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CHAPTER 8: ELECTROMAGNETISM
8.1 Effect of a Magnet on a Current-carrying Conductor
8.1.1 Straight wire

Magnetic fields are circular Field is strongest close to the wire Increasing the current increases the strength of the field

To determine the direction of the circular magnetic fields, use the right hand rule

Remember: X marks the spot!

Labeling of direction of current

8.1.2 Circular coil

The magnetic field is similar to two straight lines carrying current in opposite directions The magnetic field between the wires are straight lines whereas the ones near the wire are circular

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

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8.1.3 Solenoid

When the number of turns on a coil is increased, it becomes a solenoid The magnetic fields are similar to a bar magnet, i.e. magnetic poles on either end To determine the polarity of the solenoid: Method 1: Method 2: Observe the directions of the current flow on Right-hand grip rule either end (Thumb point towards North)

8.1.4 Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a magnet made by winding a coil of insulated wires around a soft iron core, so that a magnetic field is produced when a current passes through the coil To increase the strength of the electromagnet: 9 Increase the current 9 Increase the number of turns on the coil 9 Insert a soft iron core in the middle of the solenoid

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

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8.1.5 Applications of Electromagnets

Electromagnetic lifter Used to lift heavy objects made of steel or steel alloys, e.g. cars Consists of a soft iron core wrapped by insulated copper coils Soft iron is used as the core because its magnetism will disappear almost instantaneously when the current is turned off When the current is switched on, the coils become an electromagnet Electric bell

When the switch is pressed, the direct current flows through the circuit, turning the solenoid into an electromagnet. The springy metal is attracted towards the electromagnet, and the hammer strikes the gong. The contacts are no longer in contact, so the current stops flowing and the solenoid is demagnetized. The springy metal will return to its original position, and completes the circuit again. The process is repeated as long as the switch is pressed. Ticker timer When connected to a 50 Hz A.C. source, the thin metal strip becomes an electromagnet with changing polarity. The thin metal strip will be attracted to the permanent magnetic pole of opposite polarity. Because of the constantly changing polarity, the iron strip will vibrate with a frequency of 50 Hz.

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

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Circuit breaker When too much current flows through the wire, the electromagnet becomes strong enough to attract the iron catch. This disconnects the contacts and stops current from flowing through. The reset button is pushed to release the iron catch from the electromagnet and to close the contacts so that current can flow through again. Electric relay

When the switch is turned on, the input circuit is completed and the solenoid becomes an electromagnet. The electromagnet attracts the iron armature which pushes contacts C together. This closes the output circuit and the electric motor is started. Telephone earpiece Consists of a permanent magnet clamped between two soft iron cores which are wound with copper wires in opposite directions. A thin iron diaphragm is fixed in front of the soft iron core. The microphone converts audio signals to electrical energy with fluctuating frequency. When the fluctuating current flows through the solenoid, an electromagnetic field with fluctuating intensity is produced. The fluctuating pull of the magnetic field on the diaphragm causes the diaphragm to vibrate. The vibrating diaphragm results in compression and rarefaction of air in its vicinity, producing sound of the same frequency as that received by the microphone. Cassette recorder A cassette recorder has two horseshoe-shaped electromagnets known as cassette heads. One head functions as the erasing head which demagnetizes the tape whereas the other acts as the recording head which records information onto the tape. The magnetic tape is made from a resilient plastic material coated with a magnetic substance such as magnetic oxides or ferrites. When recording, audio signals in the form of fluctuating electric impulses flow through the cassette head, producing a magnetic field with fluctuating intensity. The cassette head magnetizes the portion of the magnetic tape that goes through the narrow slit with uniform speed.

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

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8.2

Interaction Between Current-carrying Conductor and the Magnetic Field

8.2.1 Interaction of magnetic fields of a current-carrying conductor and permanent magnets

Permanent magnet Current-carrying conductor Catapult field

8.2.2 Determining the direction of the induced force

The force is increased if: Current is increased A stronger magnet is used The length of wire in the field is increased

Flemings Left Hand Rule

Right Hand Slap Rule

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

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8.2.3 Direct Current Motor

Motor

Elastic field EXTRA INFORMATION Alternating Current Motor Unlike DC motors which use permanent magnets, alternating current motors use electromagnets. The polarity of the electromagnet changes at the same frequency as the alternating current, so there is no change in the direction of rotation of the motor.

