OPTIMIZATION AND AUTOMATION OF PRODUCTION PROCESS AT ROOP POLYMERS LTD THROUGH PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Thesis submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Award of the Degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY IN (PRODUCTION ENGINEERING)

Under the supervision of: Dr. A.K.Vij Professor of Management studies s Ms. Amrita Jhawar Department of mechanical engineering

Submitted by: Amit Gulia 11-PEP-004

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT ITMU GURGAON 2011-2013

CERTIFICATE

ABSTRACT
The following study is conducted on basis of practical study of a construction project of an company which is required to build a new facility which is required for masters degree in context to learn and implement the various techniques of the project management. Project management is about making decisions under uncertainty, throughout the various phases of a project. According to this study we implement management tools and processes to form a effective and efficient system. This study examines the relationships among project performance, customer satisfaction, and project success by assessing the efficacy of management techniques, tools, and skills for implementing infrastructure and building construction. In this report I have discussed the various tools and techniques of optimization. They provide step by step study of every process in rubber manufacturing process. the process steps can be optimized and organized in such a way that it provides maximum efficiency of the process.

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CONTENT
Description: Certificate Abstract Contents Gantt Chart List of figures Nomenclatures Chapter 1-Introduction 1.1. Objectives of the project 1.2. Success parameters of the project 1.3. Brief Introduction of the project 1.4 Process Optimization Tool 1.5. Value Proposition 1.6. Steps of process optimization 1.7 Roop Polymers Pvt Ltd (Company Profile) Page No. i ii iii v vi vii

Chapter 2- General process of making a rubber component 2.1. Products and Raw materials used 2.2. General Process of manufacturing of rubber component

Chapter 3 -Literature review 3.1. Research papers 3.2. Advanced Manufacturing

Chapter 4- Production and Manufacturing Process and Support 4.1 Production System Facilities 4.2 Low Quantity Production 4.3 Medium Quantity Production 4.4 High Production 4.5 Manufacturing Support System Chapter 5- Automation in Production System 5.1 Automation in Production System 5.2 Automated Manufacturing Systems 5.3 Reasons for Automating 5.4 Automation Migration Strategy 5.5 Equipments used for Automation 5.6 Introduction to test automation 5.6.1 Forecasting test automation benefits 5.6.2 Costs of Automation 5.7 Cost of Automation 5.8. Advantages of Automation Chapter 6- Recommendations and implementation of the corrective measures 6.1. Line or Product layout 6.2. Comparison of both the Manual and Automated Manufacturing Process 6.3 What is ROI?

6.3.1 Need of test automation using ROI 6.4 Productivity 6.5 Product/ Production Relationship 6.6 Product and Part Complexity Chapter 7- Business Process Modelling Technique 7.1 Calculate Cost Accruals Event-Driven Process Chain 7.1.1 Function Allocation Diagram 7.2 Documenting Processes Chapter 8- Conclusion References

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GANTT CHART

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Figure List: Figure 1: Process Improvement Figure 2: Steps of Process Optimization Figure 3: Bonded flexible chains Figure 4: Compression Modelling Figure 5: Injection Modelling Figure 6: Transfer Modelling Figure 7: General Process Figure 8: Major Process of Rubber Figure 9: Manufacturing Process Behaviour Figure 10: The production system consists of facilities and manufacturing support systems. Figure 11: Various types of plant layout Figure 12: Types of facilities and layouts used for different levels of production quantity and product variety. Figure 13: The information processing cycle in a typical manufacturing firm. Figure 14: Opportunities of automation and computerization in a production system. Figure 15: Three types of automation relative to production quantity and product variety. Figure 16: Model of manufacturing showing factory operations and the information processing activities for manufacturing support. Figure 17: A typical automation migration strategy Figure 18: PLC system and Change over System for Intimex Figure 19: Test Automation Figure 20: Distributed Test Automation Infrastructure

Figure 21 (a): Line layout Figure21 (b): Line Layout Figure 22: 3-Tier Industrial Network Diagram Figure 23: Network diagram for automating the current process Figure 24: Time taken by the manual process Figure 25: Time taken by individual process Figure 26: Problem Occurrence in Automated Manufacturing Process Figure 27: Value Added Chain Figure 28: Calculate Cost Accruals Event-Driven Process Chain Figure 29: Plan Scope Function Allocation Diagram Figure 30: Plan Scope Function Allocation Diagram

v Nomenclatures
1.NR 2.RPL 3.TPE 4. PP 5.PVC 6.PLC 7.TIP Natural Rubber Roop polymers limited Thermoplastic rubber Polypropylene Polyvinylchloride Programmable logic controller Technology innovation programme Industrial control system Distributed control systems Numerical control Return on investment

8. ICS
9. DCS

10.NC 11.ROI

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1. Objectives of the project The purpose of project management is to foresee or predict as many dangers and problems as possible. And to plan, organise and control activities so that the project is completed as successfully as possible in spite of all the risks. 1. Commissioning of the whole factory 2. Optimization and Automation of the production process By Managing resources: a. Maintain Time and progress b. Quality and performance c. Cost and cash flow The main objectives of optimization of manufacturing process and remodelling old machines and production lines are:

Increase in productivity Increase in product reproducibility and product quality Decrease in the influence of human factors on product quality Facilitating operators and maintenance personnel work Increase in safety at the workplace

1.2. Success parameters of the project Performance and Quality: The end result of a project must fit the purpose for which it was intended. In more recent years the concept of total quality management has come to the fore, with the responsibility for quality shared by all staff from top management downwards. Budget: The project must be completed without exceeding the authorised expenditure. Financial sources are not always inexhaustible and a project might be abandoned altogether if funds run out before

completion. If that was to happen, the money and effort invested in the project would be forfeited and written off. Time to Completion: Actual progress has to match or beat planned progress. All significant stages of the project must take place no later than their specified dates, to result in total completion on or before the planned finish date. Manpower: Efficient use of human resources. Production: To achieve high production in a given time and to extract maximum from the production process. Cost analysis: -To determine if it is a sound investment/decision (justification/feasibility), -To provide a basis for comparing projects. It involves comparing the total expected cost of each option against the total expected benefits, to see whether the benefits outweigh the costs, and by how much. Inventory: To reduce the inventory cost by providing just in time based production by automation and optimization of the on-going process. It is required at different locations within a facility or within many locations of a supply network to precede the regular and planned course of production and stock of materials. 1.3. Brief Introduction of the project Process optimization is the discipline of adjusting a process so as to optimize some specified set of parameters without violating some constraint. The most common goals are minimizing cost, maximizing throughput, and/or efficiency. This is one of the major quantitative tools in industrial decision making.

When optimizing a process, the goal is to maximize one or more of the process specifications, while keeping all others within their constraints. The idea behind process optimization is to modify a process as to deliver higher yield, more product or higher return from existing assets or people. Businesses and process managers need to work on process optimization at various stages during manufacturing (but not limited to manufacturing). The best companies continue to strive for continuous process optimization exercises throughout their existence. Act of process optimization describes use of various methods to maximize return, cycle time, yield, or efficiency given multiple constraints. There are three parameters that can be adjusted to affect optimal performance. They are:

Equipment optimization

The first step is to verify that the existing equipment is being used to its fullest advantage by examining operating data to identify equipment bottlenecks.

Operating procedures

Operating procedures may vary widely from person-to-person or from shift-to-shift. Automation of the plant can help significantly. But automation will be of no help if the operators take control and run the plant in manual.

Control optimization

If the control loop is not properly designed and tuned, the process runs below its optimum. The process will be more expensive to operate, and equipment will wear out prematurely. For each control loop to run optimally, identification of sensor, valve, and tuning problems is important. The process of continuously monitoring and optimizing the entire plant is sometimes called performance supervision.

Figure 1: Process Improvement

1.4. Process Optimization Tool Many relate process optimization directly to use of statistical techniques to identify the optimum solution. Statistical techniques are definitely needed. However, a thorough understanding of the process is required prior to committing time to optimize it. Once the process inputs, outputs and intermediate responses are recognized for each step, one needs to confirm the relationships. 1.5. Value Proposition Understanding business process steps with the goal of identifying areas of improvement and eliminating inefficiency in order to simplify, integrate and automate. Processes are the key enabler to both effectiveness and efficiency of a operation. Both tool selection and organizational alignment should be based on optimized and clearly communicated processes. 1.6. Steps of process optimization 1. Understand what the process is trying to accomplish

The processes should be clearly defined in order to adopt the process management concept in an organization. The processes are generally categorized under these three headings: Operational processes 2. Managerial processes Quality processes

Map Processes

The design of process maps includes identification of:

Process owners Parent processes Sub-processes Process flow and steps Roles, conditions, and rights related to steps The essential information and other relevant input for a seamless process flow Process outputs

3.

Categorize Steps as Value Added or Non-Value Added For Value Added Activity

THE DEVELOPMENT OF POOR QUALITY COSTS For many years quality costs were divided into prevention costs, appraisal costs, internal failure costs and external failure costs, first identified by Feigenbaum (1956). Prevention costs and appraisal costs are those that management has direct control over to ensure that only customeracceptable products and services are delivered to the customer. All the company-incurred costs that result from errors include internal and external error costs. These costs are directly related to management decisions made in the prevention and appraisal cost categories. Feigenbaum considered external failure costs as more serious than internal failure costs, because it may result in more disappointed customers. This traditional categorization has been widely used, for example in the ISO 9000 standard. Sometimes the term poor quality costs (PQC) is used because it is poor quality, not quality, that causes extra costs. A number of researchers have tried to further develop Feigenbaums model by adding new categories. But no one has so far been widely accepted. Modarres and Ansari (1985), who added cost of quality design and cost of inefficient utilization of resources, and Sugiura (1997, referred in Giakatis et al., 2001), who added adjustment cost and quality design cost, are just two such examples. The concept of poor quality costs began to change its focus to more consider the customers needs during the 1980s. Harrington (1987) differentiated between direct PQC and indirect PQC. He used the term direct PQC for the four traditional categories. When using the term indirect poor-quality costs Harrington considered the customers different and individual requirements. He defined indirect PQC as those costs not directly measurable in the company ledger, but part of the product life cycle PQC and divided it into three major categories. Customer-incurred PQC appears when an output fails to meet the customers expectations. Customer-dissatisfaction PQC is lost income because customers are not satisfied with the companys product and therefore choose a competitors product next time.

POOR QUALITY COSTS IN CONSTRUCTION It is evident that we lack knowledge of poor quality costs in construction. We have knowledge of the visible costs, but lack knowledge of most of the hidden costs, lost income, customers costs and socio-economic costs. We probably lack necessary knowledge to be able to see and understand the hidden costs (Josephson, 2000). We probably also lack knowledge of the size of other non-value-adding activities. We must broaden our views and question the existing and accepted activities and behaviour in projects. Non Value Added Activity

NO GENERALLY ACCEPTED CATEGORIZATION Many different categorizations have been used in the studies of poor quality costs in construction. But there is so far no generally accepted system. Typical questions dealt with include (e.g. Davis, 1987; Josephson, 1994; Love and Irani, 2002) When did it happen? (Date or phase of project) When was it detected? (Date or phase of project) Who detected it? (Actor) Who caused it? (Actor) What type of immediate cause? (On individual level, e.g. knowledge, information, engagement, etc.) What type of root-cause? (E.g. organisation) What type of problem? What type of incident? (E.g. error, change, omission) In what element of the building? (Structure, interior design, etc.)

