Microscopic theory

as at D. Thus, the distribution of the magnetic field at C depends on the path we have chosen. If we go via B, the magnetic field is expelled; if we go via D, the magnetic field is the same inside as outside. The conclusion is that for a perfect conductor (meaning a material with no resistance) the final state depends on the path chosen. This is quite an acceptable conclusion; there are manv physical pheno'mena exhibiting this properfy. What is interesting is that superconductors do nol behave in this expected manner. A superconductor cooled in a constant magnetic field will set up its own current and expel the magnetic field when the critical temperafure is reached. The discovery of this effect by Meissner in 1933 showed superconductivity in a new light. It became clear that superconductivity is a nerv kind of phenomenon that does not obey the rules of ciassical electrodynamics.

365

14.3 Microscopic theory

The microscopic theory is well beyond thc scopc

of an engineerins

undergraduate course and, indeed, beyond the grasp ofpractically anyone. It is parl of quanfum field theory and has something to do rvith Green's functions and has more than its fair share of various operators. We shall not say much about this theory but lve should just like to indicate',i'hat is involved. The fundamental tenet of the theory is that superconductivitr, is caused by a second-order interaction between electrons and the vibratins lattice. This is rather strange. Alter all, u,e do knou' that thermal vibrations are responsible fbr the presence ofrcsistance and not for its absence.-fhis is true in seneral: the higher the temperature the larger the electrical resistance. Belorv a certain temperature. hou'ever. and for a select group of material.'s. the lattice interaction

plays a different role. It is a sort of intermediarv betueen tuo appropriatelv placed electrons. It results in an apparent attractive force betu.'een the nvo electrons- an attractive force larger than the repulsive fbrce. orving to the Coulomb interaction. Hence, the elecffon changes its character. It stops obeying Fermi-Dirac statistics. and any number of electrons (or more correctly any number of electron pairs) can be in the same state. Besides the atom laser (Section 12.14) this is another example of a Bose Einstein condensation. Do rve have any direct experimental evidence that superconductir itv is caused by electron-lattice inferaction? Yes. the so-called isotope effect. The critical temperature of a superconductor depends on the total rnass of the nucleus. If rve add a neutron (that is, use an isotope of the material) the critical
temperature decreases. A simple explanation of the interaction belween two electrons and thc lattice is shown in Fig. 14.6(a). The hrst electron rnoving to the right causes the positive lattice ions to move inrvards, which tlien attract the second electron. Hence, there is an indirect attraction between the trvo electrons.

i-attice distonion

Electron

C\@G \1f
Spins flip

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Spin-wave (h)

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Are there any other kind of interactions resulting in superconductivity'l Nobody knorvs for certain, but it mair bc rvorlhu'hile to describe briefly one of the mechanisms proposed for explaining the behavrour of the recentlv discovered oxide superconductors. It is electron attraction niediated by spin
\4,aves.

Fig. 14.6
lnteractions leading to Bose Einstein
condensation (a) behveen the lattice and electrons. {h) betr.ieen spin wares and electrons.

As may be seen in Fig. 14.6(b), an electron rvith a certain spin disrupts the spin olan ion, which causes the spin of its neighbouring ion to f1ip, which then attracts a second electron ofopposite spin. It has been suggested recently