8.3

Electromagnetic Induction

8.3.1 Inducing e.m.f. and current

E.m.f and current can be induced by:

Moving a magnet bar in and out of a solenoid

Moving a conductor across a magnetic field

E.m.f. and current can only be induced when there is relative motion between a conductor and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other.

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

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8.3.2 Determining the direction of the induced current

Force

Field

Current

Flemings Right Hand Rule

8.3.2.1 Lenzs Law

Right Hand Slap Rule

Lenzs Law: the direction of the induced current is such that the change producing it will be opposed. The solenoid will always resist any movement of the magnet relative to the solenoid. When the bar magnet is inserted into the solenoid, the solenoid will try to repel the magnet. Therefore, the polarity of that end of the solenoid will be the same as the magnets. When the bar magnet is removed from the solenoid, the solenoid will try to attract the magnet. Therefore, the polarity of that end of the solenoid will be the opposite of the magnets. bar bar bar bar

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Method 1: Based on direction of current flow observed at the either end of the solenoid

Method 2: Using the right-hand grip rule

8.3.3 Determining the magnitude of the induced current (Faradays Law)

Faradays Law: the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change magnetic flux through a coil or alternatively the rate of the magnetic flux being cut. If there is no relative motion between a magnet and a solenoid, there is no electromagnetic induction. To increase the e.m.f. and current: Increase the relative motion Increase the number of turns on the coils Increase the magnetic strength Increase the cross-section area of the wire Insert a soft iron core in between the coils of the wire

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

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8.3.4 Direct Current & Alternating Current

Direct current Alternating current Direct current is usually supplied by Alternating current is generated from acid-based batteries or dry cells a.c. generators, e.g. hydroelectric power Direct current is current flowing in one generators fixed direction in a circuit Alternating current is current whose magnitude and direction changes periodically with time D.C. Generator A.C. Generator

Factors that affect the magnitude of the induced current in the generators: Magnetic field strength Number of windings on the armature The presence of an iron core in the armature The speed of rotation of the armature Area of the armature

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8.3.4.1

Effective voltage
V V

When two identical light bulbs are connected to a direct current and an alternating current of the same e.m.f., it is found that the light bulb connected to the d.c. shines with brighter intensity. To get the light bulb in the a.c. circuit to shine with the same intensity (or the same heating effect), the voltage of the power source has to be increased. Effective voltage = Actual voltage 2

Effective voltage is typically known as root mean square voltage whereas the actual voltage is known as peak voltage.
Vrms = V peak 2

where Vrms = root mean square voltage [V] Vpeak = peak voltage [V] 8.3.5 Operating Principles of Current-measuring Devices Moving coil meter Built on the principle of electromagnetism When current flows through the coil, the mutual interaction between the magnet and the coil forms a rotating force that turns the coil and hence deflects the indicator. Sensitivity can be increased by: 9 Using a stronger magnet 9 Increasing the windings on the coil 9 Increasing the area of the coil 9 Using a recovery spring with smaller spring constant 9 Using a lighter indicator Only for measuring direct current

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Hot wire meter Built on the principle of heating effect of electric current When current flows through the wire AB, the wire heats up and expands. This causes the thread to be taut and the pulley turns causing the indicator to deflect The rate of heating is not directly proportional to the magnitude of the current, therefore a non-linear scale is used. For measuring direct current and alternating current Moving iron meter Built in the principles of electromagnetism When current flows through the solenoid, the solenoid is magnetized, causing iron rods P and Q to be magnetized with the same polarity. Therefore both rods repel each other and Q rotates, causing the indicator needle to deflect. For measuring direct current and alternating current Only can measure large magnitudes of current because small currents are unable to induce a magnetic field strong enough to magnetize the two iron rods
8.3.5.1 Modifications to a moving coil meter

To an ammeter

To a voltmeter

A shunt resistor (very low R) Added in parallel

A multiplier (very high R) Added in series

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

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8.4

Transformer

8.4.1 Basics of a transformer

Transformers are used to change the potential difference of an a.c. source.

