JAN CS2007 Communication History and Theories Ch1-13 Complete

CS2007 Communication History and Theories
CS2007
COMMUNICATION HISTORY AND THEORIES
jeremiah wong Module Chapters

01 The Nature of History; Ev Rogers, Wilbur Schramm, and the birth of an American discipline 02 Charles Darwin 03 Sigmund Freud 04 Karl Marx 05 The Chicago School Sociology and Communication 06 Harold Lasswell and Propaganda Analysis 07 Paul Lazarsfeld and Effects Research 08 Kurt Lewin and Group Dynamics 09 Carl Hovland and Persuasion Research 10 Norbert Weiner and Cybernetics 11 Claude Shannons Information Theory 12 Communication Study in the US and the World Today 13 Towards a Culture-centric Perspective of Communication
Module Objectives:
The course will examine the intellectual history of the study of communication (i.e., the evolution of ideas related to the field), and for the most part take a biographical approach to understanding the development of the discipline. We will review the life and times, as well as the thinking, of some of the forerunners and founders of the field of communication, highlighting important theoretical developments along the way, and identifying major themes, concepts, and ideas. The focus will be on the intellectual, institutional, and socio-political influences that helped to foster the emergence and shape the growth of the communication discipline in the twentieth century. In order to address some of the limitations of the text and to broaden the scope of the course, there will be a few guest lectures and additional readings (see below).
Course Assessment:
30% Midterm (27 Sep 2012) 8-9% Random Pop Quizzes 60%: Final Examination (27 Nov 2012) 1-2%: Class participation o Discussion Question Posting
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2012 JIROS AWESOME NOTES
01 The Nature of History 1.1 Wilbur Schramm & Founding of Comms Study
Being influenced by (pre-founding) social scientists like Paul Lazarsfeld, Hoverland, he brought together scholars from psychology, sociology and political science to form the new field of communication. Schramm: the founder of communication study, a central figure
WILBUR SCHRAMM 1907 1987, Marietta, Ohio Ba. History & Pol. Science (Marietta College) Ma. English Lit (Harvard) From Germany Father was a lawyer, legal practice suffered Had a stutter could not be a lawyer caused him to enter communications Confident man that overcame his stutter bit by bit Became a teacher at Iowa Left Harvard for Iowa cos he couldnt afford Harvards fees, Great Depression, stuttering At Iowas Schramm was studied by Wendall Johnson who saw stuttering as a communication problem
Iowa OWI/OFF Iowa Illinois
1. The founder of the field 2. First to identify himself as a comms scholar 3. First academic degree-granting program with Communication in their name 4. Trained the first gen of comm scholars 5. He authorized textbooks at Illinois to launch the field 6. At Iowa, he created the comms research scholarly work that lasts till today
1.2 A Post-Doc in Experimental Psychology

Schramm went into experimental research on speech behavior. He found Seashore who joined Iowa as an asst. prof in psychology with his own interests in music and scientific expertise scientific approach to schramms personal problem of stuttering Schramm learnt to think like a psychologist A risky move for Schramm to do psychology, but it shows his spirit. Very capable, self-confident.
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1.3 Iowa Writers Workshop

Schramm became director of the Iowa Writers Workshop, took over from Piper. Made the focus on the writing broader towards America. Gained fame for its excellence. Class size small, elite and intimate. Schramm took fiction writing to supplement his own salary. He mixed with Lewin, a psychologist from Berlin. Post-Doc fellowship with Seashore + informal association with Lewin allowed Schramm a basis for founding of scientific field of communication
1.4 World War II (& Schramm in OWI)

During the war, Washington had 3 agencies, among them is OWI (Office of War Information), where Schramm was in. WWII brought Europe scholars like Lewin, Lazarsfeld and Theordor Adorno, US scholars like Hovland and Lasswell together. Became an invisible college in Washington, D.C. to launch communication studies Critical to American population as it allows them to know about info related to food, gas and war news. To gather support for the war. Everything relied on comms. Bounded by a common enemy, most social scientists banded together into a network of relationships. A interdisciplinary approach focusing on communication problems conditions to found comm studies
1.5 World War II (& Schramm in OFF)

Office of Facts and Figures was created to boost public morale. But OFF had a bad rep, MacLeish, director of OFF. Schramm knew MacLeish from Iowa, volunteered as Educational Director From intellectual pursuits national decision maker
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OWIs budget got cut due to mistrust by govt. Spread white propaganda towards own people and black propaganda (false info) overseas against the enemies.
1.6 Schramms Vision of Comm Studies

He was influenced during days at OWI/OFF, by 2 dozen staff members & consultants. They decided what to be communicated and what not to be communicated to boost domestic morale. Purpose to communicate effectively to intended audience. Comm Research was born at the Library of Congress after 15 months at OFF/OWI. Schramm returned to Iowa with a vision to found a new field of comms study.
1.6 Iowa Program in Mass Comms Research

Schramm was appointed director of Sch of Journ in Iowa uni. Did not go back to Dept of English cos his interests were too broad Did not go back to the workshop cos he fell out with Foerster, head of the dept which takes care of the workshop Iowa wanted him. Schramm fitted his vision of comm studies into the Sch of Journ shaped how the field of comms will later become Journ split into mass and personal comm.
1.7 Schramms Departure to Illinois

Became director of Institute of Comm Rsh, assistant to the President of the Uni He moved because he knew Stoddard, the president of Illinois uni, who was the director of Iowa Child Research Station. Stoddard promised a doctoral program of comms in Illinois
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Also, Iowa uni could not afford Schramms proposed operating costs of $130,000 Schramm was replaced by Moeller who impressed him with question about role of journ is society. Schramm:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The founder of the field First to identify himself as a comms scholar First academic degree-granting program with Communication in their name Trained the first gen of comm scholars He authorized textbooks at Illinois to launch the field At Iowa, he created the comms research scholarly work that lasts till today
1.8 What is History?

Doing History involves:Critical analysis of Evidence Appreciation of Historical anachronism What they mean in a broader context Not just looking Ana (out of/ without), chronos (time) out of time A thing belonging or appropriate to a period other than that in which it exists, especially a thing that is conspicuously old-fashioned: the town is a throwback to medieval times, an anachronism that has survived the passing years. Offering a non-religious, non-meta physical reasoning / perspective to phenomena Unlike the animalistic system where everything is 'alive and has life in it Mystical, spiritual, religious explanations belong to theology Showing the connections, how one thing leads to another
Attribute causation to secular factors
Present evidence according to a pattern
1.9 Critiques of History

Hegemony: dominant leadership, a practice to maintain dominance History is a way to maintain power and control. It gives legitimacy to certain practices. Gives a reason why a group should be regarded higher then the other.
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Against History e.g. the white mans rule as stated in the Bible (an interpretation at that time) Getting control thru myths (e.g. North Koreas propaganda about KJLs glorious contributions to NK and their due allegiances) Hagiographies: studies of saints, writing of people with undue reverence some who is like a saint e.g. Ronald Reagon o A biography that is going too far, only looking at the good stuff and ignoring the bad stuff of a person o Assumes person in qsn is without fault. Whig History: everything in the past was leading to this moment, everything is moving in an evolutionary productive way, and the present is the pinnacle All truth is subjective, there is no objective truth
For History Historians can check and inspect the biases Intersubjectivity: We are all subjective, but our thinking largely overlaps, we have a shared understanding of many things The more the amount of shared belief among the people, the more true than it is not. There is a certain ambiguity, we have to live with it
1.10 Scientific Theories & Research

Scientific theories need: Science focuses on the secular, staying within the natural world. Need to be testable and falsifiable (able to prove it wrong) Need to be either true OR false (e.g. afterlife is not a theory cos it cannot be tested) The probabilistic nature of things using cumulative evidence (repeated testing)
Theories all have different levels of analyses. Social theories are about people, but people exist in different ways:Micro-Individual level Intra-Individual Inter-Individual e.g. a doctor studying your patients samples Freud Focused on the unconscious mind e.g. looking into 2 minds Small group Group dynamics Macro-social level Organizational Macro-social / cultural Consensus Large social building groups
Hovland
Kurt Lewin
Weiner
Marx Darwin Laz Lass
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02 Charles Darwin & European Comms Origins 2.1 European Beginnings of Comms Study
Darwin, Freud and Marx were all Europeans. Big 3 intellectuals of the 19th C:European Thinkers From Violated social norms Darwin (Darwinian Evolution) England Claimed humans came from apes Freud (Psychoanalytical) Austria Theorized boys regarded their dads as rivals for sexual attention Books burned by Hitler Palo Alto school; Lasswell; Hovland Marx (Marxism) Germany Had a revolutionary political view
Paid dearly for it
Used by
Rage from religious leaders; debates continue till today Chicago school A gentleman
Exiled
Frankfurt School Working poor
All impacted the beginning of social sciences in US. Affected the CS in US after 1900.
2.2 The European Renaissance, 14501600

Renaissance: a period of accelerated discovery and exploration. After Rome fell, Europe was in bad times. Knowledge by Greek thinkers were transferred to the Arab world. But in 1450, things changed Rebirth
14 C Germany
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1450s India
Printing press (Gutenberg) Previously books were reproduced by hand, now its by machine Libraries with no connection to the church universities Trade with Asia thru discovery of India
Made books more widely available Allowed faster transfer of ideas Threatened Roman Catholism since Bibles more easily available
1389 Florence, Italy
Medici invented Banking Had branch banks in Rome Supported intellectuals like Galileo and Leonardo da Vinci
Sparked the rise of capitalism in Europe Trade made people believe salvation can be earned Florence became the HQ for renaissance
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Protestant revolt against the Catholic churched helped by printing press and capitalism.
2.3 Science and Culture in Victorian Era, end-18th C

Charles Darwin was in this era. Its a highly stratified society with aristocracy (people who own factories), middle class (managers who work in the factories), working poor. He was in a time of great exploration and discovery and wonderment. New animals were found everyday. Huge interest in modernity. With Industrial Revolution Mechanization and productivity, and great possibilities abound. Historical / scientific period of time when people started to think of the world in a different way.
2.3 Natural History

Looking at nature and adapting a scientific perspective Exploration melded both the aesthetic and scientific. Most researchers sketch out what they saw. Findings have illustrations that showcase their aesthetic quality. Darwin suddenly became serious and got started in Natural History. A opportunity to travel on HMS Beagle as a volunteer. Darwin spent time looking at a wide range of species during the exploration onboard the voyage. He started to think about evolution as he looked at a wide range of species.
2.4 Highlights of the Voyage

Darwins journey took 5 years, of which only 18 months were at sea. Finches in Galapagos showed isolation, independent adaptation and evolution of species. Finches adapted to different environments to survive e.g. Tree finches, woodpecker finches, warbler finches, vegetarian finches etc. Found Galapagos Islands with its finches, which had different beaks, suited to their survival on each island. Each type adapted to their environment. He used Linnaeuss taxonomy to catalogue hundreds of species
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Kept a travelogue, & he had intellectual support from colleagues People will go around the world, come back and share their findings to Royal societies, a form of QC. He saw himself as an amateur collecting date for experts. He was unsure of himself, but became more confident as time passed. He released his book 20 years late for fear of backlash. His increased confidence was vital in allowing him to tackle deeper problems.
2.5 Charles Darwin & Evolution Theory

Darwin: impacted Social Science thinking and Comms Study
CHARLES DARWIN 1809 1882, Schrewbury, England Medicine, (Uni of Edinburgh) Clergyman, (Cambridge) At Cambridge, Henslow converted Darwin from a playboy to a serious naturalist Recommended Darwin to sail on HMS Beagle to map South America Voyage was a turning point in Darwins career Formulated his theory of evolution Indirectly influenced Karl Marx in forming dialectical materialism Darwin Spencer Cooley & Park o Cooley & Park: leaders of the Chicago school o Park: first theorist of Mass Comms, urban ecology Help launch the study of non-verbal communication Many concepts & mechanisms of the evolutionary theory is used by comms scholars
Darwin refuted claims of the times. People thought no. of species were fixed Darwin explained that new species appear over time Not by divine creation, but by natural selection Only Darwin recognized the theoretical significance of the available biological data to theorize the Evolutionary Theory. His book brought ideas together in the physical copy of a book. Ideas were somehow presented before, but now were collated. Natural Selection: in certain environments, certain traits are favored (selected for selection pressure) greater chances of survival greater chance to pass on those traits.
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Competition (selection pressure) due to superabundance: Species diverge until they cannot procreate between them anymore.
E.g. if left and right handed humans cannot reproduce among themselves, humans will branch out to form 2 unique species
Five key elements to the theory:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Variation in populations Competition for limited resources Superabundance of offspring Heritability: means traits passed on from one gen to the next Natural Selection
Chance variation and natural selection lead to descent with modifications, which is later known as mutation when genes are discovered.
2.5 Intellectual Influences on Darwin

Precursors to Darwin:Aristotle Polymath, founding figure in modern philosophy Da Vinci Guy of the Renaissance, a polymath (good in many things) Linnaeus Guy that invented Taxonomy Erasmus Darwin His dad
Several people influenced the puzzle-solving process of Darwin. Who influenced Darwin?
Malthus, Principle of Population Study on food and population pressures Sometimes popn grew too fast, too large and die out How nature acts as a selective force to weed out the weak and allowing development of the strong Selective role of competition Lyell stated Earth had undergone geological change Needs determine characteristics Stated that evolution occurred as anatomical structure can be inherited by offspring Link to Darwin Darwin reasoned if it worked for human beings, it must work for living things too
Lyell, Principles of Geology Lamarck, Zoological Philosophy
Spencer
A social philosopher who coined Survival of the Fittest idea
Darwin thought biological changes have occurred too Darwin didnt totally reject the idea, but offered another Random variation in sexual reprod., some indv are more suited than others, who live on while the others die out Darwin borrowed this idea for the evolution
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Quetelet
Used the idea for organizations Anti-competitive practices being ruthless to cut out all competition Social Darwinism: the rules of evo applies Statistician: plotted out distribution, founded out the normal curve Division of labor and how it necessitates specialization
theory
Adam Smith
Gave Darwin ability to think probabilistically of evo using outliers Darwin drew the link to biology in the struggle for food
After the Beagle voyage, Darwin did not immediately publish his book. Why?
Afraid of backlash from society as his idea was too revolutionary Aware of the resistance from religious leaders To amass evidence to defend himself To gather scientific backers
While holding off publication for 20 years, his idea was matched identically by Wallace. Wallace rejected co-ownership; he felt that Darwin, with his years of experience, deserved to solely own the theory. He built up his own college of evolutionary thinkers to defend himself when the book is published. When the book was released, had a lot of scrutiny, Darwin was backed by Huxley in debates. Opposition to the Theory:Mainline Protestantism Creationism An open interpretation of religious text If I believe the bible is inerrant, literal word of God. Evolution poses a problem But if Im inferential about the word of God evolution is okay. Intelligent design Creationism: from the Bible; God created everything in the world Idea that humans are so complex, that it couldnt occur by chance (a refutation of Descent with Modification) must be by intelligence scientists said it could happen by chance
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2.6 Mendelian Genetics on Darwinism

