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2012

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Greenhouse Gases

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GROUP NAME: 1) RUSHIL NAGDA 2) HARSH ANURAG 3) RISHIKA SINHA 4) KAPIL GAUTAM

Greenhouse Gases
The greenhouse effect

INTRODUCTION

The greenhouse effect is a key component of the climate system Human activity, the main cause of rising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases Currently, human activity is responsible for about 30 Gt/year of CO2-equivalent emissions some from agriculture, livestock, and deforestation, but most from the combustion of fossil fuels. The planets capacity to absorb those emissions appears limited to about half of the total quantity, absorbed mainly by the oceans. Although the surplus emissions account for a mere 2% of the exchanges that take place between atmosphere, oceans and plants, the gases build up in the atmosphere, where they may remain for several decades and in some cases, even centuries. The Earths surface absorbs approximately 50% of the radiant energy emitted by the Sun, then reflects that energy in the form of heat infrared radiation a portion of which is absorbed by the clouds and certain atmospheric gases. Together, clouds and gases act as a lid that re-emits the thermal energy back toward the Earth, heating the lower atmosphere. Although it involves a mere 1% of atmospheric

gases (by mass), this process (known as the greenhouse effect) ensures that the temperature at the Earths surface is held relatively stable at a level necessary to the presence of water in the liquid state: 15C (rather than -18C). Keeping it in balance is therefore vital. In terms of quantity, water vapor is the most prevalent greenhouse gas (GHG) and is responsible for nearly 60% of the greenhouse effect. Other gases present in the atmosphere in trace quantities play an important role because of the intensity of their greenhouse effect. This is especially true of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), but ozone (O3) and man-made gases such as fluorinated hydrocarbons (CFC, HFC) also play a part. The greater the gass tendency to absorb infrared radiation and the longer its residence time in the atmosphere, the more it contributes to the greenhouse effect. For example, the global warming potential of methane is twenty-one times greater than that of carbon dioxide .

Human

activity,

the

main

cause

of

rising

atmospheric

concentrations of greenhouse gases


Currently, human activity is responsible for about 30 Gt/year of CO 2equivalent emissions some from agriculture, livestock, and

deforestation, but most from the combustion of fossil fuels. The planets capacity to absorb those emissions appears limited to about half of the total quantity, absorbed mainly by the oceans. Although the surplus emissions account for a mere 2% of the exchanges that take place between atmosphere, oceans and plants, the gases build up in the atmosphere, where they may remain for several decades and in some cases, even centuries. Emissions from human activity are very probably the cause of

observable manifestations of climate change, and have the potential to

create long-term climate disruption1. Due to worldwide economic growth, particularly in newly industrialized countries, greenhouse gas emissions could rise by nearly 50% by 2030. Estimates indicate that the emissions from developing countries, primarily China and India, will soon exceed those of Europe and North America. It is therefore imperative to find ways to unbundled economic growth from

greenhouse gas emissions, in both developing and OECD countries. But revamping our energy infrastructure will take several decades which means now is the time to act.

Climate change
Atmospheric concentrations of GHG are rising steadily

Observations show that the atmospheric concentration of CO2 has risen from an average 280 ppm (parts per million) over the last century to 380 ppm in 2006 (in other words, 380 molecules of CO2 for every million molecules of air), and continues to rise by 1 to 3 ppm per year. For many scientists, the fact that such a rate of increase is unparalleled in the last 650,000 years no longer leaves any room for doubt as to the essentially man-made causes of the increase. Meanwhile, records show that the average global temperature has risen by about 0.8C since 1850.

Of course, the Earth has undergone climate change of much greater magnitude at other times in its history, but such changes always occurred over a longer time span. Indeed, for the past 12,000 years,

the Earths climate has been remarkably stable, a factor that helped human societies to emerge and flourish. The rate and accelerating pace of current changes thus appear to be without precedent.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS POTENTIAL IMPACTS

There is broad consensus within the scientific community that human activity is changing the Earths climate through increasing

concentrations of greenhouse gases primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere.

