Available online a t www.sciencedir~.

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H u m Rpswrce Management Review I 6 (2006) 2 19 -228

Developing global leaders

Paula Caligiuri *
Rutgers Universiv, Department o f Human Remuwe Management. 94 Ra=h$eIler Rwd, 216 Janice Lwin Buikting, hear-. Net+ Jmq 08854, USA

With respect to global leadership development, this article suggesls that managers differentially benefit f r o m a given inrercultuml training or developmental experience - depending on their individual aptitudes (i.e., knowledge, skills, abilities, and other personality characteristics). The main premise of this article is that offering the right people (those with h e requisite individual aptitudes) the right developmental opportunities will pmduce lcadm who can effectively perform globel leadwhip
tasks and activities.

O 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights resewed. K + .

Global l e a d d i p ; Leadership development: lnrcrcultural training

Today's global economy has cmted a mre complex and dynamic environment in which most firms must learn to compete effectively to achieve sustainable growth. With the inception intmet-bd business, ms-border bade agreements, the ease of international travel, and the like, domestic f m with solely domestic operations sening exclusively domestic client bases arr becoming inmasingly more difficult to fwd. Firms, both large and small, have increased their number of their foreign suppliers, partners, employees, shareholders and customers. The path to globalization had once been through predictable stages, today, however. many companies are h m global (Evans, Pucik, & Barsoux. 2002). This global environment has not only changed the competitive landscape of business, it has also changed the way in which leaders must conduct business and the competencies leaders need to be successful. Global leaders, defined as executives who are in jobs with some international scope (Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahoney, 1997), must effectively manage through the complex, changing, and often ambiguous global environment martlea & Ghoshal, 1992; Caligiuri & DiSanto, 2001; McCall, 1998). Global leaders expand business into foreign markefs, conceive strategies on a global basis, manage and motivate geographically dispersed and diverse learns and the like (Bafilett & Ghoshal, 1992; McCall, Lombardo, & Morrison, 1988). Given the strategic importance of their tasks, successful global leadm are a
competitive advantage for multinational firms. Swh and Caligiuri (1998a) found that developing leadership cross-cultural competence was among the top 5 organization-wide practices affecting the effectiveness of multinational corporations. The results of their study suggest a positive relationship between firms' bottom line financial success and their ability to suocessfully develop global leadership competencies. To remain competitive companies must continually develop their leaders to be successful in
Tel.: + I 732 445 5228. E-mail address: caligiun@smlr.rutgr~~.edu.
105348226 - see froni marter C la06 doi: 10. ~016/j.hrmr.2006.03.M)9

Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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global tasks and activities (Adler & Bartholomew, 1992; Stmh & Caligiuri, 1998kb). Given the importance ofeffktive global leadership, research examining ways to develop global leaders has received much attention from academics and practitionm alike. Much of the research focus on global leaders has been i n the areas of international assignment or expawiate assignment management. Given the cross-national context of expatriate assignments.there is some overlap with global leadership activities. Expatriates, however, are not the only people within muItinatiwa1 organizations who must effectivelyperform global leademhip activities, as thm are many global leadership activities which require international business savvy without living internationally. Sometimes located domestically, global l&mhip activities require international business knowledge, cross-national skills, and the the. This article a m m p t s to expand the definition of global leadership beyond what we h o w about expatriate assig?ment management. Using this broader definition of global leaders, this article discusses the methods for developing global leadm who are able to successfully complete global leadership activities. The goal of t i i s article is to provide an overview of methods for the training and development of global leaders based on a workersriented job analytic approach (Sandberg, 2 0 . This approach suggests hat a certain set of knowledge, skills, abilities and personality characteristics arc present in those who paform a given job well. This suggem that successful glohl laden are likely to pmsess some common knowledge, skills, abilities and other paonality charactaistics (KSAOs). With respect to global leadership development specifically, this article will also apply the aptitude-treamentinteraction approach (Snow, 1991) suggesting that people will differentially benefit from a given dwelopmentd experience depending on their individual aptitudes (e.g., knowledge, skills, abilitia, personality chamaeristics). The main premise of this article is tbat offering the right peopde (those with the requisite KSAOs) the righl d ~ l o p m e n t u l opportunitim will produce leaders who can effectively perform global Imdership m b and activities. From a worker-orientedjob analytic approach, it is important to identify the underlying KSAOs based on thejob tasb or activities common among - and unique to global leaders. Once these global leadership tasks or activities am identified using a job analytic approach, the howledge. skills, abilitim and personality characteristicsrequid to conducr these tasks or activities effectively can be identified. These individual-level amibuks are furher sorted on d x basis of their lwel of mutability - h m those m o s t easily developed (e.g., knowledge) to those most difficult to change (e.g., personality characteristics). Based on thls approach, the methods for training and developing global leaders are discussed.