V s Ns = Vp N p
where Vp = primary voltage / input voltage [V] Vs = secondary voltage / output voltage [V] Np = number of turns on primary coil Ns = number of turns on secondary coil

Symbol of a transformer

Step-up

Step-down

8.4.2 Operating principle of a transformer

Input circuit must be connected to a.c. D.c. is uniform in magnitude and has a fixed direction. Therefore the induced e.m.f. is not produced in the secondary coil which depends on change in the magnetic flux. A.c. always has changing direction and magnitude. Therefore the direction and magnitude of the induced magnetic field in the primary coil also changes, inducing e.m.f. in the secondary coil.

8.4.3 Types of transformers

Step-up transformer Step-down transformer Increase the potential difference Reduce potential difference Number of turns in the secondary coil is Number of turn in the secondary coil is less greater than in the primary coil than in the primary coil Current in primary coil is greater than in Current in primary coil is less than in secondary coil secondary coil

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8.4.4 Efficiency
Efficiency = Because P = IV, Output power 100% Input power

Efficiency =

Vs I s 100% Vp I p

where Vp = primary voltage / input voltage [V] Vs = secondary voltage / output voltage [V] Ip = current in primary coil [A] Is = current in secondary coil [A] If the transformer is said to be ideal, the efficiency = 100%. Therefore, VpIp = VsIs

8.4.5 Factors that affect the efficiency of a transformer

Factors Heating effect of current in coil Power lost as heat P = I2R

Heating effect of induced eddy currents* Eddy currents are generated within the iron core Magnetization of the iron core Energy used in the magnetization and demagnetization of the iron core everytime the current changes its direction is known as hysterisis. This energy is lost as heat which subsequently heats up the iron core. Flux leakage Some of the induced magnetic flux from the primary coil is not transferred to the secondary coil

Methods to increase efficiency Use thicker copper wires of low resistance Use coolant to decrease the temperature of the transformer Use a laminated iron core where each layer is insulated with enamel paint to prevent flow of eddy currents Use a soft iron core that is easily magnetized and demagnetized

Secondary coils are intertwined tightly with the primary coils Iron core should resemble a closed loop

*Eddy currents: circulating electrical currents that are induced in electrically conductive elements when exposed to changing magnetic fields, creating an opposing force to the magnetic Chapter 8: Electromagnetism Page 13 of 15 flux

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8.5

Generation and Transmission of Electricity

8.5.1 Generation of electricity

Energy source Hydro Process Dammed water: gravitational potential energy kinetic energy (rotates turbine) Natural gas heats up water steam rotates turbine Coal heats up water under high pressure steam rotates turbine Fission of uranium heats up water steam rotates turbine Biomass heats up water steam rotates turbine Solar cells convert sunlight to electricity Advantages Abundant and free Clean, non-polluting Water from dams can be used to: Irrigate crops Flood control Rear fish Recreation Tourist spot Easy to transport Disadvantages Ecosystem imbalance Safety of nearby residents threatened

Natural gas and diesel

Coal

Can be used to generate electricity in thermal stations Easy to transport Small amounts used No unwanted byproducts

High cost Costly and complicated extraction processes Byproducts: sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide Air pollution Non-renewable Byproducts: carbon dioxide Serious environmental implications Enormous investment and technological input Requires highly trained personnel Spend nuclear rods still highly radioactive and indestructible Storage requires large space Unpleasant odours Absorption of sunlight inefficient at moment Requires large area Expensive equipment Intensity of sunlight highly dependent on latitude, seasons, weather conditions Construction of wind turbines require large space Noisy Radio and microwaves disruption Efficient generation only at coastal or mountainous regions Inconsistent wind speed

Nuclear

Biomass

Solar

Renewable Can substantially reduce wastage of organic material Free and easily available Clean, non-polluting Renewable

Wind

Wind rotates turbines

Clean, non-polluting Suitable for isolated regions because of no cabling costs

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

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8.5.2 Transmission of electricity

To reduce power lost through transmission, electricity is sent at very high voltage through thick cables of low resistance When voltage , current Based on P = I2R, when current , power loss Power station P = IV
Power lost through cables P = I2R Current, I

8.5.3 National electricity grid system

8.6

Electrical Appliances

Current overflow is grounded through earth wire

Melts if there is too much current to protect appliance

Current flows out through neutral wire (to complete circuit)

Current flows in through live wire

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

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