 In which activity? Who corrected it? (Actor) When was it corrected? (Date) Which effect on the project? (Delay, extra cost, etc.) Who paid it? (Actor) The categorizations used are dependent on the approach taken by the researcher. Most common is a company approach or a project approach (e.g. Josephson and Hammarlund, 1999). An industry approach or a national approach (e.g. Halevy and Naveh, 2000) is uncommon. Burati et al. (1992) classified deviations in errors, omissions and changes. 4. 5. 6. 7. Identify Improvements Define Cost Savings Opportunities Conduct External Benchmarking Research Define Recommendations & Action Plan

Figure 2: Steps of Process Optimization

1.7 Roop Polymers Pvt Ltd (Company Profile)

Established in 1973 in the automotive industrial hub of Gurgaon, Roop Polymers Ltd. (RPL) is the flagship company of the Roop Group. With over 35 years of rich experience in the automotive industry, RPL today is a world class manufacturer of Moulded and Extruded Rubber & Plastic parts for Automotive OEM around the globe. It operates through 6 state of the art manufacturing facilities which are strategically located near the OEM customer base in Gurgaon, Sohna & IMT Manesar in Haryana and Pantnagar in Uttranchal. All the RPL plants are TS16949 & ISO 14001 certified and meet the most stringent quality norms set by its diverse range of customers. Apart from supplying to automotive majors in India like Maruti Suzuki, Honda, Hero Honda, Bajaj Auto etc., RPL is also a major supplier to TRW, USA for their critical rubber parts requirement. RPL has a unique capability to process rubber parts in all grades like NR, NBR, SBR, EPDM, Silicon, Viton, Neoprene, Chloroprene, HNBR, Fluoro, Isoprene, Hyplone, etc., and plastic parts in grades like PP (Polypropylen), PVC (Polyvinylchlorid), TPE (Thermoplastic rubber), PA 66, PA66 + Glass Fibre, POM (Polyoxymethylen), Santoprene, Desmopan, etc. It therefore offers a 'one stop shop' engineering solutions to all the customers through its expertise in designing, development, tooling, moulding, extrusion, assembly, painting, testing and delivery capabilities across the globe. Backed by its technical capabilities and highly enthusiastic workforce, RPL today has become a supplier of choice for the Indian Automotive industry.

CHAPTER 2 GENERAL PROCESS OF MAKING A RUBBER COMPONENT

While the first rubber product manufacturers were the indigenous people of the Amazon basin, Europeans started to experiment with rubber product manufacturing during the nineteenth century as a method to make waterproof footwear and other types of waterproof clothing and equipment. This early rubber product manufacturing was relatively small scale until Charles Goodyear invented vulcanization in 1839. Vulcanization is a technique utilized by rubber product manufacturers which modifies the chemical structure of rubber so that it is strong enough to withstand extreme heat and cold, making it highly effective in all kinds of industrial applications. Rubber soon became vital to all kinds of industrial design, exponentially increasing the scale of rubber product manufacturing. 2.1. Products and Raw materials used Products made from rubber have a flexible and stable 3dimensional chemical structure and are able to withstand under force large deformations. For example the material can be stretched repeatedly to at least twice its original length and, upon immediate release of the stress, will return with force to approximately its original length. Under load the product should not show creep or relaxation. Besides these properties the modulus of rubber is from hundred to ten thousand times lower compared to other solid materials like steel, plastics and ceramics. This combination of unique properties gives rubber its specific applications like seals, shock absorbers and tyres. Rubber is used as a name for 3 categories: Raw or base polymers: These determine the main characteristics of the final product. Semi-manufactured: product The addition to raw rubber of various chemicals, to impart desirable properties, is termed compounding. This semi-finished material is getting its rubber properties after vulcanization. Final product: After moulding the rubber compounds gets its elastic properties after a vulcanisation process. Modern rubber materials consist of approximately 60 percent of synthetic polymers. The other part consists of vulcanisation agents, softeners, accelerators, anti-aging agents and other chemicals. These additions are necessary to achieve the desired properties of the final product.

Non vulcanised phase

vulcanised phase

Figure 3: Bonded flexible chains

Polymers have a backbone of hydrocarbons. The hydrogen atom is often replaced by other atoms or molecules (like CH3, Cl or F) and thus creates another type of elastomer. These chains are chemically bonded together by sulphur, peroxides or biphenyl. An exception is silicone. Silicone contains very flexible siloxane backbones (Si-O) and can be cured with peroxide or platinumcatalyst curing. The most common elastomers are: Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPDM/EPM) EPM is a copolymer of ethylene and propylene. This type can only be cross-linked with peroxides. If during the copolymerization of ethylene and propylene, a third monomer, a diene, is added the resulting rubber will have unsaturation and it can then be vulcanized with sulphur. These rubbers are the so-called EPDMs. The main properties of EPDM are its outstanding heat, ozone and weather resistance. The resistance to polar substances and steam are also good. It has excellent electrical insulating properties. The EPDM copolymer can be filled with more than 200 per cent of its own weight with non-re-in forcing fillers, resulting in reduction of cost price but also in physical properties. For these reasons this rubber is widely applied in many applications.

Nitrile rubber (NBR) NBR is a family of unsaturated copolymers of acrylonnitrile (CAN) and butadiene monomers. Although its physical and chemical properties vary depending on the polymers composition of nitrile (the more nitrile within the polymer, the higher the resistance to oils but the lower the flexibility of the material), this form of synthetic rubber is generally resistant to oil, fuel, and other chemicals. It is used in the automotive industry to make fuel and oil handling hoses, seals, and grommets. NBRs ability to withstand a range of temperatures from -40 C to +108 C makes it an ideal material for automotive applications. Nitrile rubber is more resistant than natural rubber to oils and acids, but has less strength and flexibility. Nitrile rubber is generally resistant to aliphatic hydrocarbons. Nitrile, like natural rubber, can be attacked by ozone, aromatic hydrocarbons, ketones, esters and aldehydes. Natural Rubber (NR) Natural rubber has a very high elasticity, high tensile strength and a very good abrasion resistance. The material is obtained by coagulation of latex derived from the rubber tree. The rubber is not resistant to aging and oil. For these reasons NR is rarely used as a seal for technical applications, but is mixed with other elastomere compounds like EPDM to improve rubber properties. Styrene - Butadien Rubber (SBR) SBR is a synthetic rubber copolymer consisting of styrene and butadiene. It has good abrasion resistance and good aging stability when protected by additives, and is widely used in car tyres, where it is blended with natural rubber. Chloroprene rubber (CR) Commonly known under the trade name Neoprene of Dupont. CR is not characterised by one outstanding property, but its balance of properties is unique among the synthetic elastomers. It has good mechanical strength, high ozone and weather resistance, good aging resistance, low flammability, good resistance toward chemicals and moderate oil and fuel resistance. Silicone (VMQ/MVQ/HTV) Silicones differ from other polymers in that their backbones consist of Si-O-Si units unlike many other polymers that contain carbon backbones.

Silicone rubber offers good resistance to extreme temperatures, being able to operate normally from -55 C to +230 C. At the extreme temperatures, the tensile strength, elongation, tear strength and compression set can be far superior to conventional rubbers although still low relative to other materials. Organic rubber has a carbon to carbon backbone which can leave them susceptible to ozone, UV, heat and other ageing factors that silicone rubber can withstand well. This makes it one of the elastomers of choice in many extreme environments. Compared to organic rubbers, however, the tensile strength of standard silicone rubber is lower. For this reason, care is needed in designing products to withstand low imposed loads. Nowadays also silicone compounds with improved tensile strength are available. Acrylic rubber (ACM) Acrylic rubber, known by the chemical name alkyl acrylate copolymer (ACM), is a type of rubber that has outstanding resistance to hot oil and oxidation. It has a continuous working temperature of 150 C and an intermittent limit of 180 C. Disadvantages are its low resistance to moisture, acids, and bases. It should not be used in temperatures below -10 C. It is commonly used in automotive transmissions and hoses. Hydrogenated Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (HNBR) The properties of hydrogenated nitrile rubber depend on the acrylonitrile (ACN) content, and on the degree of hydrogenation. They can be tailored to particular applications, but have the general advantage over standard nitrile rubber of having higher temperature resistance and higher strength. HNBRs also have good high temperature oil and chemical resistance and are resistant to amines. They are suitable for use in methanol and methanol/hydrocarbon mixtures if the correct ACN level is selected. They have good resistance to hot water and steam. They can have excellent mechanical properties including strength, elongation, tear resistance, abrasion resistance and compression set. For the best properties peroxide curing is used, unless low hysteresis is required. They are reported to be satisfactory up to temperatures around 180 C in oil. Fully saturated grades have excellent ozone resistance. They have poor resistance to some oxygenated solvents and aromatic hydrocarbons.

Fluoro rubber (FKM) Fluoroelastomers are a class of synthetic rubber which provide extraordinary levels of resistance to chemicals, oil and heat, while providing useful service life above 204C. The outstanding heat stability and excellent oil resistance of these materials are due to the high ratio of fluorine to hydrogen, the strength of the carbon-fluorine bond, and the absence of unsaturation. The original fluoroelastomer was a copolymer of hexafluoropropylene (HFP) and vinylidene fluoride (VF2). It was developed by the DuPont Company in 1957 in response to high performance sealing needs in the aerospace industry. To provide even greater thermal stability and solvent resistance, tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) containing fluoroelastomer terpolymers were introduced in 1959 and in the mid to late 1960s lower viscosity versions of FKMs were introduced A breakthrough in cross linking occurred with the introduction of the bisphenol cure system in the 1970s. This bisphenol cure system offered much improved heat and compression set resistance with better scorch safety and faster cures speed. In the late 70s and early 80s fluoroelastomers with improved low temperature flexibility were Introduced by using perfluoromethylvinyl ether (PMVE) in place of HFP, Fluoroelastomers are a family of fluoropolymer rubbers, not a single entity. Fluoroelastomers can be classified by their fluorine content, 66%, 68% and 70% respectively. Fluoroelastomers having higher fluorine content have increasing fluids resistance derived from increasing fluorine levels. Peroxide cured fluoroelastomers have inherently better water, steam, and acid resistance. Fluoroelastomers are used in a wide variety of high-performance applications. FKM provides premium, long-term reliability even in harsh environments. A partial listing of current end use applications (industries like aerospace and automotive) include: O-ring seals in fuels, lubricants and hydraulic systems, shaft seals, valve stem seals, fuel injector O-rings, diaphragms, lathe cut gaskets and cut gaskets. A rubber compound is obtained by mixing a base polymer or crude mixture with a series of additives. The choice of the base polymer and the additives is closely linked to the type of properties to be Achieved. The resulting product is a non-vulcanized compound. The quantity of additives used varies for 20 to 130 percent as a percentage on the weight. The most common additives are:

Fillers There are two types of fillers, reinforcing and non-reinforcing fillers. Carbon black is commonly used as reinforcing filler. This is also the reason why most rubbers are black. Calcium carbonate is an example of a non-reinforcing filler. Plasticizers Besides fillers, plasticizers play the biggest quantitative role in building a rubber compound. The reasons for the use of plasticizers are: improvement of flow of the rubber during processing, improved filler dispersion, influence on the physical properties of the vulcanizate at low temperatures. Mineral oils and paraffins are widely used as a plasticizer. Vulcanization chemicals Vulcanization is the conversion of rubber molecules into a network by formation of crosslinks. Vulcanizing agents are necessary for the crosslink formation. These vulcanizing agents are mostly sulphur or peroxide and sometimes other special vulcanizing agents or high energy radiation. Since vulcanization is the process of converting the gum-elastic raw material into the rubber-elastic end product, the ultimate properties like hardness and elasticity depend on the course of the vulcanization. Accelerators Accelerating agents increase the rate of the cross linking reaction and lower the sulphur content necessary to achieve optimum vulcanizate properties. Activators Like zinc-oxide and stearic acid. They activate the vulcanisation process and help the accelerators to achieve their full potential. Anti-degrading agents These agents increase the resistance to attacks of ozone, UV light and oxygen. Process aids Chemicals that improve the process ability Pigments Organic and inorganic pigments are used to colour rubber compounds. The colour pigments are also considered inactive fillers. Only silicas have a reinforcing effect. Silicone can be coloured easily without loss of properties.

