Unit Seven The Nervous System - contains 2 types of cells i) NEUROLOGICAL CELLS: support and serve cells (help

neurons) ii)NEURONS: cells that actually conduct and transmit actual nerve impulses NEURONS PERFORM 5 FUNCTIONS i) RECEIVE INFO (STIMULI): form both our internal and external environmental, or from other neurons ii) INTEGRATED DIFFERENT SIGNALS: often several signals must be integrated to produce an appropriate response iii) CONDUCT A SIGNAL: will move a signal (sometimes several feet) without diminish iv) TRANSMIT A SIGNAL: at the end of the neuron it must pass a signal to something (ex. muscles, gland or other neuron) v) MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS: do all the functions of a living cell ALL NEURONS HAVE 3 DISTINCT REGIONS i) DENDRITES: receive stimuli from the environment - process branch outwards from the cell body and cover larger regions

NOTE: always sends signals towards the cell body, therefore impulses can only move one way along the neuron. ii) CELL BODY: integration center and it receives all signals coming from dendrites - many dendrites feed into cell body therefore many signals often at once - cell body integrates and determines whether to produce an impulse (action potential) - cell body also contains the organelles for keeping the cell a live (homeostasis)

iii) AXON: carries an impulse (action potentials) from cell body towards a destination (gland, muscle, other neurons) - can be very long (up to 3 feet) - impulses will travel a long the axon without diminish - many neuron axons bundle together form nerve tissue - the axon ends at a axon BULB or SYNAPSE - axon bulbs contain proteins called NEUROTRANSMITTERS 3 BASIC TYPES OF NEURONS i) SENSORY NEURON: brings impulses inwards - detect environmental stimuli and bring message towards the brain ii) MOTOR-NEURONS: take the message outwards - from brain to tissues for response iii) INTERNEURONS: link impulses between neurons - Mechanism for an action potential (AP) (nerve impulses) - an AP is how a neuron conducts a signal - a nerve before an AP has a RESTING POTENTIAL - when measured with an oscilloscope the inner neuron has a -65 mV potential

A) REASON FOR THE RESTING POTENTIAL - its due to a difference ion distribution CHANNELS purple = potassium gates green = sodium gates (both closed at rest) PUMPS ( always working)

- a greater concentration of Na+ ions pumped to the outside of cell membrane - a high concentration of K+ pumped to the inside - because [Na+] is slightly greater it becomes slightly positive on the outside compared to inside - Na+ and K+ are constantly diffusing to the opposite side (equilibrium), but the pumps never stop and therefore even at rest maintain the potential B) ACTION POTENTIAL (AP) - a rapid change in charge or polarity across the axomembrane is an action potential - therefore all nerve activity in our body is nothing more then a change in electrical potential along neurons - a stimulus causes Na+ ions to diffuse into the membrane a little quicker, therefore -65mV becomes -60, ....., -55, ...., etc. - at -45mV (threshold) sodium gates open and Na+ ions rush into the axon - this will cause a rapid change in charge across the membrane - +40mV on the inside 1) stimulus causes axon to reach threshold to reach -45mV 2) Na+ gates open and Na+ rushes into the axon (depolarization) 3) at +40mV sodium gates close and K+ gates open therefore K+ rushes out of axon (-65mV) (re-polarization) * after re-polarization ion distributions on wrong side of membrane

- to redistribute ions (Na+ out) (K+ in) pumps never stop - once a sodium gate opens and closes it cannot open again until after the next sodium gate opens and closes = REFRACTING PERIOD - this ensures impulse only travels one way - the stronger the stimulus the shorter the refracting period therefore the size of a stimulus is indicated by frequency of action potentials not size (size is always the same) MYELIN: is a white insulating material (white material) composed of a neurologlia called SCHWANN CELLS that wraps around the axon -where ever there is myelin the AP will travel faster impulses because the AP jumps from Na+ and K+ gates to the next open (non-myelinated) Na+ and K+ -AP jumps to the NODES OF RANVIER (exposed gates) -node to node conduction of an action potential is called SALTATORY CONDUCTION

