300

Lasers

If we examine the simple model shown in Fig. 12.9, the total number of electrons in the active region is N" lwd, where N", as usual, denotes the density ofelectrons. The rate ofchange olthe number ofelectrons, due to spontaneous recombination, is l/. lu;df t,"r, and this loss should be replenished by injection
of electrons, that is the number required is (lile)q, where 1i is the injected current and 4, the quantum efhciency, is the fraction of iajected eleckons
which recombine radiatively, leading to the formula NrLutd

-d

/r".
Fig.'t2.9
Schematic representation of a laser diode.

_ Ii\
e

( 12.35)

Recognizing now that the recombination time

in the above equation

corresponds to froo,1 discussed before, we may now use eqn ( I 2.3 1 ) to find the amplification of the optical 'uvave. For simplicify, we may take the population of the lower level as zero. and obtain

YIrt- B-,;rr;rrtl'

cl s{t,)n

(l2 j6t

For laser oscillations w'e need the loop gain to be unity. When both mirrors have the same reflectivirv. the condition of oscillation is
R

exp(y

- o)/ : l.

(t2.31)

whence the threshold current densirv is

-l4l ",t ! : j ,,n) lu' r'-t.g(l') 1\

(r

r.38)

* We are concerned here with power. R is

by squaring the amplitude reflection coefficient given by

obtained
eqn(10 17).

As we have said betbre cv represents the losses in the material. But are there any losses at all? The optical \\'ave propagating in the actit'e region will surely grow and not decay. True, but there is no reason why the optical wave should be confined to the active region. A weli calculated piunge (one we shail not take here) into the mysteries of electromagnetic theory would show that a not inconsiderable portion ofthe electric field propagates outside the active region' where there is no population inversion. The losses there are mainly caused by the so called free-carrier absorption, which comes about by electrons and holes excited to higher energies within their own bands. What is the value of R? In the simplest laser diode the mirror consists of the cleaved end of the semiconductor crystal, that is one relies on the difference in refractive index between semiconductor and air. A fypical* refractive index is 3.35, which yields for the reflection coefficient, R : 0.292. For a practical case (see example 12. 10) the threshold current comes to a value of about 820 A cm-:. This is quite a large value. Can we reduce it by some clever trick? Yes, rve can, and the trick is to use a heterojunction instead of a homojunction. A schematic drawing of the device is shown in Fig. 12.10. What is the role of the various layers? The insulating SiO2 layers are there in order to steer the current toward the middle of the device and thus increase the current density. The heavily doped GaAs layers next to the metal electrodes are there to provide ohmic contacts. The p-type and n-type AlGaAs layers serve to provide the 5n junction, and then we come to the star of the show, the thin