and partial = 0.625 : For air-water system, =

is the vapour pressure of pure liquid

75. Saturation Humidity ( =( Where )

):

are the molecular weights of vapour and dry gas.

76. Percentage humidity or percentage absolute humidity or percent saturation: % Humidity = saturation humidity 77. Humid heat ( ): Is the heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the gas and its accompanying vapour by one degree at constant pressure. Where Specific heat of gas Absolute humidity 78. Enthalpy ( ): Is the sum of the enthalpies of the gas and the vapour content. i.e. percent ratio of actual absolute humidity to the

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( ) Where, is enthalpy, is humid heat, is the reference temperature, temperature, is molal humidity, latent heat of the vapour.

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is the dry bulb

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79. Humid Volume ( ): Is the unit volume of the unit mass of dry gas and its accompanying vapour at the prevailing temperature and pressure. ( ) *( ) ( )+ *(
( )

)+ is the total

Where pressure, is absolute humidity ,

is Molecular mass of air,

is dry bulb temperature

80. Theoretical requirement: It is the quantity of oxygen required for complete combustion of all the fuel in the combustion chamber. 81. Theoretical air requirement: It is the quantity of air contains the theoretical quantity of oxygen. It is also the minimum quantity of air required to burn all the fuel in the combustion chamber. 82. Excess Air: It is the quantity of the air supplied over the theoretical requirement. it is usually expressed in percentage. ( ) * + 83. Calorific value of fuels: it is the heating value of the fuel. It is the equivalent to the quantity of heat produced when a unit mass fuel is completely burnt with pure oxygen. It is the negative of the standard heat of combustion. The standard heat of combustion ( ) is always negative and calorific value or heating value is positive. 84. Net Calorific Value(NCV):It is also called as net heating value or lower heating value. It is the calorific value of a fuel which determined by considering that the water present in the vapour form. (the latent heat of vaporization of water is not available for useful purpose ) and it is lost as as vapour or gas. 85. Gross Calorific value (GCV): It also called as gross heating value or higher heating value. Here the latent heat of vaporization is available in addition to the NCV for useful purpose by condensing the vapours produced. ( ) Where, n=no of moles of water vapour produced is the heat of vaporization of water at 25 86. Steps to do material balance: Assume suitable basis Draw the block diagram Specify a process stream (input, output, quantity of stream etc.) Search for unknown quantity Relate the known quantity with unknown quantity using basic principles Identify the mathematical technique to solve the unknown Do a mass balance on a sequence of process units.
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87. Pressure a. Absolute pressure (for pressure more than atmospheric pressure) = gauge pressure + one atmospheric pressure b. Absolute pressure (for pressure less than or sub atmospheric pressure) = one atmospheric pressure - gauge pressure c. Pressure head = Absolute pressure / Density 88. NTP Conditions: P = 1 atm = 101.325 KPa =14.69 psia V = 22.4 m3/k mol = 22.4 lit / mol T = 273 K = 0C = 32F (STP conditions are local conditions prevailing) 89. System of units: The system of units composed of: Fundamental Units (or Base units): These are the units for basic quantities such as length, mass, time etc. Derived Units: These are the units obtained by multiplying and dividing the base units.e.g cm2, m/ sec etc. Multiple Units: These are units which are multiples or fractions of base units. e.g. hour, minutes, seconds etc. or its equivalents are called as standard

90. Standard Temperature: The temperature of state temperature.

91. Datum temperature: The datum temperature is the base temperature at which an operation or process is performed or standard data are calculated and available . Usually 25C is considered as datum temperature for our conditions

..physical theories gain their definiteness from mathematical form in which they are expressed.
Dr.E.A.Cassirer - German Philosopher

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