I. The tasks of global leaden

As a part of a working group on global leadership, global leadership activities were identified through a series of focus group meetings and surveys of leaders from Eumptm and Nonh American h. The following ten tasks or activities were found to be common among - and unique to - those in global leadership positions (Caligiuri, 2004).
I

1. Global leaders work with colleagues f r o m other counnies. 2. Global leaden interact witb external clients h m other countries. 3. Global leaders intaacl w i t h internal clients from other countries. 4. Global leaders may need to speak in a language other than their mother tongue at work. 5. Global leaders supervise employees who are of different nationalities. 6. Global leaders develop a strategic business plan on a worldwide basis for their unit. 7. Global leaders manage a budget on a worldwide basis for their unit. 8 . Global Ieaders negotiate in other countries or with peopIe from other countries. 9. Global leaders manage foreign suppliers or vendors. 10. Global leaders manage risk on a worldwide basis for their unit.This paper examines the aforementioned global leadership tasks for their underlying knowledge. skills, abilities, and personality characteristics to propose a theory of performance for global leadership. This analysis provides the basis for a targeted global leadership training and development

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This p a w proposes the prrdiclm of effstiveness on global leadership activities w r a s h raher than competencies. T&h are behavioudly bared activities. Competmies, on the other hand, are the evalunted intersmions bhueen tht tndividd (and his w her skills and abiiities) in the context o f the job (Sandberg, 2000). While the mnccphl distinction between lhese tasks and campettncim may scrm to be splitting hairs, h z difference betwecn ahem is imponant to ultimately deermine what amibutes a n be developed and what cannot be developed in global leaders.

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2. Knowledge, skills, abilities, and personality characteristim weeded to accomplish the tasks of global leaders

Based on the list of global leadership tasks or activities, some of the underlying knowledge, skills, abilities, and personality characteristics (KSAOs)necessary for successful performance of these tasks ere listed. The goal of this section is to better understand how KSAOs are related to global leadership tasks and the extent to which the KSAOs are mutable. B y understanding both the KSAOs and their mutability, the theory for developing global leaders is proposed. 2. I. Knowledge

Knowledge is a set of facts or pieces of information related to a given content-domain. Knowledge can be general or topic-specific and can be basic or advanced (Landy & Conte, 2004). Among the KSAOs, knowledge is the most mutable md therefore more likely to be gained through didactic mining and traditional developmental opportunities. 2 Some of the knowledge domains proposed to be related to global leadership inchde:
Culturegeneral Knowledge. Culture general knowledge is defined as knowledge of the societal-level values and norms on which most cultures vary (sorne examples include Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 1994; Hostede, 1980; Kluckhohn & Strodtkk, 1961). Culture-level knowledge is rooted in antlmpology. From an ' ... anthropologicalview, the deepest level o f culture will be the cognitive in that the perceptions, language, and thought processes that a group comes to share will be the ultimate causal determinant of feelings, attitudes, espoused values, and overt behavior" (Schein, 1990 p. I 11). To determine the culture of a society (based on these dimensions), anthropologists study the overt manifestations, such as values, rites, rituals, symbols, stories, etc., of a society (Hostede, 1991). The extent of understanding of how culdiffer is the level of one's culturegeneral knowledge. Culture-spec& knowledge. Culture-specific kndwledge includes the understanding one has of a given country's values, norms, beliefs, rites, rituals and behaviors. Cross-national comparisons assume that individuals within one culture will have values more similar to one another than have individuals between culfures (Harris & Moran, 1991; Hofstede, 1980; Schein, 1985). The extent of understanding of a given counhy's culture is the level of one's culture-

specific knowledge. International burinas knowledge. International business knowledge is the topic-specific knowledge related to conducting business globally. Topics may be position-specific and may include topics such as international finance, intmnational law, comparative labour relations, and the like. The extent of one's expertise in international business is the level of one's international business knowledge.
2.2. Sblls and abilities
h d y and Conte (2004, p. 109)define skills as "practiced acts." SRiILs are mutable as they can increase over time to the Itnits of o n e ' s nature ability, intelligence, or personality. The seminal work on basic individual abilities was conducted by Edwin Fleishman and his co~ea~ues, Fleishman & Reilly, 1W2). Lndividuals may be limited in heir capacity to change the extent to which they possess a given abiliv. For example. despite the k t that I go to the gym regularly and lift weights I still perform lifting tasks poorly b u s e I have relatively little naturaI upper body strength. My ability, in this personal example, is limited by my natural physique. Abilities are mutable (through training, development, patice, etc.) but may be limited by individuals' natural limits. Some o f the categories of abilities include reasoning ability, verbal ability, and cognitive ability. Three examples of skills and abilities proposed to underlie individuals' success on global leadership activities are listed below.

