Differential amplifier (Difference Amplifier) Earlier we have seen that the 741 and other op amp ICs can

not be used to amplify signals without adding external components to reduce their voltage gain as they possess extremely high gains. Under this situation, even the very small noise signals associated with input can drive the op amp output into saturation. Because of this drawback, op amps can not be used as differential amplifiers in applications though they are excellent differential amplifiers. The following circuit shows how an op amp can be employed to construct a differential amplifier with reduced voltage gain.
R2

R1 v2 v1 R1 R2

_ +

v0

Since the circuit is a linear network, the principle of superposition can be applied to find an expression for its voltage gain. To apply superposition, first reduce v2 to zero and then find corresponding output voltage v0 due to v1 [See circuit (a)]. Next, reduce v1 to zero and evaluate the corresponding output voltage
[See v0

circuit (b)]. Then the output voltage when both

+ v0 . v0 = v0

voltages are applied simultaneously is given by

R2

R2

R1

v v+

R1 _ v2 _

v1 R1

+ R2 (a)

+ v0 R1 R2

v0

(b)

(a) can be recognized as a non inverting configuration with a potential divider at the input, and (b) is an inverting configuration with grounded non-inverting input thro two resistors. Consider circuit (a)

v+ =
But v =

R2 v1 = v R1 + R2
R1 v0 R1 + R2

= v0

R2 v1 R1

Now consider circuit (b)

= v0

R2 v2 R1

(Note that the parallel combination of two resistors attached to the

non inverting input reduces the output offset voltage due to input leakage current). Therefore when both input appear at their respective inputs,

v0 =

R2 ( v1 v2 ) R1

i.e. it is a differential amplifier with a gain of

R2 R1

This simple amplifier circuit has several drawbacks. (1) It is not easy to find two identical resistors each for R1 and R2. (2) In order to change the gain of the amplifier the values of two resistors, both resistors of either R1 or R2, have to be changed by the same magnitudes, which is also difficult. (3) The two input terminals represents two different amplifier configurations (non-inverting and inverting amplifiers) presenting two different input impedances to input signals. The inverting configuration offers relatively very low input impedance compared to the non inverting input. This situation is aggravated if the amplifier is required to have a large differential gain, then R1 has to be small and therefore input impedance of the inverting input becomes very small. A much superior circuit which provides solutions to above problems is shown below. It is called the instrumentation amplifier.

Instrumentation amplifier

v1

+ _ v1 R1 v2 _ R2

vx R4 R3 R3 + R4 _ v0

R2

vy

v2

Potential difference across R1 =

Current

v1 v2

through R1 =

v1 v2 and R1

1 2 Voltage vx = v1 + R R2 1

v v

1 2 Similarly, voltage v y = v2 R R2 1

v v

R4 v = But 0 R ( v y vx ) 3
From the above equations

v y vx = ( v2 v1 ) ( v1 v2 ) 2R = ( v2 v1 ) 1 + 2 R1
v0 = R4 2 R2 1 + ( v2 v1 ) R3 R1

2 R2 R1

Thus the instrumentation amplifier has a differential voltage gain

v0 R4 2 R2 Ad = = 1 + v2 v1 R3 R1
It can be seen from the gain expression that the voltage gain of the amplifier can be varied by varying the single resistor R1 . Since both of the inputs are connected in the noninverting configuration, the input impedance seen by v1 and v2 are extremely large.

Comparators

Operational amplifiers can be used to compare the magnitudes of two voltages or one voltage with reference to another. Consider the following circuit.

In figure (a), the voltage Ei at the non inverting input is compared with the reference voltage Vref (Vref = 0 in this case) applied to the inverting input. When Ei is above Vref, Vo equals Vsat, and when it is below Vref, Vo becomes Vsat. The polarity of Vo tells if Ei is above or below Vref.

In addition it indicates the time at which Ei crosses zero voltage level. The circuit shown in figure (a) is therefore called a noninverting zero-crossing detector. The circuit shown in figure (b) is called inverting zero-crossing detector.

Positive and negative voltage level detectors

In positive voltage level detectors a positive reference voltage applied to one of the op amp inputs. This means that the op amp is set up as a comparator to detect a positive voltage. If the signal is applied to the (+) input, the circuit action is noninverting. If it is applied to (-) input, the circuit action is inverting.

Negative voltage level detector

This circuit detects when an input signal crosses a negative voltage Vref.

Some practical application of voltage level detectors

Sound activated switch

An adjustable reference voltage is realized with a potential divider having a 10 k pot and a 5 k connected to +15 V supply. It provides a large adjustable voltage range of 0 to 10 V. The 100:1 voltage divider will provide an adjustment down to a desired reference voltage level of 0 100 mV. (Pick a 100 k (large) resistor to avoid loading of the main divider) Procedure (1) (2) Open the reset switch to turn off both SCR and the alarm. In a quiet environment, adjust the sensitivity control until Vo just swings to -Vsat.