2.2. General Process of manufacturing of rubber component

Moulded rubber parts can be produced by different manufacturing methods. Major techniques are: Compression moulding Compression moulding is a process in which a compound is squeezed into a preheated mould taking a shape of the mould cavity and performing curing due to heat and pressure applied to the material. The method uses a split mould mounted in a hydraulic press Compression moulding process involves the following steps: 1. A pre-weighed amount of the compound is placed into the lower half of the mould. The compound may be in form of putty-like masses or pre-formed blanks. 2. The upper half of the mould moves downwards, pressing on the compound and forcing it to fill the mould cavity. The mould, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-linking) of the compound 3. The mould is opened and the part is removed for necessary secondary operations.

Figure 4: Compression Modelling

Injection moulding Injection moulding is a process in which the compound is forced under high pressure into a mould cavity through an opening (sprue). The rubber material in form of strips is fed into an injection moulding machine. The material is then conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced into a split mould, filling its cavity through a feeding system with sprue gate and runners. An injection moulding machine is similar to an extruder. The main difference between the two machines is in screw operation. In the extruder type the screw rotates continuously providing output of continuous long product (pipe, rod, sheet).The screw of the injection moulding machine is called a reciprocating screw since it not only rotates but also moves forward and backward according to the steps of the moulding cycle. It acts as a ram in the filling step when the compound is injected into the mould and then it retracts backward in the moulding step. The mould is equipped with a heating system providing controlled heating and vulcanization of the material. The compound is held in the mould until the vulcanization has completed and then the mould opens and the part is removed from the mould. Injection moulding is a highly productive method providing high accuracy and control of shape of the manufactured parts. The method is profitable in mass production of large number of identical parts. A principal scheme of an injection moulding machine is shown here.

Figure 5: Injection Modelling

Transfer moulding Transfer moulding is a process in which a pre-weighed amount of a compound is preheated in a separate chamber (transfer pot) and then forced into a preheated mould through a sprue, taking a shape of the mould cavity and performing curing due to heat and pressure applied to the material. The picture below illustrates the transfer moulding process. The method uses a split mould and a third plate equipped with a plunger mounted in a hydraulic press. The method combines features of both compression moulding (hydraulic pressing) and injection moulding (ram-plunger and filling the mould through a sprue). The transfer moulding process involves the following steps: 1. A pre-weighed amount of a compound is placed into the transfer pot. The compound form putty-like masses or pre-formed blanks. The compound is heated in the pot where the material softens. 2. The plunger, mounted on the top plate, moves downwards, pressing on the material and forcing it to fill the mould cavity through the sprue. The mould, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-linking) of the compound. 3. The mould is opened and the parts are removed for necessary secondary operations the scrap left on the pot bottom (cull), in the sprue and in the channels is removed. Scrap of vulcanized rubber is not recyclable.

Figure 6: Transfer Modelling

The transfer moulding cycle time is shorter than compression moulding cycle but longer than the injection moulding cycle. The method is capable to produce more complicated shapes than compression moulding but not as complicated as injection moulding. Transfer moulding is suitable for moulding with ceramic or metallic inserts which are placed in the mould cavity. When the heated compound fills the mould it forms bonding with the insert surface.

More In detail, available production techniques are summarized in the next table.

Secondary finishing Depending on the requirements and production process, some secondary finishing steps might be necessary or required: After vulcanisation Some rubber types require a process of after vulcanisation (heating) for some hours. HNBR and FKM rubber is after vulcanised to give the rubber its optimal mechanical properties after moulding. Post curing Silicones parts applied in food or medical applications are mostly post cured after moulding. Post- curing is one of the principal tools to mitigate outgassing. Post-cure is a process that removes the volatiles from the cross-linked silicone rubber by diffusion and evaporation and is carried out at a temperature greater than the service temperature for the part. Post-curing also helps to improve the compression set. Cryogene finishing Cryogene deflashing and deburring is a step that is meant to remove excess imperfections on moulded parts such as fleece or flash lines. The process uses liquid nitrogen, high speed rotation and media (shot blast) in varying combinations to remove the flash in a highly precise and expedient manner. In the extrusion process of rubber, the compound including polymers, various types of additives and fills like curing agents, antioxidants, pigments are fed into the extruder. The extruder typically consists of a rotating screw inside a closely fitted heated barrel. The primary purpose of the extruder is to do three things, a) soften, b) mix, c) pressurize the rubber as it is fed continuously to the die at the extruder exit. The die is a sort of metal disk that has a machined opening in the desired shape of the part that needs to be extruded. The rubber already softened by heating is then forced by the rotating screw

through the die opening into the shape of the profile cut in the die. A typical phenomenon called die swell takes place as the rubber shape leaves the die. Because of this the part cross-section becomes larger than the die cross-section. The part cross-section depending on the material may rise up to several folds over the die. Subsequently the processes of vulcanization or curing takes place as the last step in the extrusion process. This aids the rubber extruded profiles to maintain its shape and acquire necessary physical properties. Typical examples of extruded rubber parts are profiles, hoses, strips and cords.
Incoming Material

Compund

Mixing 1 Master Batching

Mixing 2 & Milling

Shaping

Cure

Figure 7: General Process

Figure 8: Major Process of Rubber

CHAPTER 3 LITRATURE REVIEW

Moving particulate materials in liquid slurry form can seriously erode their containers. Turbo machines are increasingly being applied to extensive industrial fields and tend to be operated at higher rotational speed. Therefore, to maintain high performance over a long time, it is desirable to pay attention to the wear. Erosive wear in centrifugal slurry pumps has motivated many researchers, due to its application in areas such as dredging, hydraulic transport etc. Experimental results concerning the wear of slurry pump impellers are not abundant. A variety of bench scale test rigs have been used by the investigators to predict the erosion wear. Most of them have used Slurry Pot Tester which comprises of a cylindrical tank in which wear specimens are tested against wear. These test rigs require the solid-liquid suspension to be uniform and vortex free. Therefore, detailed study of solid-liquid suspension system in an erosion wear test rig is required. This has initiated researchers to conduct research on wear as well as on the solidliquid suspension system of wear test rigs. A review of literature available in this area has been presented in the following paragraphs to discuss the present state of knowledge. Shawky M. et al1 [1989] presents some experimental results of erosive wear in a centrifugal slurry pump. The objective of their investigation was to study the relation between erosive wear in a centrifugal pump impeller and solid particle concentration. The erosion rate of a centrifugal pump impeller is measured by the weighing method. They have used two different concentration of coarse sand and have investigated the effect of speed of rotation. The experimental results obtained by them show the correlation between the erosive wear development and solid particle concentration. Desai P.V2 [1990] has studied the erosion wear of centrifugal slurry pumps which is primarily governed by the particulate motion and concentration as well as their physical properties. The analysis and the finite element computations yield the solid velocity and concentration fields in an arbitrary radial cross-section of a centrifugal slurry pump casing. The solutions were examined in light of their applicability to the pump wear problem. Axis symmetric finite elements have to be used to analyse the flow in the volume of revolution. The shape factor of the particles is introduced into the drag and pressure force calculations to account for the angularity of the particles.

Hector McI. Clark3 [1991] has pointed out the importance of knowledge of flow field surrounding impinging particles and target is emphasized for an understanding of slurry erosion. He has reviewed the work on the effect of liquid viscosity and density, particle size and size range, density and concentration, target shape and suspension free stream velocity in slurry erosion. His studies show that the experimental data on the material erosion rates can only be understood if particle impact velocities and trajectories and the number of particles impacting the target surface are known. He has pointed out that the actual impact velocities of the particles on an eroding target may differ widely from the free stream velocity of the suspension and that under some circumstances most, or even all, particles directed at a target may fail to collide with it. Steward N.R. et al4 [1992] have emphasized on the pipeline wear which continues to be an area of specific concern, since it constitutes a major cost during the life of a pipeline installation. Wear data from an accelerated wear test and actual pipeline tests have been presented by them. Trends in the performance of the pipeline materials tested are discussed, and possible solutions to the problem of pipeline wear are presented. Neseic.S. et al5 [1993] have evaluated erosion rates along the length of a tubular flow cell of type 304 (UNS S30400) stainless steel (SS) carrying dilute slurries of silica sand (0.43 mm diam) and smooth glass beads of a similar size. The segmented test cell contained a sudden constriction, a sudden expansion, and a groove to produce disturbed flow conditions. Erosion rates were reduced by changes in the cell wall geometry that resulted from erosion at positions of high local metal loss and from erosion further downstream because of the reduction in turbulence and particle dispersion. Gupta Rajat et al6 [1994] have conducted a systematic study on a pot tester to establish the effect of velocity, concentration and particle size on erosion wear. Two correlations have been proposed, based on the data generated for equisized particulate slurries in the pot tester, to predict the expected erosion wear for two pipe materials, namely brass and mild steel. The 1eighted mean diameter has been established as the best representative diameter for the multisided particulate slurries. The proposed correlations have been used to predict the extent of uneven erosion wear in a slurry pipeline using local concentration, local effective particle size and average velocity. The comparison between predicted and experimental results shows agreement within 13.5% for brass and + 14% for mild steel.

Zhong Yuan et al7 [1995] have followed Lagrangian approach to predict the erosion wear on a pump casing wall due to impingement of solid particles and calculated the impinging velocities on the casing wall under the assumption that the water flow field remains unchanged due to the presence of the particles. They have also investigated the effect of mutual collision among the particles. Their result showed that the impinging velocities of the particles in the tongue area have remarkably a large normal component with no tangential one. Distribution of the volumetric particle concentration is hardly affected by the spinning and mutual collisions of the particles. Zhong Yuan et al8 [1996] have measured erosion damage of wear resistant materials due to sand particle impingement and correlated based on Bitters erosion model to clarify the effects of particle impinging velocity and angle, particle size and concentration on the wear. Using the empirical formula for the correlation and calculating impinging velocities of sand particles on a casing wall of a pump, successive erosion of the wall is numerically calculated o demonstrate the viability of the prediction method. The erosion data of cast iron and stainless steel eroded by sand particles confirm Bitters erosion model. Stokes et al9 [1999] have used axis-symmetric model to simulate two-phase flows in stirred mixing tank. The impeller used is Rushton turbine. They have studied the gas-water two phase flow and have used RNG based k- turbulent model in their computational study. The numerical solution of the radial, tangential and axial velocities of the air was compared with the experimental results. Brown Gary et al10 [1999] have studied tee junctions in a slurry pipeline system. The commercial code ANSYS-CFX has been used to predict the motion of caustic liquor and bauxite particle through a tee-junction using an Eulerian-Eulerian continuum approach in conjunction with k- turbulence model. The predicted wear location was found to be insensitive to the assumed level of inlet swirl and the numerical scheme employed. Lee S. Y. et al11 [2001] have discussed the application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods to simulate the flow of slurry and predict the erosion rates so that an effective maintenance schedule can be developed for the filtration system of the waste treatment process. The location of the maximum erosion for the selected components is also identified.