Mendels work on random assignation of genes supported the openendedness of evolution of Darwin.
2.7 1st Darwinian Link with Comm Theory: Spencer and Social Darwinism
Coined term Survival of the fittest before Darwins book Origin of Species. Developed a social evolutionary theory: change from a state of incoherent, disorganized distribution of some phenomena to a state of coherent, ordered variability. Believed social evolution is progress, but scientists nowadays disagree.
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Advocated that the stronger, more adaptable people in society did better, while for those who failed to adapt, capitalistic societies provided them a stimulus to improve themselves. In Spencers teachings, evolution theory was popularized.
2.8 2nd Darwinian Link with Comm Theory: Non-verbal Communication

Darwin said that our human expressions were adopted from animals. These expressions are not learned but contributed genetically. Population ecology theory (Hannan, Freeman) is based on evolutionary theory. They use evolutionary concepts like niche width, environment, competition for scare resources, survival to predict the life and death of an organization over time.
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03 Sigmund Freud
Freud: created psychoanalytic theory, major influence on soc sciences
SIGMUND FREUD 1856 1939, Mahren, Czech Rep, Slovakia Neurology, Psychotherapy Psychoanalysis, (Uni of Vienna) Changed the way people conceive of human beings and the way the mind works Trained as a medical doctor, founded psychoanalysis His theory impacted psychology, sociology, political science and anthropology Directly influenced communication thru the critical school, Palo Alto school, Lasswell and Hovland Contributions include:o Recognition of the unconscious o Influence of psychological forces beyond ration control o Role of sexuality of psychological development Like to provoke people with radical ideas
Slovakia Vienna London
3.1 Life of Sigmund Freud

Vienna had a strict morality, elite, repressed (people had to conform in many ways to be accepted). A hostile place for Freuds ideas. Focus on humans unconsciousness rather than consciousness thought. Attacked belief that sex is taboo for scientific investigation. Background: Vengeful Jew interest in religion felt persecuted due to anti-Semitism he experienced felt compelled to think differently from the majority creativity Knew his theories and mindset is one against all, and isolated himself from the Viennese medical world. Wanted to make a scientific breakthrough to gain back his recognition. Died of mouth cancer in London.
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3.2 Psychoanalytic Theory: An Explanation

Psychoanalytic theory: to explain human behavior by looking within the indv, especially the indvs unconsciousness mind (psyche). Using the mental iceberg: Conscious Can understand and describe w/o difficulty Preconscious Can call up into consciousness Unconscious Inaccessible to ones own conscious awareness, unless assisted by psychoanalysis Bulk of the human psyche E.g. urges, fears, shameful exp Not available
E.g. What I am feeling now Available to introspection E.g. My Pri 1 teacher (past memory)
Chose to look into the indv instead the social relationships between them, because he has a bad impression of society (bring barred from teaching etc). Aim to help patients understand the causes of their mental dysfunctions an inward looking, individualistic explanation of behavior thru understanding the unconscious.
3.3 Freuds methods: Case Studies

Used hypnosis, found it unsatisfactory. Moved to free-association, where patients were asked to relax on a couch and say whatever came to their minds. Uncensored and not judging what he hears. His study was narrow, sample size small and based on rich neurotic Jewish women, and was qualitative and textual. Used self-analysis to analyse his own thoughts, dreams and memories. impacted the creation of psychoanalysis. He did not have a lot of evidences of successful cases Freuds theory had to be accepted mainly using face validity. Conscientious observer of the verbal and nonverbal behavior of his patients.
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3.4 Freuds Intellectual Influences

Charcot Those days, seizure patients mistaken for possession (evil spirits) cos there was no secular way to interpret that behavior Treatment was very abusive so Charcot developed hypnotism: power of suggestion put suggestions into people with a trancelike state Wanted to cure hysteria, a puzzling illness, thru psychoanalysis, but prevented by Charcot, his tutor for hypnosis How we think about people Wanted to be a medical doctor cos of Darwin. But despite being a brilliant student, denied teaching position cos he was Jewish. Was Poor Started private practice, began seeing neurotic patients Believe sexuality lies in a fluid spectrum Also radical Freud spun his theory out by discussing with his colleague, Josef Breuer, who cured patients by talking with them Talking between Freud and Breuer and his disciples birthed psychoanalysis Breuer supported Freud financially by giving him clients. Lent Freud money. Was his doctor. Provided Freud a scientific reputation key for Freud to attract attention to his ideas Energy is never destroyed, only transferred Freud: an energy that existed inferred it will show up somewhere Energy in human psyche will be manifested, hydraulic personality: once u push something down, it will move up Things are connected, they move in
Darwin
Fleiss Josef Breuer
Ludwig
Freud looked everywhere: in physics, psychology, medicine, psychiatry to develop the psychoanalytic theory.
3.5 Illness and the Dream Analysis

When Freuds dad died, he got into neurosis, which he used psychoanalysis to help himself recover. He wrote The Interpretation of Dreams, where he felt dreams contain important clues to find out causes of emotional disturbances. Dream analysis was a turning point in his career. He was able to overcome neurosis and elaborate his basic principles of psychoanalysis. Became convinced he made a great discovery.
3.6 Key Concepts of Psychoanalysis Theory

Fliess: believed sexual illness is caused by disturbance of the mucous membrane of the nose Freud gained notion of bisexuality every human has male and female tendencies
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Proposed an Oedipus / Electra complex: an incestuous attraction between a mother and son, infantile sexuality in his own dreams (even jealousy against his father). Fascination between son and mother. Radical, controversial Fundamental drives of Eros (a life instinct) and Thanatos (a death drive). Thanatos refer to the desire for dangerous activities humans engage in for momentary pleasure innate drive to pursue (derived from Evolution) Wish fulfillment:Pleasure principle (happiness) Sexual wishes and desires Can be destructive to the indv since its not civilized Hidden in the unconscious Reality principle Logical and organized ideas Assist indv in reaching pleasure Operates at the conscious level
often in conflict indvs behavior is hence a compromise. Freuds theory focused also on personality development in childhood:Pregenital Oral (suckling) anal (shitting) phallic stages of attraction Latency period Sexual desires seem to disappear Adolescent Activation of sexual impulses at puberty Genital Heterosexual behavior begins
Proposed human mind has 3 systems: Id All psychologically inherited things, e.g. instincts Powerful drive, animalistic being inside all of us Unchecked Ego Psychological component of personality. A distinguishing between ideas in his head and the outside world Understands the indv is in a larger context Is an awareness Superego Social component of human personality Internal obligation to (believed) social norms Extent of social norms in social grouping E.g. What our parents will approve / disapprove of (e.g. filial piety) In conflict with Id
Pleasure principle at work
Reality suspends pleasure temporarily
His work considered sex as human motivation. Received outrage in Vienna as it was sexually repressed.
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3.7 Spread of Psychiatry in Europe

Jung: prof at Uni of Zurich. Became interested in Freud after reading Interpretation of Dreams. Both corresponded, and Jung revered Freud but was critical of some of Freuds theory. Separated after disagreement on nature of Libido. Jung rejected Oedipus complex. Many left Freud, saying he overemphasized childhood sexuality, biology, and overlooked cultural factors in his formulations.
Movement Freud developed his theory with Breuer and Fliess, then with a cult of followers. Taught protgs in his home. Experimented with Carl G. Jung in Zurich, who organized the First Intl Congress of Psycholoanalysis (1907). Jung became president of the international association that was formed in 1910. Freud insisted his own way of training, veering away from medical schools. Had professional associations, training institutes and orgs. Became a profession for doctors who shared Freuds view on indv dysfunctions.
Organization
Bureaucratization Specialization
3.7 Spread of Psychoanalytic Theory to the US

Ideal flow with people and artifacts (media). Freud visited US in 1909. Freud presented lecturers at Clark Uni in 1909. An impt turning point. His lectures was well received, his books began to be read in US, and his theory began to influence social sciences, especially psychology. WWI: boosted psychoanalysis as means of treating shell-shocked army men. Rise of Hitler (1930s): Freudian thinkers migrated in huge numbers as hundreds of psychoanalysis escaped to the US. They started practiced, popularized by mass media. Freud Clark Hull Hovland (Communication Studies)
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3.8 Psychology vs Psychoanalysis

Avoid over-dichotomizing (separating into strictly 2 categories). While Freud is one of the important founders of psychology, the mainstream does not consider psychoanalysis the same as psychology. While both focus internally into the indv, they differ in:Psychology Method centered (on lab experiments) Quantitative (using natural sciences) Normal population (normal people) Short-term examinations (concerned with the here-and-now) Psychoanalysis Problem-centered (on neurosis) Qualitative (using case studies of ones life) Clinical population (Neurotic patients) Long-term examination (concerned with prior events in a lifetime, e.g. 1-3 years)
Both disciplines diverge Criticism (sexism, not helping people recover)
3.9 Freudian Link to Comm Theory

Freud is one of three (Darwin, Marx, Freud) major influences to social sciences. Unlike Darwin and Marx, Freuds thought is individualistic, not macro. Many comm theories are based on psychoanalytical theory (that explanations of behavior can be found in the unconscious of the individual). These theories state that ones internal imbalanced state discomfort indvs behavior and change. Persuasion theory: Freud impacted Clark Hull, which impacted Hovland. Critical Theory of Communication: Freud + Marx
3.10 Opposition to the Theory: Palo Alto Group

A loosely bundled group of scholars working on comm related problems of mental health, family therapy and schizophrenia. Small in numbers, but its members are widely published. Has an anthropological focus (comparative study about human society and development). Aims to study interactional communication, but misunderstood by comm scholars to focus only on schizophrenia.
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Also, Bateson (founder of PA)s idea of communication such as paradox, double bind, made it hard for comm scholars to apply their quantitative methods to work out their research designs. PA strongly opposes Freudian thought:Systems, not individuals Believed in a systems theory perspective in comms. Disbelief in the Freudian individualistic, intrapsychic model. Rather, in the network of relationships between an indv and other indvs. PA worked with an initial knowledge of medical model of therapy, (can be cured if he can be cured internally of his perception). Realised that the medical model was insufficient; needed to consider interpersonal relations (cybernetics). Bateson believes the unconscious should not be made conscious, and that treatment at the conscious level is enough. Indvs problems can be solved regardless of its origins.
Paradigm change in theoretical perspective Unconscious is redundant
3.11 PA: Metacommunication and Schizophrenia

Metacommunication: communication about communication;
E.g. When a monkey nips another monkey, they somehow know it is not combative but a playful act. Evidence of metacomm.
Involves the content and relationship-level of communication:Content-level (Report) Conveys the info contained in the message Relationship-level (Command) Conveys interpersonal relationships of the participants in the comm process A way to frame or classify the message
3.12 PA: Communication = Human Behaviour

One cannot not communicate. Communication is intentional and nonintentional. Behaviors are communicative and hence are communication. Need to be intentional? Interactive? Encoded into a message? Not all behaviors are communicative, although it may be informative.
E.g. when someone closes his eyes when he sits next to another passenger on a bus. The closing of eyes is a communicative behavior only when there are passengers in close proximity (if there were no people around, he may also close his eyes, but then it wont be communicative already).
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3.13 PAian Link to Comm Theory: Interactional Comm

PA Interactional forces: Focus on problems of comms and the presumed positives (i.e. by studying the presences of paradoxes, double binds, confusion) strike a balance between straight topics like selfdisclosure and openness with deviant topics like ambiguity, deception etc. Prefers to study causes Wider Comm Scholarly Community The interactional theory of PA does not fit well with the relational perspective of most other comms scholar (cybernetic, ecological, systemic).
Prefers to study effects
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04 Karl Marx
Marx: created Marxist theory, an attempt to explain social science
KARL MARX 1818 1883, Trier, Germany Ba. Law, (Uni of Berlin) PhD. Pol. Eco., (Uni of Jena) Grew up in a violent overthrows of kingdoms, lived thru the French Revolution theory is directly concerned with revolution Grew up with capitalism, but sympathizes with poor, depressed industrial workers (although he was from a wealthy family) Blocked from academic position in a German uni due to his criticism of political leaders and his expose of corrupt officials and documenting the poor His socialist politics and radical writings led to his exile from Germany Converted to Communism in 1843 Strong critic of capitalism, thrived on criticizing the establishment Went to Paris, got expelled due to G govt pressure, to Belgium and then to London Lived in poverty in London Engels: called Marx the Darwin of sociology Critical of capitalism: where flow of money is prioritized for the greater good. Darwin was revolutionary, believing in conflict and struggle over peaceful growth Conflicts arise due to differences in access to means of production an evolutionary Maxism
Forced to leave Germany Paris Belgium London
Marx modernized communism to be useable by the government. Marxs ideas only became widespread after his death. After his death, his ideas become popularized and heavily used to found govts and practices. Marx had a humane ideal, but the govts that institutionalized Marxism were brutal and inhumane, because: Marxs ideas were too abstract no concrete actualization documented govts did as they deemed were fit Many of his followers were not zai and inflexible Marx was a critic, not a planner
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4.1 What is Marxism?