(em$,

Intemtltuml Interaction Skills. Skills such as foreign negotiating skilb or cross-nations1 conflict resolution comprise intercultural interaction skills. skills can improve over time as one learns the way in which cultural nuances affect their interactions with people from different cultures. For example, one can improve his or, her skiH at negotiating in Japan. One's skill to negotiate in Japan, however, may be limited or enhanbd by one's knowledge of the Japanese language and one's personality characteristic of agreeableness. In this w e , a skill - Japanese negotiation - is limited by, knowledge (Japanese language) and personality (agreeableness).

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Foreign Language SkiIIs. Skill in a given foreign language can increase to some level of fluency with l h c h (for some much more practice than others) but may be limited by abilities such as hearing sensitivity, speech recognition, and memory. Given that fluency takes practice, personality characteristics may also affect fluency -conscientious and introverted people perhaps being less willing to publicly niake mistakes (which is inevitable when learning a new language). Over time language skill can ranah basic (an individual can say a few polite niceties) or become highly-advanced (the individual is believed t o be a native-language speaker with correct pronunciatim, perfect grammatical structure, unaccented, etc.). Cognitive Abiliw. H u n t e r ,Schmidt and colleagues (e.g, Hunter & Hunter, 1984; Schmidt, Hunter, & Outmbridge, 1986) contend that the most important predictor of job ,performance is cognitive ability across d 1 positions, regardless of level or organizational context. M a n y of the global leadership tasks require a more advanced level of cognitive ability given the complexity of managing the demands of multiple cultures while completing managerid tasks. It has been suggested that to be effective ,globally, individuab must possess cognitive complexity and intuitive percepiud acuity to accurately peaive and interpret behaviors across multiple cultural contexts (Csligiuri, Jambs, & Farr, 2000; Dinges, 1983; Finney & Von Glinow, 1988; Ones & Viswesvaran,
1997).

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Personality c ~ e r i s t i c s predispose humans to behave i n certain ways, given particular situations, to accomplish certain go&, etc. (e.g., Buss, 1989; Costa & McCrae, 1992). Whib many personality cha.mc~ti.cs exist, research has found that five factors provide a useful typo10gy or taxonomy for chssifying them (Digman. 1990;Gold1992, 1993; M c C m & Costa, 1987, 1989; McCrae & John, 1992). These five factors have been found repeatedly through factor analyses and cwfhnatory factor analyses across, time, contexts, and cultures (Bus, 1991;Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1992, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987, 1997; McCrae & John, 1992) and are labeled "the Big Five." The Big Five personality factow are: (1) extrovmion, (2) agreeableness, (3) conscientiousness, (4) emotional stability, and (5) openness or intellect. Each af the Big Five personality characteristics has some relationship to success of people who live and work internationh~~ (Caligiuri, 2000a;b; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997, 1999) and are likely to underlie, to some extent, the ability to successfully complete some of the global leadership
tasks.

2.3.1. iWm-on Many of the global leadership tasks have a social component (e.g., working with colleagues from other countries, supervising employees who are of different nationalities). Extroverts have a greater natural ease with social demands and may be more will to put forth the effort necessary to interact effectively with people from different countries.
2.3.2. Agreeabienas The ability to form reciprocal social alliances is achieved through the p m a l i t y characteristic of agreeableness ( B w 1991). Leaders who are more agreeable (i.e., deal with conflict collaboratively, strive for m u t u a l understanding, and are less competitive) report greater cross-cultural adjusment (Black, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000aJ3; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1W7;Tag, 1981) and are likely to have greater success on global leadership tasks involving collaboration (e.g., working with colleagues f r o m other counfries).