Action potential along a neuron

TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSE ACROSS SYNAPSE - the AP travels to the end of the axon (axon bulb) without diminish - at the end of it must transmit the signal to the next nerve, gland, or muscle - axon bulb does not actually make contact with next nerve, gland or muscle, but rather comes in close proximity = SYNAPSE KEY POINT: 1) 1000s of axons end at nerve cells (glands, muscle) *not just one as shown 2) a synapse is what we call the entic junction between axon bulb and dendrites 3) the region separating presynaptic membrane and post synaptic membrane is SYNAPTIC CLEFT 4) pre and post synaptic membrane have different structures PRE = vesicles with neurotransmitters POST = specic receptors for neurotransmitters STEPS OF TRANSMISSION ACROSS THE SYNAPSE 1) during depolarization of axon bulb as sodium ions rush inwards calcium ions rush inwards with them REASON: Ca+2 is found in high [] inside the synaptic cleft 2) Ca+2 combine with MICROFILAMENTS, which cause them to interact with the vesicles that carry the NEUROTRANSMITTERS - causes vesicles to be drawn towards the pre-synaptic membrane 3) exocytosis of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft NOTE: this is an active process therefore lots of ATP and MITOCHONDRIA in axon bulb 4) neurotransmitters then passingly diffuse across the cleft 5) neurotransmitters bind to specic protein receptor sites on the post synaptic membrane 6) what happens at post synaptic membrane is dependent on type of cell (nerve, gland, muscle) and type of neurotransmitter a) NERVE CELL: excitatory neurotransmitter cause the next neuron to re (AP) - NOREPINEPHRINE - inhibitory neurotransmitter which inhibit an AP at next neuron

- ACETYLCHOLINE b) MUSCLE: NOREPINEPHRINE = contraction ACETYLCHOLINE = relax c) GLAND: NOREPINEPHRINE = gland to secrete hormones ACETYLCHOLINE = inhibits gland from secreting hormones 7) receptors on post synaptic membrane release neurotransmitters back into the cleft - here most are broken down by enzymes (important to prevent perpetual ring or inhibition) ENZYMES: NOREPINEPHRINE is destroyed by an enzyme = MONOAMINE OXIDASE - ACETYLCHOLINE is destroyed by ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE 8) Ca+2 ions are actually returned to cleft (active transport) *DRUGS: often somehow effect the transmission of neurotransmitters ex. STIMULANTS- increase neurotransmitters DOWNERS- inhibiting neurotransmitters SUMMATION AT RECEIVING END - dendrites are on the receiving end of many synapse - there may be both EXCITATORY and INHIBITORY effects from neurotransmitters on a single synapse - therefore the cell body must have a summative effect on all incoming signals NORMAL NERVE AP PATHWAY - impulses travel inwards via SENSORY NERVES, which enter spinal cord on the DORSAL SIDE - impulse travels to brain on outside of spinal cord (white matter) where its interpreted for a response - response impulse sent back down spinal cord to MOTOR NERVES, which exit from the VENTRAL SIDE

REFLEX RESPONSE - an involuntary automatic response to a stimulus - no choice - response can be innate, a twitch or pull away from the stimulus - a reex can be conditioned (trained for a specic response) - during a reex many internment are stimulated at once - therefore there may be multiple responses - jump back - look towards - scream - lift arms in defense REFLEX PATHWAY

HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM - divide into 2 parts i) Central nervous system (CPS) ii) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) 1) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - consists of brain and spinal cord - *protected in 3 ways i) BONY ARMOR: brian is enclosed in a skull - spinal cord is surrounded by vertebrae

ii) MENINGES: 3 layers of protective membrane - under or lining all bone and all CNS iii) CEREBRAL SPINAL FLUID: liquid that lls all empty spaces in and around our central nervous system (CNS) - ventricles in brain - central spinal canal - between meninges and spinal cord SPINAL CORD: has 2 functions i) acts as the interpretation center for the reex action ii)provides a communication link between the brain and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) - any damage or cuts to spinal cord will end communication between incoming and outgoing messages (paraplegia and quadriplegia) NOTE: remember all sensory nerves enter a spinal cord on dorsal side and motor nerves exit on ventral side BRAIN: controls the conscious and subconscious thoughts and body systems CONSCIOUS THOUGHT (CONTROL): largest portion of the brain and is called the CEREBRUM RESPONSIBLE: for higher thought processes " - memory - learning - language - speech - the outer part of cerebrum is composed of un-myelinated tissue (grey matter) - is called CEREBRAL CORTEX - inner layer is myelinated ofter referred to as CEREBRAL MEDULLA - cerebral is divided into 2 halves: i) RIGHT CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE (controls creative side) ii) LEFT CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE (verbal/logical side) - each hemisphere is divided into surface lobes 1) FRONTAL LOBE: touch, temperature, pressure, pain (skin) 2) TEMPORAL LOBE: hearing, smells, visual, auditory memory 3) OCCIPITAL LOBE: vision * 2 hemispheres are connected by a large chunk of myelinated tissue called CORPUS COLLASUM