Intellectual Marxism, not political Marxism (policies of China, Soviet Union have all deviated widely from Marxs intended meanings). Marxism: belief that material conditions like economics forces determine social change in society. Aka Historical Materialism (based on a historical analysis of materialism of the economy). Historical Materialism:Material goods and unequal access to them drive social change Differences in mode of production (e.g. working class sells their labour) Social class differences unequal access to resources in a system Social classes and transition to a classes society can be brought about by the dictatorship of the proletariat (working class) Marx thought this was unfair
Revolutionary evolution of society
Incorporates Darwinian natural selection and struggle for existence : Proposed that in any society theres unequal access to resources needed to sustain life inequality selects for the ones with better access to rsc Creates a culture of social conflict struggle for existence Marx feels capitalism is unfair and cannot last Socialism: an intermediary step An idealistic / fantastical view of reality A timeline requiring revolution Revolutionary Evolution
Capitalism to socialism to communism
A macro-level theory of social change that Marx hopes will lead to a more egalitarian (equal) society.
Proletariat (Workers) Working class Marx believes that the proletariats could unite gain power needed to change society Developed a false consciousness people unaware that they are controlled by the ruling class Bourgeoisie (Managers) Ruling class Controlled the MM, which reinforces dominant values of society and are anti-change. Mental production: publicized societal values to the proletariat
2 classes of people due to alienation: separation of humans by social stratification, when one loses his control over his destiny.
E.g. a worker invariably loses the ability to determine his life and destiny. He is directed to activities set by the bourgeoisies who owns the means of production.
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Socialism: struggle for equal distribution of wealth can be achieved by removing private property and exploitative ruling class (bourgeoisie), replacing it with public ownership. Communism: when social classes cease to exist.
Because class struggles are still present in China and Cuba, these countries are technically still socialist in nature.
Marxs revolution never came. Marx heavily critical of the mass media.
4.2 The Critical School (ISR)

Critical school (aka Frankfurt school, org. called Institute for Social Research). Focus on power relations. Combined Marxist and Freudian theories. Critical School a name referring to people considering themselves intellectual descendants of the original Frankfurt scholars. Travelled widely. 4 key neo-Marxist figures: Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse and Leo Lowenthal Outstanding indv, philosophers, their dialogue droved the intellectual performance of the school. Had political freedom, acted as a conscience to the society. Escaped to US during Hitlers reign in Germany. Escaped Hitlers clutches. The Frankfurt school critiqued:Positivism (notion of objectivity) Marxism Belief that only knowledge that can be positively verified is authentic Positive facts can be obtained from observing and experiment Social science is a false consciousness Too similar to positivism Nave to believe the proletariat will stage a revolution to eliminate alienation and dominance Irrationality to deceive indv to a false acceptance of their conditions
Society
Purpose is to lead to an ideal society without human exploitation (the normative position of Marxist theory). Were criticized themselves for losing their Marxist orientations because they stayed in NY.
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4.3 Combining Marxism with Freudian Theory

Freuds pessimism about social change seemed irreconcilable with Marxism. ISR moved from orthodox Marxism to establishing a department for Freudian thinking. Hitlers takeover of Weimar Republic dashed the hopes for a Marxisr style social revolution. Frankfurt scholars became neo-Marxists, critical of classical Marxism. Their dissent with classical Marxism allowed them to adopt Freudian theory, combining the macro explanations of social change (Marxism) with micro Freudian social psychology of the indv. Fromm was critical of Freudian theory. He maintained that Oedipus complex was only applicable to patriarchal societies. His view was Marxist, and he dropped out of the Frankfurt scholars. Horkheimer and Adorno later attacked Fromm in their writings, but continued to study on authority and family, releasing their book, the Authoritarian Personality.
4.4 The Authoritarian Personality

Nazi Germany made the Frankfurt scholars interested in Fascism. The Great Depression allowed Fascist-style capitalism to overtake because the bourgeoisies of the time were repressing society in order to preserve it in the face of the crisis. Reich (Fromms friend) suggested that Hitlers rise was linked to a sexual repression (the structure of lower-middle and working class Germans). Surveyed workers in Germany, found out that recipients of repression in the family were more attracted to Fascism themselves. Published work in Studies on Authority and the Family. Led to a large scale, empirical study of prejudice in the US.
Studies on Authority and the Family (European) Did not touch on anti-Semitism because Hitlers persecution had not begun The Authoritarian Personality (US) Anti-Semitism as a central theme Combined critical theory with psychology
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The Authoritarian Personality project began when Sanford, a psychologist at UC Berkeley accepted funding to do research on anti-Semitism. Hired Levinson and invited Frenkel-Brunswik. Horkheimer became interested in this research and invited Adorno to join the team in Berkeley. A collaboration of like-minded thinkers:Frenkel-Brunswik Combined her Feudian thinking with quantitative psychology Adorno Familiar with psychoanalytic theory with Fascism Levinson Doctoral student in Psychology, with psychoanalytic perspective Sanford Studied with a psychologist who introduced psychoanalysis in Harvard; became a psychoanalysist
were Jews
Found out ethnocentrism, anti-semitism and Fascism were all called authoritarian. Personality profile of an authoritarian indv: Weak and dependent But wants to have law and order by forcing a standard morality Feels prejudiced against all out groups Wants to prove to others and himself that he is actually strong and good
The AP research a well triangulated approach. A modern use of Freudian and Marxist theory to prejudice.
4.5 Critical school vs. Empirical School of CR

Role of Mass Comms Critical School Used by establishment to control society Who owns / controls the media A macro view Champions the weak, poor & disadvantaged Empirical School To help solve social problems and to lead social change Effects of media on indv A micro view Lazarsfeld who investigated only comm effects
Main concern Level of analysis E.g.
Critical scholars generally focus on ownership and control of mass media:Are anti-positivism Focus on emancipation (efforts to equalize citizens before the law) Critical of empirical data (because its subjective) They ask: who gains and who loses from social research? Look for the ways media alienates and commercializes pop cultures
E.g. Habermas (the public sphere)
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05 Chicago School of Sociology and Communication 5.1 The Intellectual Migration to US

WWII (Nazism) migrated a lot of the intellectuals to America. European universities existed long before US universities (which are considered young) with the notable exception of Harvard. Before WWI, the best places to study from top minds are in Europe, especially Germany where educated is highly valued. Hitler caused the European intellect to migrate over to US, London as they escaped from his persecution (intellectual exiles included physicists, chemists, mathematicians and social scientists). Including Lewin, Lazersfeld, the entire Frankfurt school.
5.2 The Chicago School

Chicago School: very important influence on comm theory and research
CHICAGO SCHOOL 1892 Now The first flowering of social science in America A strong empirical dimension to social sciences Formed a theoretical concept of personality socialization (to be social and human is to communicate) Paved the way for future mass comms research Founded in an area mopped by human exploitation amidst mass migration
Modeled after John Hopkins Uni (1876)
After the civil war in US, the Renaissance brought about robber barons who exploited nature and people. Eventually they would donate the money to private universities. John Hopkins University was founded by the famous Baltimore merchant. JHU: a first research uni became a model for Uni of Chicago.
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5.3 Founding of Uni of Chicago (1892)

Chicago was in disarray with a diverse population of foreigners. A rapidly city growing without a university. Baptist church leaders decided to found a uni with help from Rockefeller. Hired Harper as president of the Uni. bargained many millions from Rockefeller since the Uni was a great success. gave $35mil
A game both the robber baron and Harper seemed to enjoy.
Gates who persuaded Rockefeller to donate the initial $600k impressed Rockefeller so much, he made Gates manage the philanthropy Rockefeller Foundation Rockefeller foundation helped Uni of Chicago become very productive, helped advance the empirical approach on social science research. Uni of Chicago were poised to take on the 1920s with competent social scientist and good funding.
5.4 Founding of the Department of Sociology

Harper recruited Small, who had a history and political economy background who is also Baptist, to join the Chicago faculty. Small studied in Germany, Small brought Simmels sociology teachings to Chicago, with a ameliorative (to make better) vision for America. to apply the theories to investigate urban social problems. He set up the Sociology department in Chicago, and set it to be pluralistic in thinking, allowed intellectual freedom. Was chosen because he: Studied in Germany, had a German post-graduate training Baptist minister Uni wanted religious appropriateness Had an administrative experience he was a college president Had an ameliorative vision (that the world can be made better)
Because Harper really wanted Small (Small just happened to be a sociologist) Became the first sociology department in the US Small launched the first scientific journey of sociology, the American Journal of Sociology, and was very active in contribution command over journal gave Uni of Chicago influence over American sociology.
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5.5 Founders of Modern Sociology

Simmel Born, studied and taught in Berlin Independent scholar Influenced by Darwin and Spencer Wrote about social evolution, urban life, ecology of the city Only engaged in critical (theoretical) investigation Did not have a smooth academic career due to socialist leanings and marginalized view of sociology Advocated deeper thinking over fact accumulation Modern American sociology moved away from Simmel, followed Durkheim and Weber:Durkheim & Weber Preference for stats obtained by empirical methods Framed analysis around specialized concepts, e.g. religion (anti-positivism)
Simmels viewpoint that sociologys central problem is the understanding of socialization, was carried forward by John Dewey, Cooley, Mead and Park of the Chicago school.
Dewey Exponent of pragmatism: beliefs are subject to practicalities Cooley Developed the looking glass self, role of mass media in society and role of comm in society Mead Taught social psychology to PhD students Developed the idea of self Park The first mass comm student
Simmel was interested in the process of socialization. The change in indv when they are in a social group. He focused on social interaction and communication between indv. Simmel influenced the Chicago school: Had articles published in the America Journal of Sociology Robert Park enrolled in courses from Simmel later Park taught at Chicago Park became a channel for Simmels theoretical perspectives
Directly impacted Park impacted Chicago
5.6 Practice of Sociology at Uni of Chicago

Chicago school became problem oriented. From doing good to being intellectual voyeurs, using ethnographic methods (observation, in-depth interviews) to get close to the subjects of study. Chicago sociologists studied deviant subcultures, e.g. hobos, gangs, ghettos, taxi-dancers.
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All students need to do fieldwork, do research on social ills and publish a book. Interactionism: perspective that human behavior is social; influenced by talking with others. Symbolic interactionism: humans learn who they are thru interaction with others. They hence construct meanings.
5.7 Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)

Though not in the Chicago school, but Cooley advocated symbolic interactionism. Social-psychological orientation: how we behave as a result of who we are. At Uni of Michigan, studied under Dewey. Cooley developed 2 concepts:Primary Group E.g. parent, siblings, peers, teachers Primary importance in personality socialization impt in forming ones social nature Looking-glass self We are what people think we are. Human interaction reflects the immediate environment to the indv developed further by Mead as the self dealing with the generalized other
5.8 John Dewey & Pragmatic Philosophy

Dewey, a very well-known and influential philosopher, believed in community as crucial to democracy. The philosopher of democracy. But not officially recognized by comm scholars cos his ideas are too detached and indirect ancestors of contemporary comm study. He was influenced by Darwin and Spencers writings. At Deweys time, Chicagos philosophy was moralistic and static. But Dewey liked progressiveness, practicality and scientific experimentation. Was offered to teach at Uni of Chicago by Harper to chair the Dept of Philosophy. Pragmatic philosophy: stresses the priority of action over doctrine. usefulness, workability, and practicality of ideas, policies, and proposals are the criteria of their merit.
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Changed the stimulus-response (R-S) approach of the Reflex Arc concept a more holistic approach: Stimulus-response Individualistic External stimulus triggers an internal response e.g. knee-jerk reflex But ignores the social aspects Inadequate Dewey, Mead questioned the overly simplified S-R model (reflex arc) Dewey: S-R model is fallacious since determination of stimulus is subjective Stimulus-interpretation model S-R + recognizing that indv interpretations of the stimulus also determines the response
Focused on the purposes of the mind Functionalist psychology
He felt his education was boring, and that society was a better teacher. Dewey formed the Dewey School at Uni of Chicago as the laboratory school for the philosophy dept. School wanted kids to learn by doing instead of rote learning. progressive education, deal conditions, a great success. The Dewey school launched a progressive movement in American education. Practiced nepotism by appointing wife to head the Dewey School, was kicked out by Harper eventually and both left to Columbia Uni. Ponderance about American adaptability to urban life was carried on by Chicago colleagues Mead and Park.
5.9 Early Psychology

Co-founders of early psychology:James Great American thinker Gained recognition with Principles of Psychology, attacked Hegelism o History, the evolution of ideas, and human consciousness all develop through idealist dialectical processes as part of the Absolute or God coming to know itself Believes that emotion is the mind's perception of physiological conditions that result from some stimulus Wundt Reflex Arc concept by Dewey and Mead came from Wundt, founder of experimental psychology German physiologist. Wundt moved away from armchair (conceptual) psychology into his experimental psychological laboratory at Leipzig The first official psychologist Taught Dewey at JHU
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A Leipzig and Paris model, the Paris model more emotionally-void and cold. American psychology adopted Paris model. From a German to American-dominated discipline due to Hitler and WWII.
5.10 Mead: Symbolic Interactionism

George H. Mead (1863 1931) studied with James and Wundt. Specialised in the theory of the gesture. The act as a basic social unit and its interpretation by another indv. Moved to Chicago at Deweys invitation, very close to Dewey at Chicago. Mead children and Dewey children attended the Dewey school. Developed Symbolic Interactionism: humans learn who they are thru interaction with others. They hence construct meanings. Key features of Symbolic Interactionism:Meaning is Subjective The self in lookingglass self is developed thru interaction with others, the me, an indvs view of how others see him. Agreed upon by people, subjective to diff people Creates identity & meaning The indv learns to behave in a way he is expected to behave (reflexivity) to the generalized other. Construct reality of the world humans are fundamentally social to share symbolic meaning Interpretive What one says and who it means to another person
Became a reformer at Chicago, helping other people around the area. Meads teachings not conveyed clearly disagreement among intellectual descendants. Methodological differences:Kuhn (Iowa) Differences in methods Operationalized SI using TwentyStatement Test Blumer Orientated SI as a theory, a mtd to deal with research probs Hard to operationalize it during research Goffman (Meads disciple) Studies conversational interaction in a community Added the empirical POV
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5.11 About Park & Tuskegee

Started PhD very late, so started teaching very late too late bloomer. Studied under Dewey at Uni of Michigan. Greatly influenced by Dewey. Felt that comms was a force of integration in the society. Became a muckraking journalist (investigative journ) dig up dirt on wellknown people / govt / companies people are interested (public opinion). Got married with kids, went back to Uni for PhD in Germany to study under Simmel. Felt that he was a failure, sick of the academic world. Became an editorial secretary for the Congo Reform Association. Met Washington, president of Tuskegee Institute, a school for young Blacks. Became Washingtons assistant, in-charge of PR. Thomas of Chicago met Park at a Tuskegee conference. He pushed Small to hire Park, who once declined Small earlier. Had a marginal existence in Chicago. Park forged empirically-based social sciences in Chicago.
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5.12 Parks Human Ecology

Based on Darwinian theories of plant and animal ecology. Human Ecology: forces building cities are charted systematically like a map. Where you live will characterize how you act. Park led the empirical (observation) research on social problems at Chicago with his background of studying Negroes at Tuskegee. Studied to ameliorate: Crime Homelessness Unemployment Race relations Immigrant populations
Parks interest is in social disorganization. Had an ex-Hobo student. Told his student (Anderson) to study hobos like a newspaper reporter. Applied Darwins Struggle for Existence in the hobo study. Park worked on Simmels social distance concept: the perceived lack of intimacy between 2 or more indv. The marginal man: who lives between 2 worlds but belongs to neither. E.g. immigrants to US who rejected parents cultures and language but still did not consider themselves true Americans. Park insisted on detached objectivity.
5.13 Park Redefines Sociology

He changed the way students trained. From a typical distant supervision working with the student, like colleagues on a topic. (Guided dissertation) Made students feel like a collaborator rather than a student. Park is an awesome professor. Awakening, mobilizing, directing. He didn't like girls? Park (as with Chicago) defined sociology in two ways: Gave an empirical boost to an otherwise theoretical & abstract subject Freed sociology from normative concern (what it needs to do; to do good) Emphasised objectivity. Separated social work from sociology
Park believed in reform but he didn't believe in direct intervention with social problems cos it may detract sociologists.
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He separated social work from sociology: Pure (Sociology) Mens domain Applied (Social Work) Womens field
Sexist in nature. Considered a mens discipline, as reform were feminine.
5.14 Parks Contributions to CR at Chicago