2.3.3. Conscientiousnas Individuals who are conscientious demonstrate greater effort and task commitment. Given the higher level of complexity, globd leadership tasks (e.g., managing foreign suppliers or vendors) will likely require more effort than comparable tasks i n the domestic context (e.g., managing domestically-based suppliers or vendors).
2.3.4. Emotional stabilily Emotional stability is a universal adaptive mechanism enabling humans to cope with s t m s in their environment (Buss, 1991). Given that stress is often associated with leadership in ambiguous and unfamiliar environment emotional stability is an important personality characteristic.

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2.3.5. Openness or intellect For a global leader, the ability to correctly assess the social environment is more complicated given that the global context provides ambiguous or uninterpretable social cues (Caligiuri & Day, 2000). Individuals with greater openness will have fewer rigid views ofright and wrong, appropriate and inappropriate,etc. and are more likely to be accepting of diverse culhres (e.g., Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1990; Cui & van den Berg, 1991; Hammer, Gudykuns!, & Wiseman, 1978).
3. Training and developing global leaders

Assuming the requisite immutable attributes ate present, training and developmen~interventions can improve individuals' effectiveness on global leadership tasks.Training tends to be individually-focused with a present (or nearfuture) t i m e h e and rends to be oriented towards solving short-term performance concerns. Development has broader organizational focus with a future-oriented time Frame. Training also addresses particular deficiencies in individuals, develops specific competencies, focuses on more tangible aspects of improving performance, Development, on the other hand. tends to be broader and linked to improving the organizational competence to fulfill a strategic need in the future. Knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform the activities of global leaders can be developed through mining and development interventions such as formal education, individualized coaching1 mentoring, immersion programs, and developmental assignments (Caligiuri, Lazarova, & Tarique, 2005). These mining and development interventions can be sorted into three broad categories: didactic learning programs, experiential opportunities, and intensive experienca. Each will be briefly reviewed in the following sections.

3.1. Didactic learning programs

Didactic learning opportunities for improving KSAOs related to global leadership tasks include cross-cultural training, diversity training, and language mining (Caligiuri & T a r i q u e ,2006). Culture-specific cross-cultural training can help improve individuals behave in a more culnrrally appropriate manner and help managers identify suitable ways of performing heir tasks with people From a given culture or in a given country (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Kealy & Protheroe, 1996). General mssculrural mining may help indiv iduds develop methods coping with the uncenainty when working with people frum different cultures or in foreign countries (Early, t987) and may help individuals form realistic expectations for their cross-national interactions and experiences (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Black, Menderrhall, 8c Oddou, 1991; Caligiuri, Phillips. Lazarova, Tarique, & Burgi, 2001). Diversity training should improve the tasks involving intercultural interaction as it is designed to help employees successhlly work with a diverse workforce (e.g., subordinates, vendors, co-workers) within the f i r m (NM, 2004). Like crosscultural mining, diversity mining can help individuals become m o r e aware of group based differences and of negative stereotyping and prejudice (Cox, 1993; Ferdman & Broady. 1996). Foreign language mining complements both cross cultural training and diversity mining in that it provides employees with language skills that are needed to communicate with c ~ w o r k e r s and individuals in other countries. Formal educational programs provide employees with foundational knowledge on oftentimes more tangible topics such as international finance, project management software, cultural dimensions, and language training. Formal educarional programs include self-study courses offered electronically or in the traditional paper and pencil distance education format, off-site courses offered by academic institutions, in-house or on-site company seminars offered by subject matter experts, and company-sponsored management development programs (Gupta & Govindarajan, 2002; Noe, 2004).
3.2. Experiential opportunifies

F o r the softer skills associated with global leadership tasks or to improve skiIls and abilities, difficult to change through solely didactic learning opportunities, organization use experiential opportunities. such as individualized coaching, mentoring, and immersion programs. These programs are tailored to the individuals' strengths and developmental needs for global leadership tasks and often provide greater opportunities for contact with individuals horn different cou~tries. Some firms offer immersion programs in foreign cultures to help individuals gain cultural sensitivity and culh~ral knowtedge. These programs aim to provide employees with an extensive understanding of the local culture and invofve

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sending them to live in communities in foreign countries where they have to extensively interact with indjviduals fiom the local culture, Immersion programs are also used to improve individuals' foreign language skills. These experiential interventions tend to be very effective for improving skills and abilities, but also tend to be labor, cost, and time intensive (Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984; Harrison, 1992).
3.3. Inlensive cultural experienca