Solids content of the working fluid, the regions of high wall shear, and particle impingement with the walls were considered as major mechanisms associated with the erosion. All these tests were performed using sand water slurry. Hawthorne H.M. et al12 [2001] has conducted Coriolis tests for the evaluation of slurry erosion on different materials. Slurries consisting of glass beads of size 90- 200 micron size with 10% slurry concentration were taken and tests were performed on 1020 steel and copper at different impingement angles of 90-20 degrees. It was also observed that in slurry jet testing, most particles impact the specimen above its critical velocity resulting severe plastic deformation. In contrast, in the Coriolis test most particle impacts result in only elastic deformation or mild plastic deformation. Hence, elastic as well as plastic properties of specimen materials affect their performance in a Coriolis slurry erosion evaluation, thus the results obtained from Coriolis tests were more accurate. Gandhi B. K. et al13 [2001] have studied that the performance of pumps decreases for increase in solid concentration, particle size and specific gravity. The head and efficiency of the pump decrease with increase in solid concentration, particle size, and slurry viscosity, the decrease in the head being 210 per cent higher than that of the efficiency. The presence of finer particles (less than 18micron) in coarser slurries substantially attenuates the loss of performance of the pump in terms of head and efficiency. At low solid concentrations less than 30 per cent by weight, the increase in the pump input power is directly proportional to the specific gravity of slurry whereas the same relationship is not applicable at higher concentrations. The study on the pumps has confirmed that the additional head loss for slurries decrease with increase in the pump size. L.M. oshinowo et al14 [2002] have studied the effect of computational fluid dynamics approach to evaluate solid suspension in stirred tanks. The distribution of solids in stirred tanks under a range of solids loadings (0.5 to 50 vol%) was predicted using CFD and validated against experimental data obtained from the literature. The multiphase flow is modelled using the Eulerian Granular Multiphase model. They have studied the performance of hydrofoil impellers and a 45 pitched-blade turbine at suspending solids under different agitation speeds. The standard deviation of solids volume fraction was shown to be useful measure of the quality of suspension.

D. Chapple et al15 [2002] have studied the effect of impeller and tank geometry on power number for a pitched blade turbine. The changes done in the position of the impeller in the tank can have a significant impact on the power number (15%) due to changes in the flow patterns. They have shown that there is no effect of the blade thickness on the power number for a four blade PBT 45 degrees impeller. Litian et al16 [2003] have conducted Computational Fluid Dynamics study of Rushton turbine in stirred tanks. The commercial code used by them was ANSYS-CFX. To account for the relative movement between impeller and baffles sliding mesh method has been used by them. Fluid flow is calculated with a turbulent k- and RNG k- model using finite volume method. Their result show that mixing time highly relies on the flow field, the feeding and detection position. Feng Wang et al17 [2003] studied CFD simulation of solid-liquid two phase flow in baffled stirred vessel with Rushton Impellers. They have simulated three dimensional flow field and solid concentration distribution in solid liquid baffled stirred vessels using inner-outer iterative procedure. The procedure used by them can be applied to the system with high solid concentration upto 20%. J. J. Derksen et al18 [2003] have numerically simulated the solid suspension in the strirred tank. Large-eddy simulations of the turbulent flow driven by a Rushton turbine have been coupled to a Lagrangian description of spherical, solid particles immersed in the flow. The working fluid was water, whereas the solid particles had the properties of glass beads. It has been investigated to what level of detail the particle motion needs to be modeled in order to meet Zwieterings just suspended criterion.Their result show that it is essential to take article-particle collisions into account, mainly because of their exclusion effect that prevents unrealistic buildup of particle concentrations closely above the bottom. Gandhi B. K. et al19 [2004] have developed a methodology to determine the nominal particle size of multi-sized particulate slurry for estimation of mass loss due to the erosion wear. The effect of presence of finer particles (less than 75 micron) in relatively coarse particulate slurry has also been studied. They have observed that addition of particles finer than 75 micron in narrow-size or multi-sized slurries reduce the erosion wear. In addition, the effective particle size for narrow-size particulate slurries can be taken as the mean size whereas the weighted mass particle size seems to be a better choice for multi-sized particulate slurries. The reductions in

erosion wear due to addition of fine particles decreases with increase in the concentration of coarse size particles. Wood R.J.K. et al20 [2004] has covered research that has been aimed at determining the distribution of erosion rates and the erosion mechanisms that occur over wetted surfaces within pilot scale pipe systems handling water-sand mixtures at 10% by volume concentrations and at a mean fluid velocity of approximately 3 m/s. The wall wear rates, obtained by gravimetric measurements, as a function of time are discussed. The erosion rates, expressed as volume loss per impact (determined gravimetrically and via computer models) in bends are found to agree well with simple laboratory scale water-sand jet impingement tests on planar stainless steel samples. G. Montante et al21 [2005] have studied the solid liquid multiphase flow in tall stirred vessels with multiple impeller systems. Good results were obtained using eddy viscosity turbulence models for fully baffled vessels. Their results recommend the use of Magelli drag correction for prediction of solid concentration in stirred vessels. R. Thorpe et al22 [2005] have conducted studies on the suspension of particles from the bottom of pipes and stirred tanks by gassed and ungassed flows. They have concluded that pick-up in pipes involves viscous sublayers where turbulent forces are not dominat force. They have compared the correlations and theoretical predictions for hydraulic conveying of solids in pipelines with the literature on the suspension of particles in stirred tanks. Dolman K.F. et al23 [2005] have studied the ameliorative influence on scouring erosion behaviour of high carbon content, hardness and carbide volume fraction and particularly of fine carbide size. They have drawn a correlation between test data and service performance. Low impact angle erosion resistance is a critical requirement of materials used in pumps, piping, valves, nozzles, cyclones and other components which transport and process most mineral slurries. The specific method used in their study involves high velocity erosion with aqueous slurry containing 10 wt. % of AFS 50-70 silica test sand. The test is considered to be a suitable method for evaluating the scouring erosion resistance of metallic, ceramic and cermet materials for various slurry transport components. Sellgren A. et al24 [2005] have modeled a selection of pump designs producing general relationships for the different pump casing, impeller and liner components for different duties. They then take these and show which offer the lowest cost of ownership for different services.

Correlations against pump design specific speed show higher specific speed pump casings wear better, while lower specific speed, slower running, larger diameter impeller pumps have better impeller and liner wear. The calculated values show total cost of ownership is affected significantly by changes in operating conditions (due to wear) and is a minimum, in most cases, at around a design specific speed of NS=38 (2000 USNS). T. Kumaresan et al25 [2005] have studied the effect of internals on the flow pattern and mixing in the stirred tanks. Measurements of power consumption, mixing time, and flow pattern have been carried out in a stirred vessel of 0.5 m diameter for a standard 45 pitched blade turbine and for a hydrofoil impeller with a variety of baffle and draft tube configurations. The comparison of the flow pattern (average velocity, turbulent kinetic energy, maximum energy dissipation rate, average shear rate, and turbulent normal stress) has been presented on the basis of equal power consumption to illustrate the extent of interaction between the rotating impeller and the internals. Comparisons of laser Doppler anemometer (LDA) measurements and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) predictions have been presented. Tian Harry H. et al26 [2005] have observed the erosive wear of some metallic materials such as high chromium white iron and aluminium alloy using Coriolis wear testing approach. In the present study, the correlation between wear rate and particle size on the tested materials is discussed. Factors, which should be considered in wear modeling and prediction, have also been addressed. They have studied that larger solids particles resulted in higher mass loss in all test materials. Although the wear rates at smaller particle sizes were relatively close within each material group, the wear rate difference was significantly widened with larger particle sizes. G. Desale et al27 [2005] have studied the improvement in the design of pot tester to simulate erosion wear due to solid-liquid mixute. The have minimized the effect of relative velocity between the wear specimens and solid particles by rotating a PBT propeller in down pumping mode. They also have made provisions in the test fixtures to evaluate the effect of impact angles, concentration, velocity etc. on the wear rate. Feng Jianjun et al28 [2007] have conducted numerical simulations on impeller diffuser interactions in radial diffuser pumps to investigate the unsteady flow, and more attention is paid to pressure fluctuations on the blade and vane surfaces Computational results show that a jetwake flow structure is observed at the impeller outlet. The biggest pressure fluctuation on the blade is found to occur at the impeller trailing edge, on the pressure side near the impeller

trailing edge, and at the diffuser vane leading edge, independent of the flow rate, radial gap, and blade number configuration. All of the flow rate, blade number configuration, and radial gap influence significantly the pressure fluctuation and associated unsteady effects in the diffuser pump. Gandhi B.K. et al29 [2007] observed that the wear at normal impact condition is a strong function of hardness hardness ratio of erodent and target materials. He carried out experiment for different solid concentrations, particle sizes and velocities. Based on experimental data, he has proposed a correlation to predict the erosion wear at normal impact conditions. Experiments have been carried out using a slurry pot tester by orienting the wear specimen normal to their rotational direction. Erosion wear due to normal impact has strong dependence on velocity and particle size but relatively weak dependence on solid concentration. SEM micrographs and surface roughness measurement of worn out surface reveals that the penetration by solid particles at the target material surface is a function of hardness ratio. Williams A. John et al30 [2007] proposed that when material is lost from loaded surface either entirely or principally through some form of mechanical interaction the concentration, size and shape of the debris particles carry important information about the state of the surfaces from which they were generated and thus, by implication, the potential life of the contact and of the equipment of which this forms part. To use debris examination as a diagnostic aid in assessing health of the operating plant, which may contain many tri biological contacts, requires not only careful and standardized procedures for debris extraction and observation but also an appreciation of the mechanism by which wear occurs and the regimes in which each of the contacts of interests operates when displayed on an appropriate operational map. Ridgway N.et al31 [2009] emphasizes that non uniform packing compression is not the sole contributor to gland seal life cycle cost and reliability, an improved scientific understanding of tribological wear process is required for existing designs. In slurry service particle size distribution, shape and relative hardness with the shaft sleeve are expected to influence the useful life of shaft sleeve and packing. They identified the key variables in the development of wear equation within the framework of contact mechanism and inorganic structural chemistry. Particle properties including size, relative hardness and fracture toughness were found to be of vital importance. The specific wear rate was found to be dependent on particle size.

Wang Yao et al32 [2009] has proposed design of an experimental system for assessing wear conditions of slurry pumps. This experimental system is intended to provide data for both simple and advanced data analysis of the correlation between the wear status of wetted components and a number of parameters. This experimental system is a test loop which contains a slurry pump and data acquisition system among other components. Test runs at different rotating speeds with controlled particle proportion and slurry temperatures. It is designed primarily to provide good scalability with regards to field conditions and satisfactory accuracy for subsequent analysis. Wu Yulin et al33 [2009] have measured the internal flow field in a centrifugal pump working at the several flow conditions using the particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique with the laser induced fluorescence (LIF) particles and the refractive index matched (RIM) facilities. The impeller of the centrifugal pump has an outlet diameter in 100mm, and consists of six twodimensional curvature backward swept blades of constant thickness. Measured results give reliable flow patterns in the pump. It is obvious that application of LIF particle and RIM are the key methods to obtain the right PIV measured results in pump internal flow. Suzuki Masaya et al34 [2009] Erosion phenomenon, including the temporal change of the flow field and the wall shape. They have simulated sand erosion of a 90 degrees bend with a square cross-section. The numerical results are compared with experimental data and it is confirmed that the developed code can capture the sand erosion phenomenon reasonably. L. Pullum et al35 [2009] have studied the effect of varying impeller geometrical parameters on the turbulent velocity fields in mixing tanks. They have used pitched blade turbines and disc turbines and measurements have been taken through laser doppler velocimetry (LDV) technique. They have evaluated the flow number correlations based on power number in their investigation. Achebo I. Joseph36 [2009] have used drift flux models based on Eulerian continuum equations in predicting erosion wear rate in a transmission pipeline. In this case, a pipeline with a diameter of 0.5m was investigated. It was found that there was a large sand particle concentration on the welded parts of the pipe which has affected the internal geometry of the pipe. From physical examination, the reduction in the nominal thickness of the pipe was related to erosion wear. Sanna Haavisto et al37 [2009] have studied the particle velocity and concentration profiles of sand-water slurry in a stir tank. Three dimensional velocity profiles were measured utilizing ultrasound Doppler velocimetry along lines located circumferentially between two baffles of the tank. The volume fraction of the solid phase investigated by them was 5% and 10%.