Payne Fund Studies Park got Blumer to go Heavy use of a new comm tech will raise concern among parents, who are interested in its effects. Motion Pictures and Youth: A concern about the effects of movies on youth financed by a foundation Payne Fund, proposed by Seabury, a former lawyer in the movie industry. To determine the harmful effects of film viewing on children and youth. Conducted by scholars of Chicago Short-term and long-term effects Quantitative in nature using stats: Content analysis, viewer surveys, experiments, and autobiographical accounts Objective study, but findings were hostile to the film industry. Payne fund commissioned an alarmist. Movies have effect on children and youth. Birth of studying of media effects by comm scholars Immigrant Press and its Controls Parks only book Media brought people together thru a set of shared values Due to national concern of possible disloyalty of European immigrants in the US. E.g. More loyal to the US or the German govt? Park directed study into foreign press in US. Found out most papers help immigrants assimilate into US. Parks newspaper training allowed him to be a good sociologist. A sociologist as a scientific reporter. Comm is a social and psychological process that allows someone to assume the attitudes and POVs of another. Park viewed comms as a potential solution to social problems.
Media as a means of socialization Relationship of media and public opinion Relationship of mass media and interpersonal communication
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5.15 Decline of Chicago

Influence of school declined after Park left. Its own PhD students went to other unis, overtook Chicago. Rivals: Michigan, Harvard. Hiring own PhD students as faculty reduced diversity. Had disunity. Sociological focus changed from social disorganization to social status and social work. Chicago remained humanistic while the rest of the USs sociology schools were becoming quantitative and statistical. The field became more focused on methodology and its science rather than the interpretive stance of Chicago. Other European sociological theories, i.e. Max Weber eroded Simmels sociological theory on which Chicago was based on. The American Journal of Sociology was disbanded due to career anxiety of Chicagos waning position and the great depression. External situations also changed. Chicago city no longer so messy, live had become more ordered. The national focus had already changed to mass media effects, which other Unis (e.g. Colombia) were doing.
5.16 The Chicago School and Comm Theory

Emerged from 1920-40s when social scientist began empirical research on propaganda. Comm study did not originated from the 4 founders (Lasswell, Hovland, Lewin, Lazarsfeld) but a broader view of mass comm comes from role of mass media in a media democracy, from the Chicago school. Chicago school (and Park, Dewey) failed to get their deserved recognition cos the 4 founders later on were able to excel in the more sophisticated, quantitative and funded research. The 4 founded the attitude of comm study, not the concept. They narrowed the focus of mass comms, which Park coined.
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Chicago came up with the agenda-setting process, gatekeeping, Parks definition of communication recognized the multi-dimensional aspect of communication, unlike the linear-aspect proposed. Chicago sociologist felt that communication is a fundamental human process.
5.17 Is Chicago a School?

Chicago did not have a consensual body of knowledge. It had a slum-pool of very diverse theories and methods Intellectual center kept shifting:Small Geared towards German sociological theory, i.e. Simmel Park Human ecology, studied social disorganization. Dewey, Mead Symbolic interactionism. Ogburn Bring statistical approaches to analyzing sociological data
Wasnt well cited. Not all PhD students enrolled under him, or used his theories.
No unified theoretical viewpoint. Chicago was unique cos its pluralistic and diverse in its sociological approach, while other unis only had superstars sociology died along with their superstars departure.
5.18 Contribution of the Chicago School

It grounded social science empirically in the study of social problems. Ameliorative influence on scholars. Conceptualized symbolic interactionism comm is central to how human personality forms and changes. Payne Fund studied effects of film on children study of media effects. Shunned female scholars caused social work to become a separate field. Its methodological approach produced a new set of comm scholars the Interpretive School. Humanistic, subjective approach (vs. the objective, scientific approach)
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5.17 The Interpretive School

Last 40 years: rising recognition of audiences from passive, manipulated, a bystander active, manipulating, full partner in comms process. Focus of Interpretative comm scholars: how audiences construct meaning. Interpretation of messages are less structured and more qualitative, but still have theory, but dont operate according to positivism. Instead, theory itself defines their own objectives and its own pool of needed data about subjective meanings of actors in a social context Collected data are organized and constructed by respondents rather than scholars. Depth > Generalizability. Good for organizational culture research. A step beyond Lazersfelds media effect. A alternative form of comm thought against the majority of comm research. Can combine both quanti and quali as well. No need to choose one. Weakness: too much info, hard to reduce into succinct form. Ethical concerns over hidden identities (participant observation).
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06 Harold Lasswell and Propaganda Analysis

Lasswell: had a communication POV in thinking and writing; interest in propaganda (persuasive messages)
HAROLD D. LASSWELL 1902 1978, Illinois, USA PhD Pol Sci, Chicago Created Content Analysis comm rsh method Who says what in which channel to whom with what effects? Precocious boy (developed abilities earlier than others), read widely, diverse interest Studied in Chicago, appointed as AP of Pol Sci in Chicago Used psychoanalytic theory to analyze political leaders His uncle gave him a copy of Freuds lectures at Clark Uni became interested in psychoanalytic theory and role of personality in politics political psychology Interested in public opinion, role of political leaders and content analysis of mass media
USA: Illinois Chicago Washington DC
Lasswell was academically diverse and multidisciplinary published theses across the social sciences discipline loyalists not happy. Founded political psychology.
6.1 Founding of Political Psychology

Lasswells interest in psychoanalytic theory became strong when he was faculty of Chicago. Was taught to conduct psychoanalytic interviews. Analysed volunteer psychiatrists, tried to relate psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism strongly resisted by community on both ends, esp the political scientists. Tried to introduce Freudian theories to political science. Met with rejection, but eventually promoted to president of American Political Science Association. Founded political psychology (psychology + pol sci): using psychoanalytic theory to explain the behaviours of pol leaders.
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Advocated Marxism too, but felt that world proletarian revolution wasnt the eventual outcome. Encouraged to search widely in other fields. Helped by Merriam, his mentor at Chicago, to travel widely to study Freudian theory and Marxism.
6.2 Propaganda Interests Lasswell

Lasswell had Merriam, a strong advocate of using behavioral science to study politics. Both championed the analysis of empirical data about indvs pol behavior. Merriam encouraged psychoanalytic study, liked quantitative study pleased to see Lasswells content analysis. Propaganda = mass persuasion the management of collective attitudes thru manipulation of significant symbols.
No good or bad, entirely dependent on ones POV and integrity of the info Advantageous only to the persuader, not to the persuaded Usually one-way (not interpersonal, not interactive)
Propaganda: to sow / disseminate an idea. A neutral word that took on a negative connotation since WWI perceived as dishonest, manipulative and brainwashing. WWI: US set up the Committee on Public Information (Creel Committee), headed by Creel to conduct a massive domestic and international propaganda effort. Booklets about US ideals and wartime purposes distributed. Gave patriotic speeches. Used mass comm and interpersonal comm channels. Very effective, but public grew disillusioned with uses of propaganda. Social scientific research after 1940 declined cos of competition from statistical comm rsh. The other rsh had more funding since they are more useful to policymakers. Propaganda research might whistle blow on the govt. Terms like propaganda and public opinion replaced with mass comm and comm research. Rise of quanti comm methods impacted Lasswells propaganda research: WWIIs research became quanti (while WWI was quali) His research was empirical cos he studied the specific propaganda techniques Showed warfare involved everyone, not just the soldiers propaganda and impt instrument propaganda warfare is a serious threat to govts
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6.3 Content Analysis: A Comm Research Tool

Propaganda = mass persuasion the management of collective attitudes by the manipulation of significant symbols. Developed from Freudian theory of symbols. People was affected by an unknown problem, and psychoanalysis used symbols to investigate the effects of mass messages. Lasswell moved from a quanti method to the more scientific method developed the Content Analysis. Content Analysis: the investigation of comm messages by classification (coding & categorizing) to measure certain variables. To infer effects of messages. How it is done:_
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Two coders to analyze the same text/body They come out with a whole bunch of categories They code them; is it present or is it not? Analyse together then compare their interpretation to see if they agree Make sure interpretation of content is consistent
War propaganda seeks to demonize, divide and demoralize the enemy.
6.4 Rockefeller Comm Seminar

Lasswell resigned from Chicago to Washington DC to be in a new institute on psychiatry, culture and politics become more interdisciplinary. To work with Sullivan and Sapir on the new institute, an influential psychoanalyst, and an anthropologist (studies comparative study of human societies). But Sapir died, money didnt come, and Lasswell quarreled with Sullivian. But funding fell thru van with all his stuff crashed & burned nothing left. Ended his pol sci career and refocused himself in comms study. Worked in NY, went to Yale, served as consultant to Rockerfeller Foundation Lasswell became chief for the Study of War-Time Comm in US Library of Congress, which was created by the Rockefeller Foundation Seminar on mass comm.
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Purposes of the monthly seminar changed after WWII started: Before to provide general theoretical guidance about comm rsh for so they know what future projects to fund. Sept 1931 How the govt can use comm to cope with the approaching war
Seminar made up of a lot of diff people. Communication became a unifying concept for a lot of people sociologists, psychologists and they knew they needed to study comm. Lasswell was very influential in shaping the seminar discussion towards comm efforts. Developed his five-questions model of comm. Marshall and Rockefeller Foundation coined the world comm research and mass communication. The terms emerged in an age of emergency and propaganda.
6.5 Big Ideas Emerge

Lasswells five-questions model:Who says what to whom in what channel with what effects? Lasswells model became the basic framework for the entire seminar, and its discussions.
Who Communicator, the source What Message content, idea, form Whom Receiver, target, audience What Channel Medium What Effects Impact, outcome
(over the air / radio / TV, it could be in print newspapers / brochures/ pamphlets
Result
Not a communication model. Simplistic, assumes many things: A present communicator, Intentional communication (no why) Unidirectional from sender to receiver without feedback
But nonetheless Lasswells model tells us a lot of the perceived notion of what communication was to them: an act, directed towards an intended effect.
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2 big ideas that came out of the seminar:Impact of Communication Context: War was going on effective comms meant that large swats of people can be called to action I.e. support the war or go to the other side? Belief that communication could be effective/media is powerful. 4 Functions of Communication (Purposes) Surveillance of environment: role of the media which allows indv to know the broader world about facts Correlation: the interpretation of those facts. Is editorial, comments since people need to know what news events mean Transmission: cultural heritage is taught to the people; teaches them about identity and values Entertainment: motivation of audiences with possibility of displacement
6.6 Lasswells War-Time Comms Project

War is also on propaganda (between enemy Axis (Germany/Italty/Japan) and Allies). The war removed individualism and isolation among disciplines and scholars as all had to focus collectively on the emergency of war. The mantra of the day was collaboration. The scholarly community was united in a community of effort WWII brought many academics to DC. Lasswell asked to do propaganda analysis. Went from analysis to creating new propaganda. Housed at Library of Congress, a huge library, funded by Rockefeller Foundation (cos too sensitive to be federally funded). Analyzed newspaper reports, editorials, radio broadcasts. Trained people to study foreign papers. Lasswell himself served in US Justice, to catch people involved with communism, socialism, fascism. The project contributed more to bettering the content analysis method than providing info about the enemy.
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6.7 Lasswells Later Years

After the war, propaganda analysis became CR.
Ev Rogerss View on the Researcher Researchers went from a reformist to a neutral observer. Dissent: Simpson CRshers were manipulative, had motive trying to turn people into raving patriots who will support the war no matter what Then, turn them into raving consumers. No high/noble intellectual goals but a motive/agenda Support war effort, ruling party, capitalistic society pull people into fake consciousness
Lasswell went to Hoover Institution in Stanford to do research on newspapers and media artifacts. A major boost of quanti content analysis. Computers helped CA tremendously. Hoover Instl studied Russion Revolution documents. Engaged in policy sciences: looked at social problems from an interdisciplinary approach (law, pol sci, psychology, sociology, economics, even anthropology and psychoanalysis). Dewey was his inspiration for policy science. An ameliorative discipline, in which Lasswell participated in. Went to Yale.
6.8 Walter Lippman & Agenda Setting

Early colleague of Lasswell, worked on propaganda analysis. Studied at Harvard, became a journalist. Wrote propaganda leaflets in WWI. Developed Agenda Setting: process by which a news topic is given a priority concern by the mass media the public and the policy elites. Most influencial non-academic person on comm studies. Did have PhD or taught in a uni.
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Wrote Public Opinion, which talked about:Pictures in our heads How we see the world is what we see in our heads Different from whats outside Media provides and sometimes shapes the pictures in our heads Role of stereotypes Simplified or distorted images of people and things Its a kind of mental shortcut Highlights power of propaganda
Lippman a world famous columnist (wrote in NY Herald Tribune), served as advisors to presidents, travelled widely to meet heads of states. A gifted and influential American journalist.
6.9 The Legacy: Agenda Setting

Cohen: media doesn't tell us what to think but what to think about. Media has a direct and indirect effect.
Direct Effect (limited effects) Doesnt tells us what to think Indirect Effect But tell us what to think about
The news media influences that agenda. How do you know whats the agenda? Read the papers. How do you know whats impt? The front page. TV? Top of the hour, the first story. The news agenda determines the peoples agenda (the public opinion). Media help people determine what is important. Mass media have few direct effects, but strong indirect effects. Why? Media affect knowledge more than attitudes. Media messages themselves cannot change people, but the collection of many, many messages with different content (but same issue) raise awareness and change attitudes.
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Media Agenda Public Agenda Policy Agenda
6.10 Lasswells Contribution to CR

The Five Questions Model Content Analysis Propaganda studies Promoted psychoanalytic theory Conceived of policy sciences
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07 Paul Lazarsfeld and Effects Research

Lazarsfeld: Launched comms study. Directed comms study towards study of media effects. Differences between Critical vs Empirical, Theoretical and applied approach
PAUL F. LAZERSFELD 1901 1976, Illinois, USA PhD, Maths, Uni of Vienna, Austria Multidisciplinary: mathematician, social psychologist, a sociologist Social science Prof of Social Sci at Columbia Uni Felt like an outsider in society due to his Jewishness Created the idea of a uni rsh institute But bad at handling money; his schs kept needing money Vienna at an intellectual peak, mixture of many ideas Lazarsfeld influenced by Freudian thought Mathematical background o supported his methodological expertise move freely from one discipline to another found comms rsh Socialist, Austrian Jew Taught high school math and physics Lazarsfeld Impressed Buhler, his mentor, with stats survey he did. Became part-time lecturer in psychology at Uni of Vienna
Austria: Vienna US: Newark Princeton Colombia
Empirical work guided by conceptual schemes. Each procedure is scrutinized for its logic.
7.1 Lazarsfelds Vienna Research Institute

Launched the Research Centre for Economic Psychology (1925). Subsequently:o o o o Research Center in Uni of Newark Office of Radio Research at Princeton Bureau of Applied Social Research at Colombia Center for Social Sciences, & many other research centers worldwide
VRI: To do market research for money. Study the tastes of consumers.
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A uni-linked rsh institute that Lazarsfeld hope can give him more income. Carried out consumer research for beer, butter, coffee, etc. But Austria in hard times, business was bad. Lazarsfeld sucked as an administrator. Frankfurt Institute for Social Research was his famous client. Lazasfeld worked on Horkheimers studies which influenced Adornos The Authoritarian Personality. Developed matrices means to measuring things. Studied beggars. Helped in the Marienthal study of the unemployed. Pioneered Qsn & Interview design. Cross-tabulation etc. Had a high level of validity. Was closed by the Socialists in 1938. Laz was in debt, but was saved by a weird Swiss businessman.
7.2 Lazs Merienthal Study of Unemployment