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The last category is the intensive culrural experiences that individuals often experience while living and working in another country. In firms, these culturally intensive experiences are often formally called "rotational programs" with the stated purpose of global leadership development. These programs are designed to give high potential individuals exposure to working in one or more foreign countries. It is trpical for individuals on these programs to spend between 1 and 2 years in a foreign country before moving to the next location. These rotational programs are generally offered early in managers careers with the hope that the participants in this grogram will gain the howledge, skills, and abilities necessary to successfulIy manage and lead anywhere in the world (Caligiuri & DiSanto, 200 1). Rotational assigneesreport that they develop an appreciation for new things, become cu1turally sensitive, and learn to respect the values and customs different than their own (Osland, 1995). Many also report to have developed valuable skills through their international experience (Tung,1998) and that these newly developed skills greatly enhance heir expertise both in the domestic and the international context (Adler, 198 1, 200 1; Baughn, 1995; Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992;Napier & Peterson, 199I). The ability for professionals to understand the extent to which their skills and abilities are culturally-bound is one of the most powerful lessons learned on global assignments (Caligiuri & DjSanto, 200 1). There is a cautionary note to using international assignments for developmental purposes. It is well-documented that those who return f r o m stints internationally (i.e., repatriates) describe their global assignments as career enhancing because of the knowledge, skills, and abilities gained (Tung,1998). However, organizations often undmtilize the newly developed knowledge, skills, and abilities. Many organizations do not plan for repatriates' return assign them to jobs that are available, without regard to the individmls' e n h a n d abilities (Baughn, 1995; Harvey, 1982, 1989; Lazarova & Caligiuri, 2001). Studies have found that repatriates perceive their new jobs at home as lacking in autonomy, authority, and significance, compared to their global assignments (Black et al., 1992; Gomez-Meijia & Balkin, 1987; H a r v e y ,1982, 1989). The very set of skills and abilities the organization is trying to develop in its futum leaders is often lost due to poor human talent planning. Developmental intmational assignments should be c a m 4 out within the context of a broader managerial development program.
4. Interacting influence of KSAOs on the effectiveness of global leadership development initiatives

The aptitude x treatment intmction theory suggests that individual attributes will interact with instructional methods or developmental interventions differently. Based on the level an individual has of a given attribute, he or she will respond differentially to the insmctional method, treatment, or intervention (Snow, 1991). Personality traits, for example, are related to learning outcomes from training programs (e.g., Barrick & Mount, 1991; Colquitt & Simmmng, 1998; Fleishman & Mumford, 1989; Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001). Barrick and Mount (1991) found that the personality traits of conscientiousness, exhaversion, and openness were related to training proficiency and Salgado's (1997) meta-analysis found that the personality miis of openness and agreeableness predicted training proficiency. In these studies, possessing certain personality cheracteristics was related to in increase in knowledge, skills and abilities. In the global leadership development context, individuals' KSAOs can affect the extent to which a training or development experience is effective. For example, if a p e r m with a gmd memory and a person with a poor memory both take an international business course, the person with the better memory would be able to recall more infomation when presented with a global leadership task requiring the learned howledge covered in the course. It also follows that someone with knowledge of a given country's culture and fluency in the given country's national language would have the ability to develop more quickly in a given country compared to someone without knowledge of either the culture or the language. The person without the cultural knowledge or language fluency could, presurnabIy, gain both over time given the right developmental opportunities - but h e rate of change would be different. PersonaIity will also affect the outcome of developmental (as well as training) interventions. A smdy found that the personality characteristic of openness affects the amount of cross-cultural learning and cultural adjustment