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(3)

Close the reset switch. The alarm should remain off.

When there is no signal at the gate G, the SCRs Kathode K and the anode A terminals act like an open switch. Noise signal picked up by the microphone will produce an ac signal. The first positive swing of Ei above Vref will drive Vo to + Vsat. The diode now conducts a current pulse of about 1 mA into the gate G of the SCR and makes it turns on, and the alarm will also be activated. Alarm stays on until it is reset by opening the Reset switch. Alarm can be replaced with other devices such as cameras etc.
Smoke detector

If a continuous signal is needed, the SCR- Alarm circuit can be employed here.

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The lamp and photoresistor must be mounted in a lightproof box that admits smoke.

Effect of noise on comparator circuits

Simple comparator circuits discussed above can operate properly only if the noise voltages present at either input are of common mode type. However, if the noise is present only in one input it will not be cancelled and the variation of the noise amplitude at the reference level may leads to oscillations at the output of the comparator. Such a noise voltage is shown below. For simplicity the noise signal is shown as a square wave which is superimposed on a triangular wave

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The wave shape of Vo vs. time shows clearly how the addition of noise causes false output signals. Vo should indicate only the crossing of Ei, not the crossing of Ei plus noise voltage. These false crossings can be eliminated by positive feedback.

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Application of positive feedback

Positive feedback is accomplished by taking a fraction of the output voltage and applying it to the noninverting (+) input as shown below.

In figure (a) above, output voltage Vo divides between R1 and R2, and a fraction of Vo which is equal to
R2 Vo R1 + R2

is fed back to the (+) input. This voltage becomes the

reference voltage ,VRef, and it depends on Vo.

Upper threshold voltage

When Vo is equal to + Vsat, the feedback voltage (the reference voltage mentioned above) is called the upper-threshold voltage, VUT. VUT is expressed from the voltage divider as

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VUT =

R2 ( +Vsat ) R1 + R2

For Ei values below VUT, the voltage at the (+) input is above the voltage at the (-) input, and Vo is locked at +Vsat. If Ei is made slightly more positive than VUT, the polarity of Ed, as shown reverses and Vo begins to drop in value. Now the fraction of Vo fed back top the positive input is smaller, so Ed becomes larger. Vo then drops even faster (regenerative action) and is driven quickly to Vsat. The circuit is then stable at the condition shown in Fig. (b) above.

Lower threshold voltage

When Vo is at Vsat, the voltage fed back to the (+) input is called lower-threshold voltage, VLT and is given by

VLT

R2 = ( Vsat ) R1 + R2

VLT is negative with respect to ground. Vo will therefore stay at Vsat as long as Ei is positive, or positive with respect to VLT. Vo will switch back to +Vsat only if Ei goes more negative than VLT. So if the threshold voltages are larger than the peak noise voltages, positive feedback will eliminate false output transitions.

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Output-Input characteristic (Hysteresis)

The output (Vo)-Input (Ei ) voltage characteristic of the above circuits (a &b) are shown below.
a VH, Hysteresi s voltage Ei 0 Vo +Vsat

VLT =

R2 ( Vsat ) R1 + R2
-Vsat

VUT =
b

R2 ( +Vsat ) R1 + R2

For Ei less than VLT, Vo = +Vsat. The RHS vertical line shows Vo going from +Vsat to Vsat as Ei becomes greater than VUT . The LHS vertical line shows Vo going from Vsat to +Vsat when Ei becomes less than VLT . Note that when the input voltage, Ei,is increased from a negative value to a positive value, the variation of the output voltage follows the path through the RHS vertical line, but when Ei is decreased from a positive value to a negative value Vo will follow a different path (path through the LHS vertical line). i.e. the positive feedback has introduced the property of hysteresis to the circuit. Whenever a circuit changes from one state to a second state at some input signal level and reverts from the second to the first state at a different input signal level , the circuit is said to exhibit hysteresis

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For the positive feedback comparator, the difference in input signals is

VH = VUT VLT ,

and it is called the hysteresis voltage.

If the hysteresis voltage is designed to be greater than the peak-to-peak noise voltage, then there will be no false output crossings. Thus VH tells us how much peak to peak noise the circuit can withstand.

Circuit with hysteresis as a memory element

If Ei has a value that lies between VLT and VUT, it is impossible to predict the value of Vo unless we already know the value of Vo. For example, suppose that we substitute ground for Ei in the figure (a) given above, and turn on the power. The op amp will go to either +Vsat or Vsat depending on the inevitable presence of noise. If the op amp goes to + Vsat, Ei must then go above VUT in order to change the output. If Vo had gone to Vsat, then Ei would have to go below VLT to change Vo. Thus the comparator with hysteresis exhibits the property of memory. That is, if Ei lies between VUT and VLT (within hysteresis voltage), the op amp remembers whether the last switching value of Ei was above VUT or below VLT.