Merienthal: an unemployed village in Vienna. Project directed by Jahoda, his wife. Once a company town, the Depression left the village out of work. A place of poverty and hopeless people, vulnerable to help regardless of their political extremity paved the way for Hitler. Their first strictly-scholarly study to focus on unemployment. An impt social problem during the Great Depression of 1930s. Supported by Rockefeller foundation important officials from Rockefeller noticed Laz and brought him to US on a travel fellowship Got talent-spotted at an intl congress with his presentation on unemployment using the Merienthal story. Was a hit. Buhler could not promote Laz to a higher position cos he is Jewish. So in consolation appointed Laz for the Rockerfeller fellowship to US. Anti-semitism saved Laz from dying in the holocaust. Buhler recommended Laz to Kitteridge of Rockerfeller Foundation.
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7.3 Laz, Meet Lynd

During his US tour, he became friends with Lynd. Lynd was supported by ISR to research on the Middletown, the first large scale empirical studies using social class and power as variables. Sold books, very popular became a sociologist at Columbia. Lynds predecessor was very theoretical, but Lynd was empirical divided the sociology dept in Columbia in two. While in US, he lost his job in Vienna due to socialist uprisings. Nazi raied Research Center in Vienna, wife arrested. Lazs fellowship expired, and Laz went back to Vienna. But Lynd found Laz a job at Newark to be a supervisor. So Laz went back to the US.
7.4 Lazarsfeld in Newark, US: The Newark Rsh Ctr

From a penniless research center in Vienna to the director of the most influencial comm rsh organization in the US. 1937: The Newark Research Center wasnt highly regarded, just had Laz himself and a relief students. Didnt pay well. Just overseeing people tabulate data. Lazarsfelds big break: He got affiliated to Office of Radio Research in Princeton, which was established with a grant from Rockerfeller Foundation helmed the Radio Research Project.
o Radio has been rising rapidly in use. Pervasive. Is used politically, and under threat by the US government (broadcaster freedom). Radio stations wanted to know the effect of their shows on listeners. Advertisers wanted to know if they were effective in their reach.
7.5 Radio Research Project (RRP)

The Rockefellers son believed in improving quality of radio programs thus spinning out this project. Cantril said that research on listeners was lacking. Marshall, a staff at Rockefeller Foundation created the term mass communication and funded early investigations into radio research.
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Felt that radio can refine the people culturally. Saw the RRP as a way to improve the culture of the public. Both Marshall and Cantril wanted radio to be educational. But broadcasting networks more interested in higher audience ratings than to produce educational content. Stanton of CBS and Cantril became involved with their other work, so they proposed a director to head the RRP. Stanton declined due to busyness, Cantril also cmi. Both searched for a director, and Lynd recommended Laz to them. Laz took over the RRP from them. Radio was a new thing, research can be easily steered. Laz seized the opportunity to propose methodological research. The proposed RRP changed into the New Testament of Lazarsfeld. Change to Lazs methodology in RRP: Stanton-Cantrils idea Lab experiments More empirical Lazs Survey research Content analyses of radio programmes Ratings and other secondary data. Did comparative studies a sign of mass comms rsh
Why was the project funded at Princeton even though its Director is from Newark?
Not funded at Newark but at Princeton cos RF felt Newark was lousy. Laz wasnt accepted at Princeton. the awkward arrangement
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7.6 Invasion from Mars Study

RRP = Stanton + Cantril + Laz:Cantril helped Laz obtain poll data for secondary analysis Suggested a mixture of quali and quanti methods about radio effects Good at getting sponsorships Stanton Guaranteed the collaboration of the radio industry (cos he is in CBS) Good with machines, sampled households with listening prefs Hardworking, attentive to details Rose quickly in CBS to director of rsh, became president Lazarsfeld: The toolmaker More interested in the methods of rsh than then content being researched Did research on lame things to advance his methodology Used more advanced survey rsh methods, advanced them Found a career theoretical partner, Merton Became stars in sociology despite the bad rep of applied sociology in US
became a standard in the RRP
2 important methodological contributions of RRP: Used the Laz-Stanton program analyzer Focus group interviewing
Synergy evident in the success of The War of The Worlds which panicked 1 million people convinced RF for further funding to do in-depth interviews with listeners. Program, medium, individual diff. Did quanti research published The Invasion from Mars. 2 impt by-products of the RRP:Little Annie: Laz-Stan Program-Analyzer A data-gathering device A media-effects measurement machine Researchers can use it to relate radio progs with its emotional effects on audiences Can record 10 peoples responses at the same time To learn more about audience behavior, effects of broadcasts Focus on the listener allows researchers to assess the effects and effectiveness of messages Gave audience-specific effects Focus Group Interviews Result of Merton and Laz Closely linked to the Prog-Anal since they needed the whys To gather data form a particular situation Spontaneous interaction, data produced by group interaction Gathers qualitative data, shapes future questionnaires Focus on particular messages effects on different people
Bullet theory undermined
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Arguments between Cantril and Laz over the authorship of an article about Invasion from Mars study. Cantril dropped out of RRP and moved to Columbia Uni. Marshall asked Laz to write a book and formed a comms seminar to ensure project was on track. Tried to pass the RRP to Adorno, but Adorno was a jerk and elitist who looked down on the RRP as a highly applied research paved way for him in the Authoritarian Personality research.
7.7 Lazarsfeld continues with Radio Research

US style is empirical based. But Laz felt the Frankfurt model of criticalresearch deserves more limelight. Admin Rsh: Laz saw his research as being crucial to the service of government and mass media institutions. Not critical of the existing political systems (as compared to the Frankfurt scholars). Three types of Comm research:Empirical (American) Amercian scholarship Lazs Administrative Research Lazs own Empirical Rsh Critical (European) Frankfurt school Good for challenging probs and concepts
Tried using his Administrative method as a bridge to co-opt critical research into his own, but failed. Laz advocated triangulation: using multiple methods of measurement, data gathering, and data analysis to obtain a many-sided view of the object of study. Interest in politics Laz went from market research to doing political comm
Still focused on attitudes and behavior Still used survey methods
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7.8 The Erie County Study (1940)

Erie county: a bellwether county (trend-reflecting place; as it goes, so is US). Produced Lazs famous book The Peoples Choice. A study of media effects. Became a panel study (longitudinal design: done over time) of a presidential election (Roosevelt vs Wikie) can track specific individuals over time
Panel Study: finds out why changes / trends in a population are happening Probability Sampling: randomly selected a sample of people allows extrapolation generalizability The same panel / sample used every time to ensure representativeness Using control groups as a check
Used opinion polls, applied to measure the effects of radio on audiences. Vs. other methods:Longitudinal: Panel Study Same indv Across time Expensive Risk of attrition But can track indv change, learn a lot Cohort Different indv Across time Cannot track indv differences Can represent cohort Cross-sectional Huge sample of ppl One point in time Cannot determine causation
Laz used deviant case analysis to study who certain indv bucked the trend. By doing contingency tables looked at patterns conducted monthly personal interviews with the deviants (more suited to a quali kind of study) E.g. Contingency table:Low SES High SES Dem. 300 Most demos tend to be poor 40 Deviant Rep. 20 Deviant 240 If youre rich, youre likely republican
A simple way to look at two variables (bivariate comparisons). Dichotomized way to measure the variable. Check if theres a relationship between political affiliation and SES. If there is a pattern, there is a relationship. Lack of federal funding, so Laz sought funds from Rockefeller, Life magazine, ORR & Roper.
Over time: designed to track the differences in public opinion before and after a dramatic event (e.g. death of a politician).
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7.8 Key Findings of ECS

Before ECS Laz expected media to have a direct, powerful effect in making peoples minds about voting for whom After ECS The opposite happened Opinion leadership: Media informed and persuade only a few key indv, not the whole pop 2-step comm: Opinion leaders followers
Conceptual contribution of ECS: opinion leadership and two-step flow of communication. Laz launched era of limited media effects.
Factor of Time :People made up their minds early in the campaign, but they took time to decide Very few switch; even fewer due to the mass media Late deciders are uninterested, face cross pressures (e.g. from the PAP and WP camp during the HG BE) How much people were exposed to the campaigns thru media: Activated: encouraged to take part, participate Reinforced: People become more sure of what they believe in Conversion: some were converted Diff types of people experiences diff media effects E.g. people with higher SES more influenced from newspapers
Media campaign influence Medium Differences
Laz questioned the legitimacy of the Bullet Theory: that media is powerful against a helpless audience. Direct, impactful and immediate effect. Widespread. Uniform. Bullet Theory undermined: Comm scholars did not find evidence of strong media effects after investigation of the ECS.
7.9 Lazs Two-step Flow Model

Ideas flow from the media opinion leaders passive sections of the pop. Interpersonal influence the same or greater than media influence Suggests that media effect is actually indirect (probably people are affect thru someone else) Media has influence, but interpersonal more impt
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Two-step flow model: supports the idea that media effects are indirect. People once believed it was direct for a time afterwards, people felt media had minimal effects. But the two flow model has its problems:1. 2. 3. 4. Initial mass media actually flows directly to people, not relayed by opinion leaders Ideas originate from the media, not the opinion leaders Media does have direct effects:- ECS respondents cited media as impt source of info Dichotomy of behavior: in reality peoples behaviors occur in a continuum
Led to minimal media effects model. Media is not all-powerful, neither is it powerless. It has effects. Simplistic, but sheds link between media and interpersonal comm.
7.10 The Bureau of Applied Social Research

ORR Joins the ranks of Chicago research prog and the ISR. Most influencial in shaping quanti. Research methods, the birth of mass comms. Liked localized designs, was exploratory in nature. Lynd continued to help Laz move his research institute into Columbia Uni. ORR received more funding from Rockerfeller, and they moved with Laz to New York. Lynd, being dept chair of Sociology at Columbia, helped Laz become a lecturer at Columbia. ORR renamed Bureau of Applied Social Research at Mertons suggestion. Applied by Laz. Laz allowed for a very productive bureau. With funding from govt coming in (due to war) and entrepreneur personality, the bureau could earn loads on money from businessmen. Laz was intelligent, impressive, had his detractors in Columbia, but not dictatorial. Laz appointed A/P, joined by Merton combination of theory and methodology boosted sociology at Columbia. But over time RF stop giving money. So had to continue to do market research. Continued with Decatur Study (1945)
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A mag wanted to upgrade their readership to more atas households the personal influence study in Decatur, Illinois. Increased understanding of the role between media and the interpersonal comm from opinion leadership. Merton recommended Mills (a faculty at Columbia) to join the bureau, to lead the Decatur study but he was at odds with Laz. After a decade or so, the book Personal Influence was published in 1955.
Study of influentials who these opinion leaders are? Why do their opinions seem to matter more? Is it cos they can articulate, they are wealthier, they are older? (in cultures, we listen to our elders) or they have a way of connecting with people? Talks about Lewin-style small group dynamics and empirical results of the Decatur study used Cooleys primary group concept.
Messages in mass media provided info, but only during transmission of info (thru personal influence) did people make decisions and actions. Besides Darwins On the Origin of Species, this is another long lag book.
7.11 Research on Radio Serials

More research that continued on in the Bureau radio serials Radio serials have a long story arc compared to TV and film. Soap operas were popular. Soap cos they were sponsored by detergent companies, target the housewives who have the biggest say in the household budget. Herzog: They measured size and the degree of dedication of the radio audiences. Found them diverse in education, reading behavior. No difference in personality and income, but generally women. Observed gratifications: an emotional release when they cry with the characters in the drama. Launched: Uses & Gratification Goes back to Herzog in 1940 Unlike Laz, U&G acknowledges the activeness in audiences (they are not passive as coined by Laz) We choose things and fufill needs for certain gratifications Inverts the qsn: from what the media does with people to what people does with media Motivational Research A type of marketing research attempting to explain consumer behavior why people buy things? Assumes unconscious motives that influences consumer behaviour
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7.12 About Merton: Lazs Partner

Merton influenced Laz a lot in his theory. Key member of Bureau. Both were hired at Columbia (were recommended by Maclver and Lynd respectively) a winning combi for Sociology at Columbia. A good match of theory and methodology. Very good friend, helped him with his work. Developed key concepts:Self-fulfilling prophecy Theories of the middle range People predict the future and behave in a way to fulfill that outcome (even if its unfavorable) To integrate theory and empirical research To pick out a specialized study and generalize it Too particularistic theories are not useful Too grand / general theory are hard to come up with Merton proposed theories with testable hypotheses. Consequence of mass media As people hear about news, they become apathetic treat their knowledge as action People will be so engaged with getting info that they believe they are involved in the action, but in reality they are just getting info Feigning of personal concern E.g. Kate Smith broadcast for for another indv to manipulate 18 hours to raise bonds for war more effectively Media can have direct effects if its message is highly emotional, and has a credible source
Narcotizing dysfunction
PseudoGemeinschaft (sense of community)
7.13 Wrapping up Laz

Three key contributions to comms:Started media effects tradition The first radio audience survey RRP Developed 2-way comm and Opinion leadership Advanced survey research methods Methods of data gathering Inferred on survey results Created prototype of research institutes Created the model in Vienna Then, Bureau of Applied Research
Brought Merton into comms study
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Criticisms:Abstracted empiricism Observation without theoretical roots So engrossed in quantification, takes us away from important qsns e.g. to observe the effects without understanding why the govt / media produces it that way Seductive empiricism having data is very seductive but from sociologist POV, but has no real rsh benefit Overemphasis on Indv Effects Not looking at systemic effects E.g. systems of control and power
Columbia like Chicago, also went into decline. Effects oriented comms research did not cover: Ownership of media Control of mass comms Macro-issues largely ignored in favor of macro-indv level effects
Only one-way media (TV, Radio, Film) were studied. Two-way media (telephone, telegraphs, letters) were ignored cos the effects paradigm did not fit with the study of those media. Researchers began studying indirect effects (effects of effects).
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08 Kurt Lewin & Group Dynamics

Founded Group Dynamics aka Field Theory. Interested in social psychology of small-group communication.
KURT LEWIN 1890 1947, Illinois, USA PhD, Psy, Uni of FriedrichWilhelms, Berlin An experimental psychologist Fled from Hitler US Moved from individual psy soc psy Small group communication Founded research in group dynamics and management style in organizations Put the group into CS Jew, experienced anti-Semitism influenced scholarly interests Uni of FW, center for Gestalt Psy Hitler broke up Gestalt school at Berlin key figures moved to US Very nice person, a very nice prof who met students, defied customs of the day Enlisted in G army, fought in WWI got hospitalized wrote stuff Championed the cognitive (based on understanding) approach to psychology
Poland Berlin US: Iowa MIT
Influenced by Gestalt psychology: Holistically examines how an object is perceived by its embedded context & environment.
e.g. we fill in a partial lack of info about a person so we get the whole picture
Is experimental like Wundts, but Gestaltism has a context / environment. Wundts methods are confined to laboratory settings. Gestalt: Universal law of perception, tell how world is organized, and how we perceive it. Lewin not a strict gestaltist: his work is gestalt-like in orientation, but focuses on needs, personality and social factors, instead of perception and learning. Taught to Uni of Berlin. Formalised his Field Theory, became a world figure in psychology.
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8.1 The Young Scholar