They have conducted CFD studies of slurry flow with algebraic slip mixture model and full Eulerian multiphase model. Standard k- model was applied in turbulence modelling. The agreement between the simulated and the measured particle velocities was found to be relatively good in the central region of the vessel. Near the wall, deviation of the results was observed with increasing solid concentration. Eulerian multiphase model was tested with parameters corresponding closely to those used with algebraic slip mixture model. Results obtained with it deviated from measurements more than mixture model predictions. K. Mohanarangam et al38 [2009] have studied CFD modelling of floating and settling phases in settling tanks. A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model for modelling a floating phase has been developed and tested on a settling tank. The model used by them for settling tanks was able to predict the settling of solids and the formation of a higher density layer of solids at the bottom of the vessel.The simulations were performed by customizing the software ANSYS-CFX .O. Khazam et al39 [2009] have conducted study on the drawndown of the floating solids in stirred tanks. In this study they have reported the effect of the type of impeller, impeller submergence, and baffle configuration on the minimum draw down speed (Njs) are reported. They have compared the drawdown of floating solids for a range of baffle geometries in order to determine the most efficient design strategy.

Figure 9: Manufacturing Process Behaviour

CHAPTER 4 PRODUCTION AND MANUFECTURING PROCESS AND SUPPORT

The production system is the collection of people, equipment, and procedures, organized to accomplish the manufacturing operations of a company (or other organization).Production systems can be divided into two categories or levels as indicated in Figure 10:

Manufacturing

support systems

Production System
Facilities: Factory

Figure 10: The production system consists of facilities and manufacturing support systems. 1. Facilities. The facilities of the production system consist of the factory, the equipment in the factory, and the way the equipment is organized. 2. Manufacturing support systems. This is the set of procedures used by the company to manage production and to solve the technical and logistics problems encountered in ordering materials, moving work through the factory, and ensuring that products meet quality standards. Product design and certain business functions are included among the manufacturing support systems. In modern manufacturing operations, portions of the production system are automated and/or computerized. However, production systems include people. People make these systems work. In general, direct labour people (blue collar workers)are responsible for operating the facilities, and professional staff people (white collar workers) are response able for the manufacturing support systems.

4.1 Production System Facilities The facilities in the production system are the factory, production machines and tooling, material handling equipment, inspection equipment, and the computer systems that control the manufacturing operations. Facilities also include the plant layout, which is the way the equipment is physically arranged in the factory. The equipment is usually arranged into logical groupings, and we refer to these equipment arrangements and the workers who operate them as the manufacturing systems in the factory. Manufacturing systems can be individual work cells, consisting of a single production machine and worker assigned to that machine. We more commonly think of manufacturing systems as groups of machines and workers, for example, a production line. The manufacturing systems come in direct physical contact with the parts and/or assemblies being made. They touch the product. A manufacturing company attempts to organize its facilities in the most efficient way to serve the particular mission of that plant. Over the years, certain types of production facilities have come to be recognized as the most appropriate way to organize for a given type of manufacturing. 4.2 Low Quantity Production The type of production facility usually associated with the quantity range of 1 to 100 units/year is the job shop, which makes low quantities of specialized and customized products. The products are typically complex, such as space capsules, aircraft, and special machinery. Job shop production can also include fabricating the component parts for the products. Customer orders for these kinds of items are often special, and repeat orders may never occur. Equipment in a job shop is general purpose and the labour force is highly skilled.

Figure 11: Various types of plant layout: (a) fixed-position layout, (b) process layout,(c) cellular layout, and (d) product layout.

Are routed through the departments in the particular order needed for their processing, usually in batches. The process layout is noted for its flexibility; it can accommodate a great variety of alternative operation sequences for different part configurations. Its disadvantage is that the machinery and methods to produce a part are not designed for high efficiency. Much material handling is required to move parts between departments, so in-process inventory can be high. 4.3 Medium Quantity Production In the medium quantity range (10010,000 units annually), we distinguish between two different types of facility, depending on product variety. When product variety is hard, the traditional approach is batch production, in which a batch of one product is made, after which the facility is changed over to produce a batch of the next product, and so on. Orders for each product are frequently repeated. The production rate of the equipment is greater than the demand rate for any single product type, and so the same equipment can be shared among multiple products. The changeover between production runs takes time. Called the setup time or changeover time, it is the time to change tooling and to set up and reprogram the machinery. This is lost production time, which is a disadvantage of batch manufacturing. Batch production is commonly used in make-to-stock situations, in which items are manufactured to replenish inventory that has been gradually depleted by demand. The equipment is usually arranged in a process layout. An alternative approach to medium range production is possible if product variety is soft. In this case, extensive changeovers between one product style and the next may not be required. It is often possible to configure the equipment so that groups of similar parts or products can be made on the same equipment without significant lost time for change overs. The processing or assembly of different parts or products is accomplished in cells consisting of several workstations or machines. 4.4 High Production The high quantity range (10,000 to millions of units per year) is often referred to as mass production. The situation is characterized by a high demand rate for the product, and the

production facility is dedicated to the manufacture of that product. Two categories of mass production can be distinguished: (1) quantity production and (2) flow line production. Quantity production involves the mass production of single parts on single pieces of equipment. The method of production typically involves standard machines (such as stamping presses) equipped with special tooling (e.g., dies and material handling devices), in effect dedicating the equipment to the production of one part type. The typical layout used in quantity production is the process layout. Flow line production involves multiple workstations arranged in sequence, and the parts or assemblies are physically moved through the sequence to complete the product. The workstations consist of production machines and/or workers equipped with specialized tools. The collection of stations is designed specifically for the product to maximize efficiency. The layout is called a product layout, and the workstations are arranged into one long line, or into a series of connected line segments. The work is usually moved between stations by powered conveyor. At each station, a small amount of the total work is completed on each unit of product.

Figure 12: Types of facilities and layouts used for different levels of production quantity and product variety. 4.5 Manufacturing Support System To operate the production facilities efficiently, a company must organize itself to design the processes and equipment, plan and control the production orders, and satisfy product quality

requirements. These functions are accomplished by manufacturing support systems people and procedures by which a company manages its production operations. Most of these support systems do not directly contact the product, but they plan and control its progress through the factory. Manufacturing support involves a cycle of information-processing activities, as illustrated in Figure The information-processing cycle, represented by the outer ring, can be described as consisting of four functions :(1) business functions,(2) product design, (3) manufacturing planning, and (4) manufacturing control. Business Functions: The business functions are the principal means of communicating with the customer. They are therefore, the beginning and the end of the information-processing cycle. Included in this category are sales and marketing, sales forecasting, order entry, cost accounting, and customer billing. The order to produce a product typically originates from the customer and proceeds into the company through the sales and marketing department of the firm. The production order will be in one of the following forms:(1) an order to manufacture an item to the customers specifications,(2) a customer order to buy one or more of the manufacturers proprietary products, or (3) an internal company order based on a forecast of future demand for a proprietary product. Product Design: If the product is to be manufactured to customer design, the design will have been provided by the customer. The manufacturers product design department will not be involved. If the product is to be produced to customer specifications, the manufacturers product design department may be contracted to do the design work for the product as well as to manufacture it.

Figure 13: The information processing cycle in a typical manufacturing firm. Manufacturing Planning: The information and documentation that constitute the product design flows into the manufacturing planning function. The information-processing activities in manufacturing planning include process planning, master scheduling, requirements planning, and capacity planning. Process planning consists of determining the sequence of individual processing and assembly operations needed to produce the part. The manufacturing engineering and industrial engineering departments are responsible for planning the processes and related technical details. Manufacturing Control: Manufacturing control is concerned with managing and controlling the physical operations in the factory to implement the manufacturing plans. The flow of information is from planning to control as indicated in Figure 1.5.Information also flows back and forth between manufacturing control and the factory operations. Included in the manufacturing control function are shop floor control, inventory control, and quality control. Shop floor control deals with the problem of monitoring the progress of the product as it is being processed, assembled, moved, and inspected in the factory. Shop floor control is concerned with

inventory in the sense that the materials being processed in the factory are work-in-process inventory. Thus, shop floor control and inventory control overlap to some extent. Inventory control attempts to strike a proper balance between the danger of too little inventory (with possible stock-outs of materials) and the carrying cost of too much inventory. It deals with such issues as deciding the right quantities of materials to order and when to reorder a given item when stock is low. The mission of quality control is to ensure that the quality of the product and its components meet the standards specified by the product designer. To accomplish its mission, quality control depends on inspection activities performed in the factory at various times during the manufacture of the product. Also,raw materials and component parts from outside sources are sometimes inspected when they are received, and final inspection and testing of the finished product is performed to ensure functional quality and appearance. 4.6 Advance Manufacturing Historically, manufacturing organizations made improvements in their productions processes primarily through investments in physical capital. Advices in mechanization, for example, enabled manufacturing firms to enhance efficiency in production while actually lowering the required skills and capabilities of employees. As a result, many firms actually took the tactic of deskilling their workforces to reduce labor expenses, thereby diminishing the necessary level of investments in human capital with the hope of increasing profits. In contrast to this perspective, advocates of the cotemporary manufacturing paradigm argue for a dramatically different orientation toward employees. These post-industrial theorists propose that compared to the deskilling tactics of traditional manufacturing, more advanced systems require a set of complementary practices for upskilling the workforce. Indeed, some studies have suggested that modern manufacturing systems demand more enhanced technical, conceptual, analytic and problem solving skills than typically were required in traditional manufacturing environments. In the manufacturing sector, the new technological advances have revolved around machine tools and equipment. Advances in automation of machine tools began about 30 years ago with the first generation of programmable machine tools-the numerical controlled machine tools (NC). The

NC did not become widely used until the 1970s. The second generation, computerized numerical control machine (CNC), was introduced in the late 1970s. These new machine tools have the capacity to produce the high volume standardized parts and products necessary for competitive success in undifferentiated markets. The first AMT technologies were introduced in the 1950s, but it was not until the 1970s that the adoption of AMTs took off and the 1980s that their use became widespread. Today, nearly all currently produced manufacturing equipment incorporates some electronics element and thus fits the definitions for AMTs. There are three types of manufacturing systems: crafts shops; dedicated manufacturing systems (DMS); and advanced manufacturing technology based systems (AMT). Their research is based on Teece conceptualization of long-linked versus intensive technologies. Using their classification scheme, DMS are considered long-linked industrial systems employing hard automation whereas AMT are post-industrial enterprises employing flexible resources. There are many distinctions between craft shops and DMS. While craft shops employ skilled artisans who use various hand tools, DMS deploy special-purpose machinery operated by unskilled manual laborers. In a craft shop, workers are organized into task-oriented work groups. Work is functionally specialized and used usually a single task is assigned to a worker in a DMS. In a craft shop, performance measures are based on customs and other craftsmen evaluate the work. DMS are controlled through a hierarchical structure. In addition to the above characteristics, DMS are product-oriented, concerned with efficiency and productivity. An information system controls task execution and co-ordinates sequential activities within a DMS.