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international assignees experience white on global assignments (Caligiuri, 2000a,b).This study found that the linear relationship between c o n a t with host nationals and cross-cultural adjustment is moderated by the personality characteristic of openness - and suggests that not all people benefit equally from developmental cross-culturai experiences. Other srudies found that those who work successfully internationally tend to share certain personality characteristics such as openness, sociability and emotional stability (Caligiuri 2000a,b). In this case, possessing a set of personality characteristics may be necessary for a person to experience the developmental benefits f r o m living and working internationally. These more immutable personality characteristics may be especially relevant for case when short-term or long-term international assignments are being used for the putpose of global leadership development. Personality characteristics predispose individuals t o be open and receptive to learning the norms of new cultures, to initiate contact with host nationals and gather cultural information, and to handle the high amounts of stress associated with the ambiguity of the host national environments. All are related to effectiveness on developmental global assignments (Black, 1990; Caligiuri 2000qb; Church, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997). Thus. personality ch&ractwistics can enhance (or limit) an individual's ability to be effective on the tasks of the assignment -and to reap (or not) the developmental benefits of having been given a developmental opportunity. While improving knowledge, skills, and abilities is a reasonable expectation far a developmental intervention altering personality characteristics is far less likely to occur. Caligiuri and DiSanto (2001) found that personality characteristics did not change as the result of a developmental international assignment, while knowledge and abilities did change. Given that certain personality characteristics may be necessary for global leadership development to occur and that personality characteristics are not likely going to change h m the typical training and deveiopment methods, it is important to select individuals for personality characteristics. Particularly in the case of developmental global assignments, given the exmiordinary high financial, relational, and emotional costs for (Black et al., 1992) their families (Caligiuri, Hyland, Joshi, & Bross 1998; G u m , Noonan, & Elron, 1994), and their organizations (Zeira & Banai 1985), understanding who will benefit the ,most from the assignment is especially important. Following f r o m this aptitude x treatment interaction theory, developmental interventions (or series of developmental interventions) should consider knowledge, skills, abilities, and personality characteristics necessary for individuals to succeed in and benefit from the intervention. Table 1 offers an illustration of the mutability of KSAOs relative to various training and development methods.
5. Practical recommendations for developing global leaders

When deciding who should perfom1 global leadership activities, organizations have a choice - to either select managers with the requisite KSAOs to effectively complete the tasks of global leaders or, to develop the needed
Table 1 KSAOs, their mumbiliry and w p l e dwelopmenal intmmtiom

KSAOs
Knowledgt

Lwel of mulabilin

Sample dwelopmental interventions

Didactic learning opportunities:

Pmiblt to dcvtlop and change

Bwk

Cmsscultural training courses

Diversity mining E-learning Language classes Skills and abllitits Difimlt t o develop and change Erperiential inrewention: Culhrral immersion propans Language immersion Coaching Mmmring Attending global meetings Working on global teams Pamnal!ty characteristics Very di fficulr t n develop and change Intenriw erpm'ence: hbYfIati0~1apsignmenrs Likhmging txperieficcs

Salient non-work cultural experience (e.g., marrying a person a d i h t culture)

KSAOs for improved performance over time. This decision is fundamentally whether to buy (assess and sqlect) or make (train and develop) the necessary lalent to effectively perform global leadership activities. This decision is often bound by time available and the criticality of the task at hand. As the strategic importance of the position increases and the time to effective performance decreases - the greater the firm's the reliance will be on selection (as opposed to development) for managers with the requisite KSAOs. This decision to "buy versus make" global leaders is complicated by two additional (and often ignored) factors discussed in this paper. The first factor is that some KSAOs for success on global leadership activities, such as personality charac~eristics and cognitive ability, are relatively inirnutable.When ignored, multinational companieswaste tremendous amounls of money attempting to develop underlying characteristics that will, in reality, take much longer t o develop than is practical for the business necessity (Caligiuri & DiSanto, 200 1). The more prudent recommendation for companies needing effective global leaders (in a relatively short amount of rime) is to assess available leaders on the requisite KSAOs and select accordingly. Even with the luxury of time. a second complicating factor remains - that some KSAOs are necessary for developmental opportunities to be effective. In a study examining the effectiveness of developmental international assignments, Caligiuri (2000b) found that the greatest development occurred when individuals had significant interpersonal contact with host nationals - however, that contact with host nationals was limited by individuals' affiliating characteristic of openness.Given the relatively immutable nature of personality characteristics, organizations should consider selection on the basis of personality as the precmor to leadership mining and development programs. Multinational organizations should identify those managers with the requisite personality chara&stics and offer them intemational training and development opportunities. It is helpful to have a baseline of KSAOs to better understand the extent to which they are being developed or improved, if at all. This could be a part of talent development and performance management. To truly evaluate the success of a global leadership development program, this is an important (yet often overlodced) step. Likewise, with much money, time, and energy on developing global leaders, it is important for firms to fully understand how they will use the enhanced KSAOs once developed. fhis is especially true for more intensive experiences such as expatriate assignments - where the greatest amount of development is likely to
occur.

To be truly strategic, organizations should have a plan for their managers' intended development and how newly developed KSAOs are needed within the organization. Performance management and succession planning are critical pieces to the overall success of a global leadership development and should not be overlooked once the initiatives are in place. Multinational firms roday need to integrate the entire global leadership development process (from selection lhrough career planning) into the global business goals of the organization. Given that effective performance of global leadership tasks are critical for multinational firms' future success, it is important for organizations to approach global leadership development f r o m this very strategic and comprehensive approach.
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