Had socialist leanings, wanted to address social concerns. Lewin was a leftist, more socialistic; liberal, progressive. (Similar to Marxist thoughts of revolution).
Socialists Believes in the power of the people, decentralized power among all Democratic-Socialists Believe in the power of the vote But left-orientated Facists Believe in authoritarian governance
Inspired Zeigarniks study on recall of uncompleted or interrupted tasks. Waiter will forget, but if they are interrupted, they retain their memory. Theory of memory.
8.2 Field Theory

Field Theory: to study the indv in his field aka lifespace as social context. Field: the totality of coexisting facts which are conceived of as mutually interdependent. A meta-theory, very abstract. More of an approach than theory Not testable with hypotheses Not one of the theories of middle range. Lewin borrowed Physics terms to use in FT:Valence Tension, a motivation or need in an indv at a point in time Vector A force pushing or pulling an indv towards a +ve / -ve perception of an object Barrier Prevents an indv from fulfilling a wish (from releasing an tension)
The past is impt, but the present is even more. Suggested B = f (P, E) Field Theory: Human behavior is a function of the indv and immediate environment. Explains the development of norms / contradictions as taboos
B Behavior f function P People E Environment e.g. We don't stab people cos we will see blood. We are afraid because we know blood belongs in our body!
Based on underlying needs (forces) Freudian theory
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Alternative to Chicago School Hulls Freudian Behaviorism (symbolism interactionism), which centered on S-R learning Lewin put subjectivism (subjective experience) back into psychology. FT focused on cognitive social psychology, which is closely linked to human communication processes (inherent role of communication) Lewin seen as a forefather of comm study. Was phenomenological. But shifted from being philosophical to apply in US. Experimentation to test causality. A trend (correlation) does not mean a relationship (covalence) need time factor. Believed in application, the only way to test a theorys validity. Carried out Quali and Quanti assessments of human behavior: Qualitative e.g. count how many times I yawn to measure attention Qualitative e.g. how do you feel?
With physics to apply to behavior.
8.3 Lewin comes to America

Lewin was invited to the 1929 Intl Congress of Psychology at Yale. Terman was impressed, invited him to Stanford. He returned to Germany, but Hitler caused Lewin to migrate to US. He knew it got the hell out like Laz ended at Cornell Uni. Had a flagging academic career in Germany due to Anti-Semitism. Spent 2 years in Cornell doing Home Econs. Later, he impressed Stoddard of Iowa at a conference Lewin recruited to Iowas Child Welfare Research Stn MIT Was not in the psychology dept, headed by Spence, Lewins would-be opponent of his FT approach. Did not have official tenure to teach, often sought outside money (soft-money dependence) that directed skewed Lewins research towards social problems. Lewin believed that dichotomizing basic and applied research makes sense only in pure sciences and not social sciences. Doing applied research isnt a distraction to Lewin. Was not well received in the scholarly comm cos Lewins theories were weird and complex, i.e. used jargons and was too practical and applied.
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8.4 Intellectual Shift

Migration changed Lewins focus:Indv Learning Perception Learning psychology Social Psychology Prejudice , Race relations, status of women Authoritarian leadership Group influence
Upon reaching US, Lewin became interested in group influences on indv behavior. Identification with a group provides indv with a POV, perspective and self-meaning. Self hatred:1. 2. 3. 4. People in a minority group wants to leave, but cannot due to societal pressures They move far away from their original group, but cannot shake off the label Frustration leads to aggression, but majority group too large to attack Turns to his own minority group to attack
8.5 Leadership Style Studies (1938 39)

Brillant field study. At Iowa, Lewin encouraged Lippitt, his student, to compare auto and demo leadership styles changed Lewin from indv to social psychology Boy scout clubs experiments (experimental anthropology): did twice: First time Assigned 4 groups of boys, 2 groups has demo while the other auto The demo boys were more productive, more hostile Results were socially significant due to Hitlers invasion But sample size too small, not random, cannot be accepted for publication Second Time Designed to avoid the mtd probs of the first time 4 clubs, each with a leader of either authoritarian, demo or laissez-faire Whites behavior got different responses from the boys Coined the term Laissez-faire and clarified the meaning of demo leadership
Subjects knew they were studied Hawthorne effect
Ingenious in manipulating group leadership styles Hawthorne Effect: subjects change their behavior when they know they are being studied. Not an official theory, dont quote as main idea, apocryphal.
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If the administrator knows, may affect results Double-blinds: neither the recipient and the administrator doesnt know who is in what condition. A political motivation, since Lewin came from Nazi Germany. Wanted to show that demo is better than auto: Autocratic High deg of control No freedom by members No participation in group decisions Democratic Low deg of control But demo leader very active in stimulating group discussion and decisions Laissez-faire Low deg of control Leader is hands off, passive
In Singapore, we are of a consultative democracy instead of participative. Singaporeans are consulted on govt policies, but have no say in the policy making process. Decisions are not made by us.
E.g. the casino a lot of opposition but govt said it was the best thing but led to some unhappiness. So GE, PAP said they must make more sincere effort to listen.
8.6 Other Applied Research

Changing Food Habits Change theory (Sweetbreads study) Helped US cope with food shortages with imminent WWII Worked with Margaret Mead Hope Iowa housewives will try the undesirable meats since they are nutritious and cheap Two styles of instruction (lecture vs. discussion) Much more housewives in discussion cooked sweetbreads Study of differences between interactive interpersonal comm vs. one-way mass comm Lewin coined unfreezing, moving, freezing to have a sustained change in behaviors Group decisions had a freezing effect for future action Harwood Pajama Factory studies Very bad performance and output, sought help from Lewin Found out the production goals were impossible to attain Told managers to deal with employees as members of a group Held small group discussions Goals were met eventually, and held
Used participative management to facilitate behavioral change Led to increased productivity Lewin became well-known organizational scholar
Lewin proposed the idea that housewives are gatekeepers: indv who control the flow of messages in a channel, i.e. news wire editor of a newspaper. White wrote about the newspaper editor who selected news to publish. Gatekeeping is a group process in media institutions.
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Invented the Quasselstrippe, aka Chatter Line, where students and Lewin sat and yakked away. Proved that research is very social and collaborative.
8.7 MIT: Research Center for Group Dynamics

Iowa began to dislike Lewin. Spence, the new chair of Dept of Psychology become more attracted to Hulls style of behaviorism. Led the offensive against Lewins brand of psychology. Lewin and his group moved from Iowa MIT on McGregors invitation, set up the Research Center for Group Dynamics. Looked at the soc / psy workings of small groups. Focus groups developed by Laz. Can get more out of a group people talk about things. Dynamic, process-based. The Lewinian group were tight knit, they moved as a group from Iowa to MIT to Michigan. Rare for such stuff to happen. One of the RCGD programs dealt with communication and spread of influence. This program conducted:Westgate housing study (Festinger) How people in an apartment block will interact Festinger liked to study outside the lab, field studies. Not meant to be practical, but to clarify theory. Study showed physical distance greatly affected that interacted with whom. Accidental contact will likely result in friendship Spatial distance is one of the main determinants of who talks to whom. Network Research (Bavelas et al.) Based on Lewins idea of cells on a line a biology reference Bav got inspired, developed a lab experiment on comm pattersn in diff network structures Wheel, Star, Line in increasing deg of restriction Less restriction = better performance But Star > Wheel, cos Wheel had info overload Communication structures can be analyzed mathematically
Overworked, Lewin died of heart attack. After Lewins death, Cartwright directed the RCGD at MIT, moved to Uni of Michigan at Ann Arbor joined the Survey Research Center at Michigan.
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8.8 Research Areas of the RCGD

How does this connect to Comm Studies?
Group productivity Communication Why was it that groups are so ineffective in getting things done? Very applied question How influence is spread throughout a group e.g. Harwood study. Looking at group productivity. Procrastination e.g. Comm flows. How member influence others, assert their wills e.g. What an indv perceive is what other people say they perceive e.g. Dr D and Janet Jacksons boobs at Superbowl, but no one believe him.
Social perception
Intergroup relations Group membership Training leaders
How a person's group affected the way they perceived social events We want our views to be consonant with others Perception of event is affected by others perception. Need validation Shared reality: others exp the world in an identical way we do If we experience it very differently ourselves we doubt our own existence Parallels Marxs False Consciousness Between groups How individuals adjust to these conditions Improving the function of groups (T-groups)
Cliques. Accommodation Groups work better with leaders. Ensure adherence.
8.9 Festinger & Cognitive Dissonance

Festinger: the father of experimental social psychology. He based this on Heiders balance theory and Osgoods congruity theory. Cognitive Dissonance: state of having conflicting thoughts and beliefs esp related to behavioral or attitude change an unpleasant state
e.g. a women who values financial security is dating a man who spends irresponsibly cognitive dissonance
You, Me and Something: Consonance If we both like it, we have congruence Dissonance Otherwise we have dissonance the degree to which an indv faces two conflicting cognitive (understanding) elements. Lit. Lack of harmony (music).
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We have a natural innate drive to avoid / minimize exposure to conflicting messages Dissonance reduction: Try to reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance Also, avoid situations and info that might likely increase the dissonance
Link to comms: Selective exposure. People choose to engage with certain types of media fare. Maybe its them avoiding dissonance. E.g. Democrats or Liberals will choose not to watch right-winged Fox news.
8.10 Dealing with Dissonance

E.g. I think Im generous, but when someone asks me for money, I don't give This may give me a sense of dissonance:Dissonance reduction strategies Change cognitions (attitudes, behaviors) Change your behavior E.g. give the person $ now Change your belief (Conversion) E.g. self-reflect Focus on more supportive beliefs that outweigh the dissonant belief or behavior E.g. Its important to not be too kind or else they will become dependent and lazy Shift importance of the conflicting belief E.g. Aiyah, the beggar probably has more money than me since hes in Singapore
Add cognitions
Alter importance of cognitions Avoiding dissonance inducing situations Selective Exposure
Examples of dissonance inducing situations:Minimal justification By providing a minimal reward (paltry sum) for the change, respondents would have engaged in that behavior for its intrinsic benefits (and not for the paltry reward reframing E.g. If I hate charity work, by volunteering for $1 an hour, I may eventually change my view to see it as meaningful. But If I was paid $7, I will most certainly still think its boring / meaningless. The less justification (in money) more dissonance more attempts to reach consonance Post-decision Dissonance After making a decision, one feels that the other choice might have been better E.g. Post-buyer remorse E.g. After buying the Galaxy SIII, I feel that the iPhone 5 is sexier But, at least I have bigger screen still! (Self consolation) We change our views to make ourselves feel better News media use: we have a political self. Extent of participation related to CD.
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8.11 Legacy of Lewins Group Dynamics

Group Dynamics is an applied field theory. Was born out of a training course by Lewin at MITs RCGD. The evening sessions of group discussions were very popular:1. One of the training programs participants wanted to observe the recordings 2. She disagreed with the observers on the interpretation of her own behavior that day 3. Discussion ensued eventually almost all participants attended the observation sessions
Discovered that learning is best facilitated in an env of tension and conflict Led to establishing the first NTL. Annual seminars were formalized: moved from Connecticut National Training Laboratories (NTL), at Bethel. Started to train leaders. Workshops become less geared to research, more as a training experience. Became a social movement. Formed the T-Groups (Training Groups) at NTL. Training groups initially tackled social issues, then focused on changing attitudes, behavior. Focused on group dynamics research. T-groups were controversial because of they lacked substance.
8.12 Elements of T-Groups

Developed by Lewin. T-groups were controversial because it as Gestaltist and lacked substance. T-groups also handled group situations badly, leaders were complacent. Wanted to pressure people into responses. Anti-platitude: a phrase that makes everyone happy, but doesnt solve problems. Doesnt get to social issues. Putting people into difficult situations (Esalen called it Sensitivity Training to refer to Lewin-style group dynamics training).
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But also has its merits:Feedback Adjustment of a process informed by info about its results or effects But orgs suffer due to getting the actual, not desired result Immediate feedback most effective Unfreezing (challenging beliefs) Disconfirming a persons former belief system Creating an env that can challenge beliefs E.g. why are women unfit for NS? Participant observation Emo engagement Members have to participate emotionally in the group Detached analysis Members observe themselves and the group objectively Oxymoronic immersive to get good info, yet detached enough so you have perspective
Experiential Learning:Testing Maybe gay people can be good teachers.
Follows scientific way of induction (particular general) and deduction (using abstraction to guide hypothesis) to apply it in social science. Johari Window: E.g. of the cognitive aids presented by the T-groups. To help people access the underlying beliefs to help themselves form opinions. Also, mind-maps.
Johari Window Known to others Unknown to others Known to self Public - name, music tastes Hidden - Vulnerabilities, traumas, selfdoubts Unknown to self Blind - personal perception of leadership Unknown - untapped resources, fears, abilities
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8.13 Theory of Group Dynamics

Lewin wondered how groups were formed. Two key ideas emerged out of field theory that is crucial to an understanding group processes: interdependence of fate, and task interdependence.
Interdependence of Fate Groups exist not because their members are similar to one another But it exists when people in it realize their fate depends on the fate of the group as a whole E.g. Jews are individually different, but are a group because all Jews share a common fate hence it constitutes the group E.g. If you get a ticket to Titanic your fate is locked in with the rest of the passengers in the same ship. Could be a weak form There is a stronger form task interdependence Task interdependence Goals of members depend on one another A groups task is such that members of the group are dependent on each other for achievement A powerful dynamic is created
Interdependence can be:o Positive (facilitation) and; o Negative (competition)
Group cohesion: what makes for a group that holds together.
8.14 Extensions of Group Dynamics

Lewin was interested in networks. Social network analysis, e.g. Westgate. 1. Six degrees of Separation (Degree of Connectedness):1. Milgram conducted a study, gave someone a parcel 2. Told them to give it to someone whom they know personally 3. Parcel will get into the city and it takes an avg of 6 hops before getting to the person
Idea that everyone is connected to everyone else by six degrees. 2. There is strength of weak ties (i.e. ties with friends of friends). Using social network, people have better access to job opp. soc mobility
E.g. When looking for jobs, you wont ask your father, because who he knows is likely the same pool of people I know, so no point turns out the strong ties dont help. But the weak ties have and do (e.g. uncle or friends of your dad).
In social network, can differentiate diff type of ties.