4.7 Following are the steps of current ongoing process of manual making of rubber components: 1. Buying of raw materials -floating of tender -take quotations -checking of quotations -select quotation -selection of vendor and finalization of contract -receive the batch 2. Making of master batch -transferring of batch of rubber from inventory to mixing mill -input of rubber in the mixing mill -start the machine -working of the machine -stop the machine -transfer the mixed rubber to store 3. Making of final batch -transferring of mixed batch of rubber to the kneading machine or mixer -input the mixed rubber into kneader

-start the machine -mixing and curing of rubber with different compounds as required -stop the machine -transfer the kneaded rubber to the store 4. Cutting process -transferring of the rubber sheets from store to the cutting machine -start the machine -cut the rubber sheets as required length -place rubber blocks on a trolley -transfer it into the sub inventory 5. Modeling process -place the required die in the machine -transferring of blocks from inventory to the modeling machine -place the rubber blocks in the machine -start the machine -mould making with use of human resource -stop the machine -place the moulded part into the box/trolley -transferring of component to the finishing process

6. Finishing process -take components one by one and cut, stamp the extra part -if needed grinding process is performed -transfer the finished component for quality checks 7. Final inspection -take random pieces and check the dimensions -check the desired hardness and fatigue test -take the components for packing 8. Packing process -place them according to their order -place them in a box and fix the top -place the boxes according to the order -place the order in inventory 9. Dispatch to customer -take order -place them in the transfer vehicle -transport of the components

10. Use of components -as required by the end user or our customer Resources needed: Human resources: 1. Manager 2. Supervisor 3. Quality engineer 4. Labor Machinery used: 1. Intermix mill 2. Mixing machine/kneader 3. Packing machine 4. Cutting machine 1 3 1 20

Activities Activity ID Activity Name A1000 WBS Name Budgeted Total Cost Original Duration

handling from

of

rubber to master batch Rs20 0h 4.00n

inventory

intermixing machine A1010 feeding of the raw material A1020 A1030 start the machine working machine A1040 A1050 stop the machine handling the mixture from machine to stock A1060 handling of material from stock to mixing final batch mill A1070 A1080 A1090 feeding of the mixture start the machine working of final batch final batch the final batch Rs50 Rs10 Rs667 0h 5.00n 0h 2.00n 0h 40.00n Rs80 0h 4.00n of the master batch master batch master batch master batch master batch Rs50 Rs10 Rs867 Rs0 Rs80 0h 5.00n 0h 2.00n 0h 40.00n 0h 0h 4.00n

machine A1100 A1110 stop the machine handling of material from machine to final batch Rs80 0h 4.00n final batch Rs0 0h

cutting machine A1120 handling of the Rs80 0h 4.00n

material from mixing cutting of sheets mill to cutter A1130 manual sheets A1140 placing of the blocks in the conveyer A1150 handling of blocks to stock A1160 handling of the blocks to moulding machine A1170 A1180 A1190 A1200 start the machine moulding process stop the machine place the parts on cutting of cutting of sheets

Rs330

0h 22.00n

cutting of sheets

Rs140

0h 7.00n

cutting of sheets

Rs70

0h 7.00n

moulding process moulding process moulding process moulding process moulding process

Rs80 Rs10 Rs2,606 Rs0 Rs186

0h 4.00n 0h 2.00n 1h 8.00n 0h 0h 8.00n

conveyer A1210 handling to the

finishing process A1220 handling components to of

moulding process

Rs372

0h 8.00n

the de-flashing process

Rs60

0h 3.00n

finishing process A1230 cutting de-flashing process Rs200 0h 20.00n

A1240 A1250

grinding place them in the boxes or troleys

de-flashing process de-flashing process

Rs100 Rs100

0h 10.00n 0h 5.00n

A1260

handling the finished parts o quality checks

de-flashing process

Rs30

0h 2.00n

A1270

handling materials department

of to

the quality final inspection Rs75 0h 5.00n

A1280 A1290 A1300

random inspection

final inspection

Rs900 Rs316

0h 30.00n 0h 7.00n

place them in the boxes final inspection handle the boxes to the packin and dispatching final inspection department

Rs135

0h 3.00n

A1310

handling components

of to

the the packing process Rs60 0h 3.00n

packing department A1320 packing process packing process Rs270 0h 18.00n

according to the order A1330 place the boxes in a orderly fashion A1340 place them in the

packing process

Rs100

0h 5.00n

inventory A1350 handling of the boxes to final dispatch exit A1360 place them in the

packing process

Rs40

0h 4.00n

dispatch of order

Rs200

0h 10.00n

transport medium A1370 final check of the order and contract

dispatch of order

Rs225

0h 15.00n

dispatch of order

Rs283

0h 10.00n

A1380

dispatch of the order

dispatch of order

Rs0

0h

Total 4.8 Findings of the Manual process: 1. Time taken by the process - 6hours 19minutes 2. Cost associated with the process - Rs8895 per cycle 3. Quality is compromised 4. Inventory management 5. Waste problem

Rs8,885

6h 19.00n

CHAPTER 5 AUTOMATION IN PRODUCTION SYSTEM

5.1 Automation in Production System Some elements of the firms production system are likely to be automated, whereas others will be operated manually or clerically. For our purposes here, automation can be defined as a technology concerned with the application of mechanical, electronic, and computer-based systems to operate and control production. The automated elements of the production system can be separated into two categories :(1) automation of the manufacturing systems in the factory and (2) computerization of the manufacturing support systems. In modern production systems, the two categories overlap to some extent, because the automated manufacturing systems operating on the factory floor are themselves often implemented by computer systems and connected to the computerized manufacturing support systems and management information system operating at the plant and enterprise levels. The term computer-integrated manufacturing is used to indicate this extensive use of computers in production systems. The two categories of automation are shown in Figure 14

Figure 14: Opportunities of automation and computerization in a production system.

5.2 Automated Manufacturing Systems Automated manufacturing systems operate in the factory on the physical product. They perform operations such as processing, assembly, inspection, or material handling, in some cases accomplishing more than one of these operations in the same system. They are called automated

because they perform their operations with a reduced level of human participation compared with the corresponding manual process. In some highly automated systems, there is virtually no human participation. Examples of automated manufacturing systems include: automated machine tools that process parts transfer lines that perform a series of machining operations automated assembly systems manufacturing systems that use industrial robots to perform processing or assembly operations Automatic material handling and storage systems to integrate manufacturing operations Automatic inspection systems for quality control Automated manufacturing systems can be classified into three basic types: (1) fixed automation,(2) programmable automation, and (3) flexible automation. Fixed Automation: Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly) operations is fixed by the equipment configuration. Each of the operations in the sequence is usually simple, involving perhaps a plain linear or rotational motion or an uncomplicated combination of the two; for example, the feeding of a rotating spindle. It is the integration and coordination of many such operations into one piece of equipment that makes the system complex. Typical features of fixed automation are: High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment High production rates Relatively inflexible in accommodating product variety Programmable Automation: In programmable automation, the production equipment is designed with the capability to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product configurations. The operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions coded so that they can be read and interpreted by the system. New programs can be

prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new products. Some of the features that characterize programmable automation include: high investment in general purpose equipment lower production rates than fixed automation flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product configuration most suitable for batch production Programmable automated production systems are used in low- and medium-volume production. The parts or products are typically made in batches. To produce each new batch of a different product, the system must be reprogrammed with the set of machine instructions that correspond to the new product. The physical setup of the machine must also be changed: Tools must be loaded, fixtures must be attached to the machine table, and the required machine settings must be entered. This changeover procedure takes time. Consequently, the typical cycle for a given product includes a period during which the setup and reprogramming takes place, followed by a period in which the batch is produced. Examples of programmable automation include numerically controlled (NC) machine tools, industrial robots, and programmable logic controllers. Flexible Automation: Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. A flexible automated system is capable of producing a variety of parts (or products) with virtually no time lost for changeovers from one part style to the next. There is no lost production time while reprogramming the system and altering the physical setup (tooling, fixtures, machine settings).Consequently, the system can produce various combinations and schedules of parts or products instead of requiring that they be made in batches. What makes flexible automation possible is that the differences between parts processed by the system are not significant. It is a case of soft variety, so that the amount of changeover required between styles is minimal. The features of flexible automation can be summarized as follows: high investment for a custom-engineered system continuous production of variable mixtures of products

 medium production rates Flexibility to deal with product design variations

Figure 15: Three types of automation relative to production quantity and product variety.

Figure 16: Model of manufacturing showing factory operations and the information processing activities for manufacturing support.

5.3 Reasons for Automating Companies undertake projects in manufacturing automation and computer-integrated manufacturing for a variety of good reasons. Some of the reasons used to justify automation are the following: 1. To increase labour productivity. Automating a manufacturing operation usually increases production rate and labour productivity. This means greater output per hour of labour input. 2. To reduce labour cost. Ever-increasing labour cost has been and continues to be the trend in the worlds industrialized societies. Consequently, higher investment in automation has become economically justifiable to replace manual operations. Machines are increasingly being substituted for human labour to reduce unit product cost. 3. To mitigate the effects of labour shortages. There is a general shortage of labour in many advanced nations, and this has stimulated the development of automated operations as a substitute for labour. 4. To reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks. An argument can be put forth that there is social value in automating operations that are routine, boring, fatiguing, and possibly irksome. Automating such tasks serves a purpose of improving the general level of working conditions. 5. To improve worker safety. By automating a given operation and transferring the worker from active participation in the process to a supervisory role, the work is made safer. The safety and physical well-being of the worker has become a national objective with the enactment of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) in 1970.This has provided an impetus for automation. 6. To improve product quality. Automation not only results in higher production rates than manual operations; it also performs the manufacturing process with greater uniformity and conformity to quality specifications. Reduction of fraction defect rate is one of the chief benefits of automation.

7. To reduce manufacturing lead time. Automation helps to reduce the elapsed time between customer order and product delivery, providing a competitive advantage to the manufacturer for future orders. By reducing manufacturing lead time, the manufacturer also reduces work-inprocess inventory. 8. To accomplish processes that cannot be done manually. Certain operations cannot be accomplished without the aid of a machine. These processes have requirements for precision, miniaturization, or complexity of geometry, that cannot be achieved manually. Examples

include certain integrated circuit fabrication operations, rapid prototyping processes based on computer graphics (CAD) models, and the machining of complex, mathematically defined surfaces using computer numerical control. These processes can only be realized by computer controlled systems.

8.

To avoid the high cost of not automating. There is a significant competitive advantage gained in automating a manufacturing plant. The advantage cannot easily be demonstrated on a companys project authorization form. The benefits of automation often show up in unexpected and intangible ways, such as in improved quality, higher sales, better labour relations, and better company image. Companies that do not automate are likely to find themselves at a competitive disadvantage with their customers, their employees, and the general public.

5.4 Automation Migration Strategy Owing to competitive pressures in the marketplace, a company often needs to introduce a new product in the shortest possible time. As mentioned previously, the easiest and least expensive way to accomplish this objective is to design a manual production method, using a sequence of workstations operating independently. The tooling for a manual method can be fabricated quickly and at low cost. If more than a single set of workstations is required to make the product in sufficient quantities, as is often the case, then the manual cell is replicated as many times as needed to meet demand. If the product turns out to be successful, and high future demand is anticipated, then it makes sense for the company to automate production. The improvements are often carried out in phases. Many companies have an automation migration strategy, that is, a

formalized plan for evolving the manufacturing systems used to produce new products as demand grows. A typical automation migration strategy is the following: Phase 1: Manual production using single station manned cells operating independently. This is used for introduction of the new product for reasons already mentioned: quick and low cost tooling to get started. Phase 2: Automated production using single station automated cells operating independently. As demand for the product grows, and it becomes clear that automation can be justified, then the single stations are automated to reduce labour and increase production rate. Work units are still moved between workstations manually. Phase 3: Automated integrated production using a multi station automated system with serial operations and automated transfer of work units between stations. When the company is certain that the product will be produced in mass quantities and for several years, then integration of the single station automated cells is warranted to further reduce labour and increase production rate. This strategy is illustrated in Figure 1.9.Details of the automation migration strategy vary from company to company, depending on the types of products they make and the manufacturing processes they perform. But well-managed manufacturing companies have policies like the automation migration strategy. Advantages of such a strategy include: It allows introduction of the new product in the shortest possible time, since production cells based on manual workstations are the easiest to design and implement. It allows automation to be introduced gradually (in planned phases), as demand for the product grows, engineering changes in the product are made, and time is allowed to do a thorough design job on the automated manufacturing system. It avoids the commitment to a high level of automation from the start, since there is always a risk that demands for the product will not justify it.