SUBCONSCIOUS BRAIN PARTS AND CONTROL: 4 major regions 1)MEDULLA OBLONGATA: brain stem (the most upper part of spinal cord) -controls most of internal organs and regulates heart rate, breathing, lungs, blood pressure, digestion -reex center: vomiting, coughing, sneezing, swallowing 2)HYPOTHALAMUS: links to internal balance (homeostasis) -hunger, thirst, sleep, body temp (regulations), water balance -also controls PITUITARY GLAND serves as the link between the nervous system and the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM = chemical trigger 3)THALAMUS: gate keeper of the brain (acts as a relay station to direct incoming signals) -----> directs to CEREBRUM voluntary 4)CEREBELLUM: muscle co-ordinates, tone, and body posture (physical co-ordination) balance -integrates signals with frontal lobe (cerebrum, voluntary)(specic skill) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - all nerves that connect to the spinal cord make-up PNS (all motor and sensory nerves)

PERIPHERAL NERVES: include i) SENSORY NERVES: carry messages towards the CNS ----> process long dendrites (for picking up stimuli) ii) MOTOR NERVES: carry messages away from CNS - tend to have longer axons - *PNS also contains GANGLIA (ganglion) ------> collection of cell bodies PNS: is divided into somatic NS (SNS) and automatic NS (ANS) SOMATIC: motor nerves that control our voluntary actions EX. running; therefore somatic motor nerves synapse with our skeletal muscles and skin NOTE: same node that triggers reex action AUTOMATIC: (ANS) the nerves that synapse with our involuntary organs (glands, liver, heart, digestive system, kidneys, etc.) - part of brain sending signals to tissue nerves = hypothalamus and or medulla oblongata - ANS can further be divided into: i) sympathetic ii) parasympathetic - 2 different types of MOTOR NERVES that attach to the same region SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC i) function automatically and use subconscious parts of brain to trigger them ii) both synapse with all our internal organs iii) both utilize 2 motor neurons (have ganglia) in each impulse

SYMPATHETIC NS (ght or ight response) - important during stress or emergency type situations

- cause an increase in heart rate, breathing, dilation pupils, and increase in kidney activity *decrease in digestion -neurotransmitter released = Norepinephrine -the ganglia are close to the spinal cord - therefore a shorter pre-ganglionic ber and a longer post ganglionic ber - sympathetic motor neurons tend to originate from our thoracic/lumbar regions of spinal cord PARASYMPATHETIC NS: house keeper or relaxed nerves - promotes decrease hear and rate, breathing, gland activity, pupil concentration - * increase digestion - neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach) - pre-ganglionic ber tends to be longer and post ganglionic ber shorter, therefore the ganglia are found close to the organs they synapse with -nerves tend to originate from the CRANIAL and SACRAL regions of spinal cord NEUROENDOCRINE: there is a denite link between the NS and endocrine system *ENDOCRINE GLAND: ductless glands that dump hormones directly into blood EX. ght or ight response -during emergency NOREPINEPHRINE: (AKA noradrenalin) are released by the sympathetic NS -our sympathetic NS stimulates the ADRENAL MEDULLA (inner adrenal gland = on top of kidneys - the adrenal medulla in return releases the hormone epinephrine (AKA adrenalin), which continues ght or ight response increase heart rate, increase breathing, etc. HYPOTHALAMUS(neurological) AND PITUITARY(endocrine) GLAND RELATIONSHIP - hypothalamus (brain) controls the activity of the pituitary gland (endocrine) - some of the control is by AP - some of the control is by hormones - pituitary gland lies below the hypothalamus and is approx. 1cm in diameter

Its divided into: 1) POSTERIOR PITUITARY 2) ANTERIOR PITUITARY POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES: - hypothalamus produces hormones ADH(antidiuretic hormone) and OXYTOCIN, which it then sends to the posterior pituitary for storage and release - when the hypothalamus receives the stimuli it produces an AP that triggers the release of these hormones ADH: used by the kidneys and causes water absorption OXYTOCIN: causes uterine contractions ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES: - hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary by hormone release - hypothalamus releasing hormones - hypothalamus inhibiting hormones - these releasing and inhibiting hormones are released into the blood by the hypothalamus (portal system) and make their way to the anterior pituitary - 6 different hormones to be released or inhibited i) *TSH ( thyroid releasing hormone) ---> thyroid gland = increase MBR ii) ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) ----> adrenal cortex ---> glucose uptake iii) *FSH and LH (follicle stimulating hormone and leutinizing hormone) ---> testes and ovaries iv)PRL ( prolactin) mammary glands = milk production v)MSH (melanocyte stimulating hormone) ---> skin tone vi)GH (growth hormone) ----> triggers long bone and skeletal muscle growth

IMPORTANT DIAGRAMS