Strong bonds: friends people we can trust and rely on Weak ties: acquaintances, school mates, ex-coworkers
3. Using internet as a testbed.

e.g. Smallworld studies
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Chatrooms are echo-chambers: room where you can hear the same thing you said.
E.g. Conservatives vs. Democrats. Conservatives still talking about whether Obama is Muslim etc. C & D in different social spheres and dont meet.
The dark side of cohesion: groupthink:Cohesion Degree of closeness among members, sense of group spirit Enhanced by communication that builds group identity Cohesiveness Participation Groupthink Members fail to think independently Mental inefficiency Causes homogeneity, directive leadership, isolation
Bunker mentality: In a crisis, a group tends to pull together and huddle in isolation.
8.15 Lewins Action Research

Lewin coined the term Action Research Lewins Experiential Learning. Action Research: comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action, and research leading to social action. Involves a spiral / circle of steps:A diagram of how its done usually:1. Identify problem 2. Fact finding (what we sometimes call the Lit Review) 3. Planning 4. Take first step 5. Evaluate
Criticism: Model assumes that: The general idea can be fixed in advance That reconnaissance is indeed simply fact finding The implementation is easy
A problem-solving approach to research in social and org problems Links to Deweys concept of learning from experience. AR suffered a decline in favour during the 1960s because of its association with radical political activism. Non-scientific? But has regained popularity in classroom and education research.
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8.16 Lewins Contributions to CS

Founded experimental (cognitive) social psychology. Trained many brilliant psychologists:Festinger Cognitive Dissonance Westgate study Bavelas Network Research Cartwight Directed RCGD
Important since he died young. Entering US made Lewin a more applied researcher. Each of his studies dealt with an impt social problem: prejudice, nutrition, authoritarian leadership. Developed group dynamics theory, emphasized role of comms. Unlike most psychologists, Lewin was very applied: his affiliations were not to dept of psy but Child Welfare research and RCGD. Made it respectable. Applied research was a means to test theory. Could move freely between theory and applied research.
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09 Hovland & Persuasion Research

Hovland: Introduced persuasion research and experimental method to Comm study.
CARL HOVLAND 1921 1961, Chicago, USA Ba, Ma Psychology Northwestern Uni PhD, Yale Another experimental psychologist Due to WWII, became involved in CS The Laz for interpersonal comm As with Laz, his research led to studying effects Born in Chicago Ba, Ma in Northwestern Uni in Psychology PhD in Yale, studied with Clark Hull From experimental psychologist to postwar social psychologist of persuasion But his conversion was not complete He led the micro-level study of effects of persuasion messages on indv attitude change Effects of persuasive messages on attitude change Moderating variables that act upon the persuasive process
Northwestern Yale War Research dept Yale
Persuasion: any instance where an active attempt is made to change a persons mind. Aka Attitude change. An intentional, 1-way attempt by a source to bring an effect to the receiver. But there will be 2-way interaction since its done in a interpersonal context. Hov went to Yale and studied with Hull, a behavioral scholar of human learning. Yales Psychology dept was very distinguished because of its Institute of Human Relations.
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9.1 Institute of Human Relations (IHR) & Clark Hull

Funded by RF. Proposed by Dean of Law and Medicine. Felt the world was a horrible place. Felt that a unified theory of human behavior centered in psychology was a important for professional training in law and medicine. Interdisciplinary approach to social problems. RFs funding went to building a big school for the faculty of different disciplines to meet. Aim was to provide organized knowledge thru multiple perspectives so that social problems can be more easily solved. Set up study groups, but the groups produced no solutions. Clark Hull joins to study the role of motivation.
9.2 Clark Hull & Behavioristic Approach in IHR

Enter Clark Hull. Hull proposed an interdisciplinary group focusing on instrinsic motivation, a common topic across all disciplines and social problems. PhD at Wisconsin hired to Yale. Influenced by Pavlov: Russian psychologist known for classical conditioning.
e.g. Let dogs starve, then hed ring bells and bring food. Conditioned dogs to associate bells with food Afterwards, hed just ring the bell and again, no food Dogs will salivate
Pavlov came up with classical conditioning: how people learn from their experiences. Hull engaged in behavioristic approaches (Dewey):- Looking at behaviours and what leads to them? What stimuli? What responses?
Basic S-R External stimulus triggers an internal response But whats inbetween S & R? e.g. bullet theory Intrinsic motivation: between the S and R Animal Learning Using white rats as test subjects to test how animals (and humans) learn Conditioning theory inadequate Not enough to explain human behavior Some other thing will modulate human behaviour
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Superseded by cognition: what happens between the S and R / what happens in the mind: a positivistic approach (we CAN understand the black box of the human mind). Hull began introducing Freudian concepts of drives (libido, repression, regression, fixation, cathexis) to the weekly seminars aggression is produced by frustration. Hull developed a new kind of motivation seminars based on behavioristic approaches with Pavlovian Conditioning and Freudian psychoanalysis. Yale became very exciting, attracted many PhD students, including Hov. Hov was attracted to having a diverse set of theories in studying problems. Hulls behaviorism + Freudian psychoanalytic theory Hovs learning theory persuasion theory.
9.3 Hovland goes to War at Research Branch

Hov was Hulls protg, but he surpassed Hull in many ways. Hov could conceptualize a problem and design an ingenious experiment to tackle it. Was doing very well in his career, but it changed suddenly due to WWII Hov was called into service. WWII was heavily consuming the US. US engaged in Pacific and European sides for the war on 2 fronts. So in order to manage this and organize resources, govt decided social sciences needed to have people think in the right way. Hov was hired as Chief Psychologist of the Research Branch of the Info & Education Division, US Dept. of War (1942), by Stouffer. Stouffer worked with Laz at the Social Research Center. Expert in survey research methods. Wasnt good in experiments, held them in high regard. so he wanted Hov to complement him, an experimentalist in Dept of War. Social science research started in WWII to monitor the troops morale. Army initially opposed to surveying their personal, until Gen. Frederick came along, who helped removed the obstacles. Survey flourished. As the benefits of the research branch surfaced, the military authorities were sold over.
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Stouffers Research Branch had two units: Survey research unit (Cottrell) had sociologists from Chicago Experimental unit (Hovland) Psychologists from Yale
Half army, half civilian personal, many outstanding social scientists were congregated under Stouffer.
9.4 Hovs Army Experiments

Hov focused on attitude change during his wartime studies. In social psychology: attitude is a positive or negative feeling towards some indv or object that serves as a call to action. But attitude does not always explain behavior. Only under certain circumstances do attitudes affect behavior. The study of attitudes have progressed thru 3 eras:Measuring attitudes Lewin Attitude change Hovland Rsh branch evaluated the persuasive effects of training films on soldiers Rekindling of interest in attitudes and systems In 1990s and 1990s
Methodological work carried to measure attitudes
9.5 Why We Fight Film Series

Very hard to train 15 million newly drafted civilians to become fighting men. Forced integration brought people together. Needed to explain why US was involved in war, to get them psychological prepared to engage in armed combat etc. So the US came up with training (educate & motivate) troops thru films. Hired Capra from Hollywood to make seven 50min films, the Why We Fight series, were propaganda messages. basic objective: to persuade and inform the viewer. Have to justify difficult life choices (eating brains, fighting another human, etc). Films impact evaluated by Research Branch. But Hov was still in heart, interested in human learning.
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9.6 Goals of Why We Fight Films

Inspired by German Nazi film Triumph of the Will that was very successful. So US saw it and felt compelled to so something like this too. To impart factual knowledge & shaping beliefs (an internal consensus) and opinions (how we feel about it, e.g. Like or dislike). Specific beliefs they were trying to impart:War as a just cause E.g. WII was one of US have been in more wars than being those cases). Japan at peace not that hard to persuade wanted to take over Americans to join a war East Asia and the Wars are sometimes necessary to world, so we need to defend against aggressors stop that guy. We [US] is here to save the world! British helped them into the war Give young men the confidence to be able to carry out their own tasks Buck em up! Multi-lateral war: US has allies. Must ensure allies have shared values, same objectives. E.g. You need to Very hard to get a young man prepared listen to the to kill another human being commander and Must let them think that there is no sometimes, pull the other option trigger. A la the Have to dehumanize the enemy. propaganda poster. Wining the war makes the world a better place
Resentment of the enemy (characterization) Military victory will make for a better world
Confidence in own abilities, integrity of allies
Motivate people to sign up.
9.7 Research on the WWF Films

Hov conducted designed field experiments on 1-sided vs 2-sided messages, impact of fear appeals, effect of source credibility etc. Measured verbal responses of knowledge about the film contents, and evidences of attitude change, e.g. more willing to fight. Had a great deal of control: Participants were a captive audience since recruits have nowhere else to go from their army bases attention ensured Access to personnel (demographic) records, cos Hov worked for the war dept Cost not a concern, because the resources were already there.
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Hov and colleagues conducted a pretest-posttest control group design:Two-group Pretest-Posttest + Control Design Use 2 groups, but place only 1 group in a control environment (isolate it no treatment variable)
Using:Parallel forms for pretest and posttest Fact-quiz questions Opinion items Distractor or camouflage questions Avoid respondent sensitization to the measurements Parallel forms: Getting responses from two different tests that were created using the same content e.g. Which of the countries are the allies of US? e.g. How willing are you to die for US? e.g. How much have you learnt from the film? vs. Is the film educational?
Test knowledge gain Test attitude change To obscure what they were really trying to find out to avoid the Hawthone effect
Hovs experiments also measured film effects (like the Payne Fund studies), but their focus was to test hypotheses of why greater effects can occur under certain conditions.
E.g. whats the effect of a more credible source on indvs attitude change?
9.8 Basic Findings of WWF Film Study

Results: Why We Fight:1. Greatly increased US soldiers factual knowledge , 2. Slightly changed their attitudes, 3. But NO IMPACT on their motivation to serve as soldiers. No statistically significant difference within margin of error (38% vs. 41%).
Pattern fits with hierarchy of effects model:Hierarchy of effects: Change in Knowledge Marginal change in specific Attitudes No effects in Motivation (Behavior). Hov Employed both quantitative and qualitative research methods:Quanti (Hov) Hov used experimental designs to determine effects of armys morale films. Quali (Merton) Also wanted qualitative responses Hov engaged Merton and the Columbia Unis Bureau of Applied Social Science to conduct focus group interviews with soldier respondants. interviews provided the reasons behind the film content to produce those effects
Experimental methods provided the kind of effects
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8.9 Implications of WWF

Research properly conducted, and films well produced So WHY didnt they achieve all their goals?
Contamination of the control groups Complexity of motivation Individual differences (e.g., belief systems) Possibility of sleeper effects E.g. Difficult to prevent the Exp. is invalidated since there control group from receiving is no longer a baseline to info about the film as recruits compare results talk to one another Recruits shared barracks Humans have complex motivations Not easily moved by a single treatment Not influence-able A set of mutually supportive beliefs Use randomly assigned groups to conditions Should balance things out When people are exposed to a highly persuasive message, they become highly supportive of it But after while, their advocacy drops to a level prior to hearing it (as if they never heard before) Yet, by pairing up a persuasive message with a discounting cue (e.g disclaimer) people tend to be more persuaded over time Even if the msg lacks initial credibility
E.g. Obamas negative ad attack on Romney ends with Im Barack Obama and I approve this message and displays Paid for Obama for America
Changing peoples behavior is extremely hard to do. Films were liked and believed true Most thought WWFs purpose was informational. Viewers were not all smart enough to the catch the persuasive hints in the film people didnt know they we supposed to have an attitude change. Prior experience, knowledge facilitates change. Short-term vs. long-term effects:Forgetting of factual material Both decreases and increases in opinion change The so-called sleeper effect When people are exposed to a highly persuasive message, they become highly supportive or disapproving of it But after while, their advocacy drops or rises to a level prior to hearing it (as if they never heard before ) People can forget the source, effects of source-discounting are negated over time Greater attitude change over time
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9.10 Hovlands Message-Learning Approach (MLA)

After WWII, Hov returns to Yale and built upon his wartime research on persuasion he called it the Message-Learning Approach. Hov developed the model of attitude change (expanded by McGuire): Attention People can only be persuaded by messages they pay attention to Comprehension Must understand the message before it can influence their attitudes Yielding Acceptance, the point at which attitude change occurs Retention How long the attitude change lasts
Similar to Lewins Unfreezing -Moving-Freezing. Process must be completed for change. MLA: A way to analyze how individuals learn from comm messages:Indep. variable (SMCR Components) Dep. variable Source Message Channel Receiver
Persuasion / Attitude change
Similar to Lasss 5-question model. According to SMCR, components in the comm process. Hov will take one component and study its one dimension and how it affects persuasion (e.g. source credibility Persuasion) Ind. Variables related to persuasion (attitude change): Source variables (who) Number of sources Unanimity Intention to persuade Attractiveness Similarity to receiver Credibility Positive influence but fades over time (Sleeper effect) Channel variables (in what channel) Modality (which channel) o Face-to-face vs. mass media Channel attributes o Auditory vs. visual vs. audiovisual o Textual vs. pictorial o Nowadays, interactivity Context (solitary vs. group experience) Message variables (says what) Number of arguments used One-sided vs. two-sided arguments Organization o Order of presentation o Repetition Comprehensibility (of message) vs Comprehension (of person) Style of presentation Arousal and fear reduction Receiver variables (to whom) Demographics (age, ethnicity, gender) Psychographics (individual differences) o Abilities o Personality (Intro/Extro) Self-esteem (capable of change)
MLA does not take interaction effects into account.
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But with 19 years of study, Hov came up with a thorough understanding of attitude change behaviours. Hov switched to comm and persuasive when back in Yale, but brought a lot of the human learning thinking, combining Hullian behaviourist theory into the persuasion field. Knowledge attitude behavioral change!
9.11 McGuires Expanded Hovs Output Variables

McGuire at Yale extended Hovs MLA model after he died. McGuire coined the different aspects of the persuasion / communication attempt (Source, Message, Channel and Receiver) as Input Factors. He then adds a Y axis comprising stages of persuasion, which he calls "Output Variables. McGuires Persuasion matrix explains persuasion effects by identifying inputs and outputs:X axis Hovs Input factors Source Message Channel and Receiver 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Y axis McGuires 12 Output variables Exposure Tuning into the message Attention paying attention to the message Comprehension understanding the message Liking Being interested in / liking the message Skill acquisition Gaining skills to act on the message Yielding Agreeing with the message Storage Memorizing - storing the message for later use Retrieval Retrieving the message from Decision memory Action To act according to the message Reinforcement receiving appropriate rewards Consolidation integrating the message into general behaviour
McGuire combines the traditional SMCR 1-D model with factors on the Y-axis we have a more sophisticated way of thinking about and analyzing communication. The 2-D matrix is useful for analyzing the effectiveness of persuasive communication both before and after the fact.
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9.12 McGuires Matrix Model