Figure 17: A typical automation migration strategy. (1) Phase 1: manual production with single independent workstations.(2) Phase 2:automated production stations with manual handling between stations.(3) Phase 3:automated integrated production with automated handling between stations. Key: Auto automated workstation.

5.5 Equipments used for Automation PLC system for intermix AB make PLC system having 20 DI, 12 DO, 4 AI with SCADA system, transducers with panel.

 PM554 T AC500 PLC 128kb 8DI/6DO T 24VDC 1XRS485 1X option slot DC561 S500 digital I/O MOD 16DC Interfast DC 24VDC/0 1A HE10 connection 1 wire AX561 S500 Ana log IO Mod 4AI/2AO U/I 12bit+sign 24VDC 2 wire in 1 wire out. CP 430B-Contro; panel 5.7 STN Touch screen 16 blue levels CPU 512kb,24 VDC, memory card slot, 2x RS-232/485(programming MODBUS/CS31), 1xFBP, Display, with integrated Ethernet TCP/IP coupler Changeover intermix:260kva ABB make, AC Drive Module fitted in suitable Panel Enclosure fully wired with switchgear and accessories, with Changeover Arrangement to run with existing slip ring starter, suitable for 145KW/415 Volts+-10%,50hz, standard induction motor. Model : ACS 850 Model: PM582-CPU 512kb,24 VDC, memory card slot, 2x RS-232/485(programming , MODBUS/CS31), 1x FBP, display CPU Terminal base AC500, 1x CPU slot, 1x coupler slot, Ethernet RJ45 connector TU516, I/O Terminal unit, 24 VDC, spring terminals

Figure 18: PLC system and Change over System for Intimex

5.6 Introduction to test automation Test Automation is the next logical step for organizations progressing towards establishing a mature quality assurance program. Since test automation entails initial cost outlays, organizations should quantify the perceived benefits in order to determine the nature of returns on investment. The first step in this process is to gain an understanding of various elements of costs and benefits. This should be followed by ROI calculations to influence the decision in favour of or against test automation for specific testing engagements.

Figure 19: Test Automation

Figure 20: Distributed Test Automation Infrastructure 5.6.1 Forecasting test automation benefits Organizations are often unable to realize desired benefits such as increased speed to market or improved cost benefits from their test automation strategies. They approach test automation from the perspective of an improvement program that involves traditional investments in hardware, software and staffing. However, when the benefits Drivers Direct Benefits Savings in staffing costs due to efficient redeployme nt of Indirect Benefits Motivated workforce, increased customer satisfaction

People

workforce Process Savings in testing lifecycle costs due to reduced execution time Improved productivit y due to additional test cycles within a given schedule Enhanced process efficiency, innovations

Technology

Lower application lifecycle costs resulting from improved product quality

5.6.2 Costs of Automation The cost elements for automation can be classified as fixed and recurring costs. Fixed costs are one time investments that are needed initially to establish the automation environment. Recurring costs are incurred during the testing lifecycle. The cost matrix depicts the distribution of fixed and recurring costs across people, process and technology drivers Drivers People One Time Costs Recurring Costs

Cost of training staff on Staffing costs for automation automation tools script maintenance Staffing costs for automation script development

Process

Costs for establishing new Not Applicable processes (workflow, configuration management, process management and so on)

Technology

Cost of software

hardware

and Cost of maintaining hardware and automation software

Licenses for automation

5.7 Cost of Automation Cost of automation is given by: CA = CHS + CDM+ CT CA=Rs 7500000+75000+50000 =Rs 7625000 5.8. Advantages of Automation Reduce Production Cost - A quick return on investment (ROI) outweighs the initial setup costs. All of the following automation advantages reduce production cost. Decrease in Part Cycle Time - A lean manufacturing line is crucial for increasing efficiency. Robotics can work longer and faster which increases production rate. Improved Quality and Reliability - Automation is precise and repeatable. It ensures the product is manufactured with the same specifications and process every time. Repairs are few and far between. Better Floor Space Utilization - By decreasing a footprint of a work area by automating parts of your production line, you can utilize the floor space for other operations and make the process flow more efficient.

 Reduce Waste - Robots are so accurate that the amount of raw material used can be reduced, decreasing costs on waste. Stay Competitive - Reduction in schedule and cost attracts customers. Automation helps provide the highest throughput with least amount of spending. Speed - They can process information much more quickly than humans. This means they are good for controlling machinery that might ned to be adjusted instantly. Repetition - Automated systems can do the same task over and over again without getting bored, needing breaks or making mistakes. Accuracy - They can do very detailed work and follow precise instructions without error. Safety - Automated systems can work in places where it would be unsafe to put a human, for example, in a nuclear power plant, under water or in space. Efficiency - They get more done than humans but cost less to operate. This is because they do need breaks, wages, holidays, canteens, heating and lighting. The quality of the work done is always of the same standard being materials are not wasted due to human error. Adaptability - Automated systems can be reprogrammed to do different tasks.

Before Automation

After Automation

CHAPTER 6 RECOMMEDATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CORRECTIVE MEASURE

6.1. Line or Product layout A product layout (also called a flow-shop layout) is one in which equipment or work processes are arranged according to the progressive steps by which the product is made. The path for each part is, in effect, a straight line. Production lines for shoes, chemical plants, and car washes are all product layouts. Under this, machines and equipments are arranged in one line depending upon the sequence of operations required for the product. The materials move from one workstation to another sequentially without any backtracking or deviation. Under this, machines are grouped in one sequence. Therefore materials are fed into the first machine and finished goods travel automatically from machine to machine, the output of one machine becoming input of the next, e.g. in a paper mill, bamboos are fed into the machine at one end and paper comes out at the other end. The raw material moves very fast from one workstation to other stations with a minimum work in progress storage and material handling. a) All the machine tools or other items of equipments must be placed at the point demanded by the sequence of operations b) There should no points where one line crossed another line. c) Materials may be fed where they are required for assembly but not necessarily at one point. d) All the operations including assembly, testing packing must be included in the line

Figure 21 (a): Line layout

Figure (b): Line Layout Suitability: 1) Mass production of standardized products 2) Simple and repetitive manufacturing process 3) Operation time for different process is more or less equal 4) Reasonably stable demand for the product 5) Continuous supply of materials Therefore, the manufacturing units involving continuous manufacturing process, producing few standardized products continuously on the firms own specifications and in anticipation of sales would prefer product layout e.g. chemicals, sugar, paper, rubber, refineries, cement, automobiles, food processing and electronics etc.

Advantages: a) Low cost of material handling, due to straight and short route and absence of backtracking b) Smooth and uninterrupted operations c) Continuous flow of work d) Lesser investment in inventory and work in progress e) Optimum use of floor space f) Shorter processing time or quicker output

g) Less congestion of work in the process h) Simple and effective inspection of work and simplified production control i) Lower cost of manufacturing per unit Disadvantages: a. High initial capital investment in special purpose machine b. Heavy overhead charges c. Breakdown of one machine will hamper the whole production process d. Lesser flexibility as specially laid out for particular product.

Figure 22: 3-Tier Industrial Network Diagram

Figure 23: Network diagram for automating the current process

6.2. Comparison of both the Manual and Automated Manufacturing Process 1. Findings of the manual process

Time Taken By Following Process

16%

8% 13%

16% 11%

11% 25%

Figure 24: Time taken by the manual process

Time Taken By Individual Process

Motion Made By Men 14% Handling of the material 13% Process Of Working 72%

Working Of each Process 1%

Figure 25: Time taken by individual process

Figure 26: Problem Occurrence in Automated Manufacturing Process Manual-Automated=Reduction Handling -12.67%-6.4%=6.27% Motion -12.95%-5.6%=7.35% Waiting - 4.23%-1.89%=2.34% Reduction in Production Cost Rs 8895-Rs 1905=Rs 6990 per cycle Decrease in Part Cycle Time 6hours 19 minutes(manual)-4hours 17 minutes(automated)=1 hour 58 minutes Manual process=70.14% Automated process=86.07% Increase in Working time=15.93% Work time increased by=15.93/70.14=.2271 x 100 = 22.71%

6.3 What is ROI? The rapid advancement in technology in todays world s leading to the need of enhancing the potential benefits of a project by robust strategies that requires to enhance the speed of test execution at a lower cost. This objective of an organization can be obtained through test automation using hybrid automation. The nature of return on investment is based on the benefits achieved. The benefits are achieved by using some ROI calculations along with test automation. The qualification of engaging test automation is where the success of automation takes place. Before the beginning of test automation, organization should: 6.3.1 Need of test automation using ROI

Test automation using ROI is a vital requirement of needed by most organizations because: 1. The need for the project to focus on time investment gain for test automation ROI. 2. For improved test coverage which is done by reducing the risk factors? 3. The need for reducing the monetary savings through automated test execution
4. The time investment gain of the testing lifecycle using ROI is needed

A performance measure used to evaluate the efficiency of an investment or to compare the efficiency of a number of different investments. To calculate ROI, the benefit (return) of an investment is divided by the cost of the investment; the result is expressed as a percentage or a ratio. The return on investment formula:

return on investment (%) = Net profit / Investment 100 or return on investment = (gain from investment - cost of investment) / cost of investment In the above formula "gains from investment", refers to the proceeds obtained from selling the investment of interest. Return on investment is a very popular metric because of its versatility

and simplicity. That is, if an investment does not have a positive ROI, or if there are other opportunities with a higher ROI, then the investment should be not be undertaken. The purpose of the "return on investment" metric is to measure, per period, rates of return on money invested in an economic entity in order to decide whether or not to undertake an investment. ROI and related metrics provide a snapshot of profitability, adjusted for the size of the investment assets tied up in the enterprise. ROI is often compared to expected (or required) rates of return on money invested. Marketing decisions have obvious potential connection to the numerator of ROI (profits), but these same decisions often influence assets usage and capital requirements (for example, receivables and inventories). Marketers should understand the position of their company and the returns expected. In a survey of nearly 200 senior marketing managers, 77 percent responded that they found the "return on investment" metric very useful.

Return on investment isn't necessarily the same as profit. ROI deals with the money you invest in the company and the return you realize on that money based on the net profit of the business. Profit, on the other hand, measures the performance of the business. Don't confuse ROI with the return on the owner's equity. This is an entirely different item as well. Only in sole proprietorships does equity equal the total investment or assets of the business. You can use ROI in several different ways to gauge the profitability of your business. For instance, you can measure the performance of your pricing policies, inventory investment, capital equipment investment, and so forth. Some other ways to use ROI within your company are by:

Dividing net income, interest, and taxes by total liabilities to measure rate of earnings of total capital employed.

Dividing net income and income taxes by proprietary equity and fixed liabilities to produce a rate of earnings on invested capital.

Dividing net income by total capital plus reserves to calculate the rate of earnings on proprietary equity and stock equity.

ROI calculation 1.for 1 cycle per day gain from investment=money saved in each process X number of process X cycles X 313 =Rs 6990 X 3 X 1 X 313 =Rs 6563610 putting this value in formula we get: return on investment =( 6563610 - 7625000) / 7625000 = -0.1391 or -13.91% Clearly, result shows negative ROI so company must go for next alternative, which is using 2 cycles per day. 2.for 2 cycle per day: gain from investment=money saved in each process X number of process X cycles X 313 =Rs 6990 X 3 X 2 X 313 =Rs 13127220 return on investment =( 13127220 - 7625000) / 7625000 =0.72 or 72% clearly as above result shows that about 72% of invested capital will be attained in the first year if we provide 2 cycles per day as compare to the 1 cycle where this goes negative 13.91 % . Foe effective utilisation of the resources and investment made for automation the company should go for 2 cycles per day as to achieve high productivity and profit.