Greenhouse gases are a key element of the earths atmosphere because they trap energy from the sun, creating a natural

greenhouse effect, as seen above in Figure 1 Without this effect, temperatures would be much lower than they are now, and life as known today would not be possible. This natural balance of

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, however, is being disturbed by human activities such as industrial processes, fossil fuel combustion, and changes in land useactions that release large amounts of certain greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This increase in greenhouse gas concentration traps additional energy in the lower atmosphere, thus warming it beyond its normal temperature. Industrial activity has contributed to a 30 percent increase in the global CO2 level since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution through the combustion of fossil fuels for energy. Other anthropogenic

contributions of greenhouse gases include the clearing of forests for development decomposition and of agriculture, solid waste, methane and production the from the of

manufacturing

chlorofluorocarbons. The term global climate change refers to the destabilizing impact on climate and weather patterns that result from continuous addition of these gases, the resultant increase in heat energy in the earths atmosphere, and the associated changes that follow. Even small changes in the average temperatures can be accompanied by an increase in severe weather events such as storms and droughts, ecosystem change, loss of animal and plant species, stresses to human health, and alterations in regional agricultural productivity. Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the correlation between increased

atmospheric CO2 concentrations and global average temperature since 1860.

Although climate change is a global issue, the effects of rapidly rising temperatures will be felt in every local community. Average

temperatures in New York State are projected to increase by between 2F and 8F by 2100, with the largest increases in the coastal regions such as New York City.4 Average precipitation is also expected to rise by 10 to 20 percent, with extreme wet and snowy days becoming

more frequent.5 Intense weather trends will be felt on the opposite end of the temperature spectrum, as the occurrence of summer days with temperatures above 90F are expected to multiply from 14 days in 1997-1998 to 40-89 days by the 2080s.6 Climate change will impact human health, coastal areas, water supplies, agriculture, ecosystems, demand for energy, and infrastructure. The potential impacts of climate change to New York City are summarized as follows:

Public Health and Air Quality

Higher temperatures and increased frequency of heat waves may increase the number of heat-related deaths and the incidence of heat-related illnesses, particularly among the elderly and poor.

Higher temperatures may expand the habitat and infectivity of disease-carrying insects (mosquitoes and ticks), increasing the risk to humans.

As a heavily populated urban area, New York City is particularly vulnerable to the effects of ground-level ozone, a major

precursor to smog. Ozone is produced when higher temperatures and strong sunlight react with hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides (NOx), worsening air pollution and potentially exacerbating respiratory illnesses such as asthma.

Even as it pursues the growth of its activities, Total is determined to contribute to the global drive to combat climate change. The Group situates its efforts for the long term within the spirit of the Kyoto Protocol and will pursue actions already undertaken to meet its

voluntary goals for controlling its greenhouse gas emissions.

Total made a commitment to control its GHG emissions and has taken numerous initiatives to bring it closer to this goal. These initiatives focus on four objectives:

Improving the reliability of emissions data in terms of inventory, reporting and external verification; Controlling the GHG emissions generated by Group facilities; Enhancing the energy efficiency of Total products and processes through:- programs to improve energy efficiency3 in the various branches of the Group, actions offering broad scope for

improvement, such as stepping up the efforts of the Exploration & Production branch to reduce the flaring4 of associated gases at all operated sites by 50% by 2012; - products that emit less greenhouse gas over their life cycle (new motor fuels such as Excellium, energyefficient lubricants and engineered materials) and innovative services to curb energy consumption (e.g., the Solutions Eco-Dclic energy-saving offering by Totalgaz);

Preparing the future of energy (see opposite). Total is also involved in the efforts of the international scientific community to gain better understanding of climate change phenomena. In particular, the Group is backing the expedition to the North Pole by the Total Pole Airship to be led by Jean-Louis Etienne in spring 2008. The measurements of the Arctic ice pack to be taken during the mission will provide a new benchmark, to be used in future assessments of the climate impact of human activities.

European carbon market

The first phase of the system applies to 39 of the Groups industrial sites. In organizational terms, each branch has one or more industrial counters that coordinate the operational aspects related to the

obligations of each entity and assess their options in the event of emissions surpluses or shortfalls compared to allocated quotas. A trading entity at Group level acts as an expert with respect to the trading system, while a coordination committee optimizes the

management of the system as a whole.