6.4 Productivity Productivity is an average measure of the efficiency of production. Productivity is a ratio of production output to what is required to produce it (inputs of capital, labor, land, energy, materials, etc.). The measure of productivity is defined as a total output per one unit of a total input. We see that as a measure of the average productivity is often difficult to interpret correctly. Total productivity = Output quantity / Input quantity Production in manual process= 2500 pieces in one cycle means in 6hours

20minutes=394.73pieces/hour Production in automated process=2500pieces in one cycle(4hours 20minutes)=576.92pieces/hour Increase in units produced=182.19pieces/hour Labour Productivity increased by =182.19/394.7=46.15% 6.5 Product/ Production Relationship Companies organize their manufacturing operations and production systems as a function of the particular products they make. It is instructive to recognize that there are certain product parameters that are influential in determining how the products are manufactured. Let us consider four key parameters :(1) production quantity,(2) product variety,(3) complexity of assembled products, and (4) complexity of individual parts. Let us develop a set of symbols to represent these important parameters. First, let Q=production quantity and P=product variety. Thus we can discuss product variety and production quantity relationships as PQ relationships. Q refers to the number of units of a given part or product that are produced annually by a plant. Our interest includes both the quantities of each individual part or product style and the total quantity of all styles.Let us identify each part or product style by using the subscript j, so that Qj=annual quantity of style j.Then let Qf=total quantity of all parts or products made in the factory.Qjand Qfare related as follows:

Where P=total number of different part or product styles, and j is a subscript to identify products, j=1,2,p ,P. P refers to the different product designs or types that are produced in a plant. It is a parameter that can be counted, and yet we recognize that the difference between products can be great or small. EXAMPLE: Product Lines P1 and Product Models P2 A company specializes in consumer photographic products. It produces only cameras and projectors. Thus P2=2. In its camera line it offers 15 different models, and in its projector line it offers five models. Thus for cameras, P21=15, and for projectors,P22=5.The totality of product models offered is given by:

6.6 Product and Part Complexity How complex is each product made in the plant? Product complexity is a complicated issue. It has both qualitative and quantitative aspects. Let us deal with it using quantitative measures. For an assembled product, one possible indicator of product complexity is its number of componentsthe more parts, the more complex the product is. This is easily demonstrated by comparing the numbers of components in various assembled products. Production Plants Distinguished by Np and No Values Type of Plant Parameter Values Np-No Description

Parts producer

Np=1, No>1

This type of plant produces individual components, and

each

component

requires

multiple processing steps. Assembly plant Np>1, No=1 A pure assembly plant

produces no parts. Instead, it purchases all parts from

suppliers. In this pure case, we Assume that one operation is required to assemble each part to the product (thus, no=1). Vertically integrated plant Np>1, No>1 The pure plant of this type makes all its parts and

assembles them into its final products. This plant type also includes intermediate

suppliers that make assembled items such as ball bearings, car seats, and so on for final product assembly plants.

Let us develop some simple relationships among the parameters P, Q, Np, and no that indicate the level of activity in a manufacturing plant. We will ignore the differences between P1 and P2 here. The total number of products made annually in a plant is the sum of the quantities of the individual product designs, as expressed in previous Eq. Assuming that the products are all assembled and that all component parts used in these products are made in the plant (no purchased components), then the total number of parts manufactured by the plant per year is given by:

Where Npf=total number of parts made in the factory (Pc/Yr), Qj=annual quantity of product style j (products/yr), and npj=number of parts in product j (pc/product). Finally, if all parts are manufactured in the plant, then the total number of processing operations performed by the plant is given by:

Where Nof=total number of operation cycles performed in the factory (Ops/Yr), and Nojk=number of processing operations for each part k, summed over the number of parts in product j, Npj. Parameter Nof provides a numerical value for the total activity level in the factory. Qf=PQ The total number of parts produced by the factory is given by: Npf=PQnp

CHAPTER 7 BUSINESS PROCESS MODELING TECHNIQUE

The business process modelling techniques described are based on the Architecture of Integrated Information Systems (ARIS) business engineering methodology developed by Dr. AugustWilhelm Scheer, Professor at the University of the Saarland, Germany and the founder of IDS Scheer AG. Dr. Scheers methodology provides an approach for capturing business process flows, functions, organizational structure, data and resources for the purposes of documentation, analysis, optimization and redesign. The business process management tool used for developing process models is IDS Scheers ARIS Toolset. ARIS supports over 100 business process and Information Technology architecture modelling techniques. The tool also provides attributes for capturing underlying metrics such as costs, cycle times and responsibilities to provide a foundation for analysing value chains, activity-based costs, bottlenecks, critical paths, and inefficiencies. The primary modelling techniques used in this paper are the Value-Added Chain, the Event-Driven Process Chain (EPC), and the Function Allocation Diagram (FAD). I. Value-Added Chain The Value-Added Chain diagram is a method for identifying the high-level processes for an organization or process area. The processes in the Value-Added Chain can indicate the sequence of processes and can be arranged hierarchically, indicating process-oriented super and subordinations. Figure. is a Value-Added Chain diagram depicting the project management process groups with some of the core processes and facilitating processes found in the Project Management Body of Knowledge

Figure 27: Value Added Chain

7.1 Calculate Cost Accruals Event-Driven Process Chain

Figure 28: Calculate Cost Accruals Event-Driven Process Chain

Figure. is a simple EPC depicting the process flow for measuring cost accruals. It shows a triggering event (Cost Baseline Established), which is the final outcome event from another process (Establish Cost Baseline). The following three functions (Record Expenses, Record Activity Progress, and Record Effort Expended) must all be performed. The Record Activity Progress Function can have one of two outcomes: either hours remaining are recorded or activity per cent complete is recorded. The function Apply Actuals to Schedule triggers the event Cost Accruals Calculated. This event is a triggering incident for two additional processes (Reconcile Accruals with Invoices and Report Costs). 7.1.1 Function Allocation Diagram The Function Allocation Diagram FAD is used for identifying information about that performs functions and how they are performed. The FAD can show information such as data, documentation, application systems, organizational units, types of responsibility, inputs, outputs, etc. Figure 4 is a FAD, which describes the function Plan Scope. It shows who Establish Cost Baseline is Cost Baseline Established Record Activity Progress Record Effort Expended Record Expenses Recorded Time Sheets Submitted Activity % Complete Recorded Hours Remaining Recorded Apply Actuals to Schedule Cost Accruals Calculated Reconcile Accruals With Invoices Report Costs responsible for executing the function (Project Manager) as well as supporting roles (Project Team and Project Management Office) as well as the approval authority (Business Sponsor). Also shown are documents, lists and other explicit knowledge that are inputs to the function (Project Charter, Project Constraints, Project Assumptions, Product Descriptions, and Activity Descriptions), and the two documents that are the output of the function (Scope Statement and Scope Management Plan). The application system that is used in the performance of the function is shown (MS Word) and links to document templates for the two deliverables are provided (Scope Statement Template and Scope Plan Template).

Figure 29: Plan Scope Function Allocation Diagram

7.2 Documenting Processes Process documentation and analysis can be broken down into six phases. These are: a. Process Scope and Architecture. b. Process Chain Modelling. c. Process Integration. d. Process Analysis and Optimization. e. Process Stakeholder Training. f. Continuous Process Improvement. a. Process Scope and Architecture One of the major difficulties encountered during business process modelling is determining the degree of detail in the models. Another common sticking point is deciding upon what is in the modelling domain and what is out. Therefore, a logical starting point for a project management processes modelling effort is to establish the scope and architecture for the process knowledge repository. Simply put, scope is the definition of what is included as a deliverable of the endeavour and what is considered outside the boundaries of the enterprise. For most business process engineering efforts, the scope of the enterprise equates to the organizational boundary. For the modelling the PMO domain of project management processes, it must be determined which project management knowledge areas are to be included in the modelling effort. Within process areas, there may be processes that are outside the domain of the PMO. For example, some areas of cost, communications, human resources, and procurement management frequently lie outside the scope of control of the PMO. It is acceptable to include processes for areas outside the control of the PMO in the scope of the modelling effort as long as the true process owners are available to help build and integrate these processes into the PMO process domain. The process architecture helps to define the levels of decomposition of the various processes models, from a macro description of the enterprise, to a detailed description of the procedures for carrying out an individual function. Process architecture can be viewed as a pyramid of process models, as depicted in Figure.

Figure 30: Plan Scope Function Allocation Diagram

The enterprise model, at the top of the pyramid, can be logically broken down into several process domains. Each process domain, in turn, can be decomposed into several logical process areas. The process areas can contain numerous detailed process models. Each process model contains functions, which can be described in detail using Function Allocation Diagrams (FAD). There is no theoretical limit to the number of levels of decomposition that can be used in the process architecture; however, the four levels plus FAD architecture depicted in Figure can be used for most applications. Different model types can be used to describe processes at each level. Typically, Value-Added Chain diagrams and Function Trees (not described in this paper) are used to define higher level models. Event-Driven Process Chains, Rummler-Brache flowcharts (swim lane diagrams also not described in this paper), and FADs describe detailed processes. 7.3 Primavera Primavera P6 which is a multi-user web enabled application that can provide the Department comprehensive information at a program (multi-project) level through executive summaries, and also at the project level through detailed activity views for field office staff using a Department wide enterprise database located on network servers. Primavera P6 is an integrated solution with Department users located in the Main Office or Regional Offices having access to the Client though an Icon on their desktop or through CITRIX or to the Web PM through Internet Explorer, and Construction Field Office users having access to the Client tool through CITRIX or the WebPM tool through Internet Explorer. Consultant and Contractor users have access to the Client tool through CITRIX. The software tools are role specific to satisfy each team members needs, responsibilities, and skills.

Figure 31: Primavera Tool Architecture 7.3.1 Uses

Plan, schedule, and control large-scale programs and individual projects Select the right strategic mix of projects Balance resource capacity Allocate best resources and track progress Monitor and visualize project performance versus. plan Foster team collaboration Integrate with financial management and human capital management systems

CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION

The starting point for the research program outlined in this research has been the observation that currently the company lack an adequate methodology for the systematic deployment and operation of fixed automated production systems, to a large extent, due to the failure of past manual to address the modelling, analysis and control of the system behaviour. To this effect, an new automated process in the real-time control of these systems has been developed, known as optimization and automation of the process by using means of quality and project management tools. here we use project management software Prima-Vera for calculating and showing how the two process manual and automated differ in their field and also the use of software to provide solutions for this. the most prevailing issues in the SC of flexibly automated production systems has been the effective resolution of the manufacturing system deadlock, and the development of reaction strategies for the accommodation of different operational contingencies. The ultimate objective of this research program is the development of a complete production planning and control framework for these environments, based on the typical hierarchical decomposition control paradigm. However, in order to guarantee the feasibility and relevance of the developed control scheme, our design has adopted a bottom-up approach, which differs from the top-down approaches typically taken by past research in the area. Specifically, our approach seeks to (i) initially find the areas to be modified or optimized (ii)find the problems of the process, (iii)recommendation and implementation of the best solution, (iv) use the established capability to measure and control the system behaviour and performance, in order to track the externally imposed demand, in the most efficient manner. By using this system of automation and invested certain amount of capital we must go for automation in the manufacturing as shown by above results we can definitely say that automation is necessary and profitable, only if it is implemented correctly and test automation should be done in order to know the after effects of the automation. But in this process we have achieved what we are working for.

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