Participation in the definition of voluntary agreements in France and the European Union

As a member of Aeres, an association of businesses working to reduce the greenhouse effect, Totals Refining and Chemicals branches as well as 34 other companies took part in the development of the French system of voluntary commitments to curb GHG emissions. The companies voluntary commitments are confined to installations in France and target the six greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol for the period 2003-2007 (compared to the reference year, 1990).

Clean Development Mechanism

The Groups projects in non-OECD countries incorporate the Clean Development Mechanism.

Participation in future energy transitions


To prepare the longer-term energy future, Total is developing research programs that focus on new industrial equipment and processes characterized by lower emissions. It is also working to develop renewable energies (essentially biomass energy and solar power) and hydrogen/fuel-cell technology5. Finally, Total contributes actively to the emergence of other new technologies such as CO2 capture and geological storage6, particularly through its key role in developing a

demonstration pilot for an integrated CO2 capture and storage installation in the Lacq region (France).

The Kyoto mechanisms


The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC) and the ensuing Kyoto Protocol form the international legal framework and first steps toward addressing the long-term problem of climate change. The Protocol lays down greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets for the period 2008-2012, applicable only to industrialized countries, and sets out so-called flexibility mechanisms for attaining those objectives, with rules for monitoring. To meet those goals, the Protocol thus provides three mechanisms to be implemented in addition to measures at the national level:

Emissions trading among signatory parties

Clean development mechanisms (CDM) between industrialized

Countries (so-called Annex 1 Parties) and non-Annex 1 Parties, to promote the transfer of the most effective emissions reduction technologies in line with sustainable development

Joint implementation projects (JI) among Annex 1 Parties.

The first international carbon emissions market

The European Union Emission Trading Scheme, which creates a market for the CO2 emissions quotas allocated to industrial sectors relevant to the major emitters, has been in operation since January 1, 2005 (Directive 2003/87/EC). The Scheme helps the EU control its emissions in order get a head start on its targets under the Kyoto Protocol for 2008-2012. The initial phase of implementation of the ETS thus covers a three-year period from 2005 to 2007 and concerns only those CO2 emissions from a limited number of industrial sectors in EU-27, representing a total of about 11,500 installations. Each Member State issues an allowance to emit CO2 and allocates a certain number of emissions quotas (EUAs) to individual industrial installations. Each year, the operator of each installation must return the number of quotas that corresponds to the reported and verified emissions from his installation. The allocated quantities of CO2 are capped and published in the National Allocation Plans. Enterprises may choose to invest in emissions-reduction technologies and actions, or purchase any missing

quotas on the market, at market price. To ensure the reliability of the system, the European Commission has adopted:

GHG emissions Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) guidelines involving third-party verifications of the emissions reported by each installation,

Rules for harmonized EU-wide implementation of the national registries for recording the issuance, transfer and return of quotas. A harmonization and an extension of the scope of application are planned for the second period (2008-2012). Kyoto Protocol Ratification status

The significance of climate change

Today, the entire scientific community agrees that climate change, particularly the rise in global temperatures observed since 1850, is primarily related to human activity. Naturally, uncertainties remain, and todays models, despite their increasing sophistication, have not yet provided a full explanation for natural fluctuations over brief time spans (from a decade to a century), or for the complex linkages between cloud cover and aerosols.

Similarly, it is still difficult to predict future climate changes because of the extreme complexity, and insufficient understanding, of the mechanisms of climate regulation (such as ocean absorption of CO2, the impact of aerosols, etc.). However, the development of more sophisticated models and more powerful computers, coupled with a growing number of simulation studies, are shedding more light on the range of possible scenarios and the impacts of climate phenomena on a more regional scale.

CONCLUSION
Foreseeable consequences of global warming
The Earth could warm by as much as 1.1 to 6.4C by 2100, as sea levels rise by 18 to 59 centimeters2. The rise in temperature is likely to trigger more marked hydrological contrasts more acute droughts and more severe flood events. Ultimately, the very stability of the climate system could be

jeopardized. Climate changes manifest at the regional level would have varying social and ecological consequences depending on the geographical location and adaptive capacity of the region.

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