An extension of the message learning approach (MLA). Inputs or IVs also elaborated upon, both within SMCR and by adding Target. Inputs can affect all stages or outputs Crossing IVs and DVs creates the matrix.
Components of Communication Channel Receiver
Message Source Exposure Attention Interest/Liking Comprehension Acquisition Stages of Agreeing Persuasion Memorizing Retrieving Deciding Acting Reinforcement Consolidation
Context
Conditional probabilities limit success 1st prob. X 2nd prob X 3rd prob Every subsequent stage is conditional on the previous stage. Getting to the very end, probability of change is very small. So advertisers are very happy with 3% of change. Model extensively used, especially in health communication campaigns and research.
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9.13 Summary of Hovs Persuasion Research

Sources of influence:Hulls Freudian theory Due to Hovs participation at IHR in Yale Hulls Behaviorism Adopted the behaviorist approach to behavior change methodological background as a psychologist of learning Lewins Field theory & group psychology studies Via Kelley, Hovs colleague at Yale
Many empirical findings about attitude change:1. High credibility sources lead to more attitude change, but sleeper effect sets in 2. Mild fear appeals better than strong ones 3. 1-sided messages better for lowly educated, 2-sided for higher edu. 4. A weaker self-concept invites more attitude change than stronger ones 5. Active participants have more change 6. Indv strongly attracted to a group have less attitude change link to Group Dynamics Cohesion
Like Laz, Hovs orientation was on media effects (output variables). Unlike Lazs minimal effects model, Hov and his colleagues found that a large amount of people were affected by a single exposure to a persuasive message reasons being:Hov had a captive audience Lazs respondents may not all have been exposed to the message, nor have all gained attention, and so on Hovs issues were unfamiliar Unlike Lazs issues on voting and other strongly held beliefs at the Bureau of Applied Social Research Hovs issues did not have strong ego involvement in the respondents (i.e. people didn't have preexisting beliefs about fighting wars)
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10 Wiener & Cybernetics

Wiener: Coined cybernetics communication is people sending messages within a system in effort to control their surrounding environment.
NORBERT WIENER 1894 1964, Colombia, Missouri, USA BA, Maths, Tufts College PhD, Philosophy Harvard Uni Wiener: a mathematician, father of cybernetics Prodigy, PhD at 18 Russian Jewish heritage Low self-confidence in his intellect and academic status, even though hes excellent Led to getting greater intellect accomplishments Created cybernetics during WWII to improve accuracy of missiles prostheses comm systems Co-inventor of entropy measure of info with Shannon Launched information theory with Shannon Had a damn smart father from Harvard Wiener himself graduated from Harvard with PhD in Philosophy and mixed with smart people Taught at MIT mathematics Weiners dad treated him harshly had a sad childhood affected Weiners adult personality with others Unconventional Edu: isolated from other children, became dependent on his genius dad and craved his praise Was traumatized that he was a Jew. After Cornell, he was transferred to Harvard for his PhD. Went with Russell to studying math philosophy at Cambridge.
Harvard Germany (Gottinen) MIT
Cybernetic Theory: communication is people sending messages within a system in effort to control their surrounding environment. Feedback (Communication): the response given by a receiver to the sources previous message, indicating its effects. systems can be self-correcting. Wiener impacted the PA school interactional communication. After his PhD at Harvard Weiner studied under Russell in Germany. Returned to US to study with Dewey at Columbia, but found it disappointing cos Deweys writings were confusing Roped into the WWI war joined MIT to teach maths. Very successful at MIT, spent 45 years.
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Became interested in concept of feedback from Lee, key to the cybernetics theory to be.
10.1 Academic Success at MIT

Joined the Maths dept at MIT as an instructor. Studied Brownian motion, did awesome mathematical work. Had diverse intellectual interests. Connected with Born, Einstein, Mead, Bateson. Wiener helped transform MIT from a engineering uni research uni.
10.2 Wieners Style

Wiener is odd, absent-minded. Had wiener-wegs / walks: he walked to think. He will randomly pop into offices and start discussions. Due to insecurity, Wiener became moody and hot & cold towards colleagues. Bad lecturer, broke many relationships and bad self-awareness. Talked a lot, thought in his sleep during meetings.
10.3 Origins of Cybernetics: The Yellow Peril

Due to Wieners WWII research experience, he became interested in feedback and designs of systems. Shells fired at enemy aircraft were too slow had to aim at the future position of the aircrafts targets could then swerve away ineffective. Bad experience at Battle of Britain. Allies forces needed to improve their antiaircraft missiles badly. Role of feedback: Wiener saw the inaccuracy of anti-aircraft missile as communication problem. Feedback on degree of shot so as to achieve a more accurate subsequent shot. Released the Yellow Peril: Yellow because its classified Peril because the contents are hard to understand
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A way to get information about performance feedback into the control system / mechanism in order to optimize firing. A trans-disciplinary way of thinking: spanning maths and social science. Aka Extrapolation, interpolation and smoothing of stationary time series (with engineering applications).:Extrapolation Extracting data to predict whats going to happen next Interpolation Going in between two different points and estimating the different data points Time series Data collected over a period of time
YP: a cybernetic report to anti-aircraft accuracy problem. Stimulated emergence of information theory and cybernetic theory. took Wiener to explore intra and interpersonal comm processes.
10.4 Weiners Cybernetic Theory

Wiener coined "cybernetics" to elaborate on the existing theory of the transmission of messages. He compared humans to machines. Cybernetic Theory: communication is people sending messages within a system in effort to control their surrounding environment. Feedback (Communication): the response given by a receiver to the sources previous message, indicating its effects. systems can be self-correcting. Feedback is communication cos its conveying of info. Servomachanisms already exists before cybernetics. Machines that control other machines based on their received feedback. E.g. thermostat. But he invented a mathematical theory of how feedback controls a system. Feedback: control of the future conduct of a system by information about its past performance controlling a system by inserting its past results into it. Circular causalities: A B C A so A A (causes itself).
E.g. a speaker modifying his own rhetoric while monitoring audiences response to him
either hits target, underachieved or overachieved Feedback loop that keeps going thru system!
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E.g. a thermostat-:1. Control Ctr: specifies the goals, identifies the difference via a signal. 2. Mechanism creates output to affect performance. 3. Feedback to CC calls for a readjustment (signal). Like homeostasis. To maintain a constant temperature. a route moving from 1 part of a system, about the sys performance and passes it back to the mechanism
Cybernetics theory is a communication theory linked closely to information theory. Concerned with how messages are exchanged between units so that each unit influences one another. Units in a system comprises machines. Has two key concepts:Feedback and its stabilizing properties Information moving from one part of the system and sending it back to the control mechanism Negative / Positive feedback Deviation from the desired outcome Information transmission makes parts whole Performance registered, feedback sent to control mechanism Info flow connects the parts of a system together
2 kinds of feedback:Positive feedback Amplifies Increases changes from a certain level to an even higher level Causes instability A produces more of B which in turn produces even more of A E.g. More cattle running more overall panic even more cattle running even more overall panic etc Negative feedback Stabilizes Deviation reducing, constraining back to a stable point / an equilibrium
E.g. regulation of body temperature (Homeostasis)
Cybernetics is a broad theory, not constricted to maths. It is founded on communications and information theories multidisciplinary aspect. Cybernetics vs Social Science: In cybernetics, feedback has a direction of deviation (positive or negative). SS: No direction, only scalar.
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10.5 Applications of Cybernetics

Wiener saw wide applications of cybernetics any self-correcting system. Cybernetic theory applied to:Servomechanisms Where people controlled the rate of machines to work together Human nervous system transmitting signals Prostheses Prostheses (fake/artificial limbs) Language and interaction Thinking about conversations Social organization (reaching a goal?)
10.6 Development of Cybernetics

Demonstrating Wieners multidisciplinary approach in:Biology Philosophy of Science Club With Rosenblueth of Harvard Wiener joined the science club Wiener-Rosenblueth collaboration studies the brain and nervous system Studied human and computer brains Invented the Boston Arm, a prostheses Social Macy Foundation Conferences Series of multidisciplinary postwar conferences by Macy Foundation Ten conferences on cybernetics Wiener attended it with many great social scientists (Laz, Lewin, Bateson, Mead, von Neumann) Wiener gave Bateson the idea of Feedback at a conference Bateson put cybernetics into use as interactional communication in PA group Bateson and Mead humanised cybernetics to usage in social contexts
Von Foester suggested a change of name: Feedback mechanisms and Circular Causal systems in Biology and Social Science Cybernetics. Macy Conferences allowed for application of cybernetics: from Russells oscillation concept content vs. relationship level in interactional comm.
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10.7 Beyond Cybernetics

Wiener sees cybernetics as a unifying theory between sciences. Cybernetics provided CS a fertile ground as it made CS multidisciplinary.
Second-order cybernetics Examining systems (Metaconcept) When we examine them, we are part of the system We are influencing its performance Adjusting our evaluation, control of control (Cybernetics of cybernetics) nd 2 Order includes the us as the observer First order only includes the system Just by observing, investigators are affecting the system and are affected themselves Social Cybernetics Systems theory Complexity Study (need to look at things in their complex, natural state) Opposition to reductionist approach of science i.e. theres only two types of gender No one person is the same all the time; social contexts is dynamic We shouldnt reduce (narrow down) on studying phenomenon, because we lose certain meaning of its wider context General Systems Theory
Human interaction
10.8 Cybernetics and Comms Study

Cybernetics as a comm theory states that:Feedback as an (important) comm message flow A form of comm Makes sys work Possibility of change and control Dynamic, processual view of behavior Constantly changing, a process that gives rise to behavior and behavior adjustment / modification Reflexive, self-learning systems Looking inward, reflecting back, selflearning systems (systems that learn)
10.9 von Bertalaffys Systems Theory

Influenced by cybernetics theory. An opposition to the reductionist approach of physics, whereby people keep studying smaller and smaller pieces of a phenomenon. E.g. studying nano-particles in Biology
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Works in science, but in social science, it is a handicap as social sciences need a context to make sense. So systems theory corrects this disorder by empahsing the holistic aspect of a system the interrelationships among parts of a whole. Not a theory, but a paradigm in response to reductionism. A need to turn away from narrowing but instead embrace broad contexts in inter and multidisciplinary ways. Von Bertalaffy influenced by Morris, who studied with Mead wrote General Systems Theory spread systems thinking. Popular in the 60s & 70s, then faded: been absorbed as holism in science. Interaction within living systems were complex and affected by their context, but analytical science was looking into small areas instead of the big picture was not answering the questions. Like cybernetics, living systems have feedback mechanisms.
E.g. homeostasis.
Rejects cause-and-effects, since every depends on everything else.
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11 Shannon & Information Theory

Shannon: Developed Information theory & Transmission model.
CLAUDE SHANNON 1916 2011, Michigan, USA MA, Maths & Engin, MIT PhD, Princeton Uni Had two successful parents (judge and principal) Inclined towards maths at a young age Did graduate work at MIT Worked as research assistant on the differential analyzer Published his Information Theory in the Bell System Technical Journal Major technological improvements due to extensive cross-disciplinary collaboration of great minds in WWII and good govt funding Transistor replacing vacuum tube Lead to new info tech, of which Shannons info theory was a science breakthrough
Bell Labs Center for Advanced Study in Beh Sci MIT
11.1 Origins of Info Theory

Info theory: Mathematical theory to explain aspects and problems of information and communication. After getting degree at Michigan, Shannon went to MIT to work as RA for Bush for the differential analyzer, an invention of Bush. a mechanical computer, bunch of switches, a calculator. Shannon did a masters thesis on relay switching. Found out that we can use Boolean logic to streamline design of telephone circuits. In MIT he conceptualized information as part of a technical aspect of communication process, and worked on it later at Princeton for its post-doc. Bell Labs telephony (wires) how info affects transference. Language is a kind of code.
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11.2 Bell Labs & Weaver, Shannons Translator

After MIT, Shannon went to work in Bell Labs, telephony company. He developed the info theory in bits (oops the pun) and pieces, but never told the whole story until he published his work. Although brilliant, it was mathy and need to be simplified. Enter Weaver, mathematician-scientist in Rockefeller Foundation to translate it and publish an article Mathematics of Comm in a journal. Schramm heard of the article and published a book with Shannons theory + Weavers article in The Mathematical Theory of Communication.
11.3 Shannons Nature of Information

Shannon proposed the nature of information:Informationw Difference in matterenergy that affects uncertainty in a situation where a choice exists among a set of alternatives in a decision-making situation Uncertainty is a function of the number of alternatives available Defined as degree of entropy Uncertainty (Entropy) Degree of uncertainty or disorganization of a system E.g. coin vs. dice (more alternative more uncertainty) Ties to thermodynamics Entropic systems Systems of great instability Greater uncertainty with more alternatives Degree of freedom number of choices that you have. The Bit (Binary Digit) Universal unit (amount) of information Greatest uncertainty is 50/50 More bit = less uncertainty Smallest bit of info is the binary digit off or on 0 or 1 only two states Can use the bit to encode/represent info
A bit = 1 on / off switch. To narrow down to a particular walnut (out of 16 walnuts) on a table, we need 4 switches = a bits of info (16 = 22) Suppose 16 walnut shell on a table, one 1 with a pea under it:1 bit Pea is in one of the shells on the right 8 left
st nd rd th
2 Bit Pea is in the front row, not back 4 left
3 But Pea is in a pink walnut 2 left
4 Bit Pea in a cracked walnut 1 left (answer)
Information = reduce uncertainty to know things
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11.4 Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication

Shannon worked for Bell Labs, a telephone R&D center in US, founded by Grambell, inventor of the telephone. Shannons job was to improve (optimize) the transmission of info over a telephone that was affected by noise fewest errors, highest success. Comm is a technical process with the goal of optimizing transmission. Shannon created a linear model of elements involved in communication:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Source Message Transmitter Signal Noise Received signal Receiver Destination Hovland (Persuasion Research) used Shannons variables to develop the MLA using Shannons SMCR variables Other comms scholars used Shannons variables to study effects instead of channel capacity. Subjective meanings between person are ignored.
Information theory, or Shannons mathematical theory of comm. Communication: the process thru which one mind influences another. Weaver translated Shannons somewhat complex math model (theory), applied it to human comm.
Similar to Lasss 5-question model, BUT did NOT include to what effect. Has only 4 out of Lasss 5 elements, has noise, encoding. Differences between Lass and S-W Model: Lasss Model Comparison across mediums (e.g. newspapers vs TV) Studies Media Effects Has Effects No encoding, no noise S-W Model Comparison within a medium (e.g. within radio) Studies Capacity No Effects Has encoding, noise
Telephone: sound waves encoded electric signals decoded sound waves.
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11.5 Shannons Cryptography at Bell Labs

Cryptography: Science of producing cipher (disguised) systems allowing for secret communication / writing of codes. Cryptography is a way of hiding info so others dont get it. Shannon worked on cryptography at Bell Labs, aided Turing of London in his fight against the German invasion at WWII. Encrypting message is adding deceptive noise to original messages decrypting is using equipment to remove the noise (with knowledge of how noise was encoded). Shannons research on Crypto was concurrent with Info Theory. Most frequent letters of a cryptic message are disguised into other letters. More letters (more redundancy) easier to crack. Pro: easier to ascertain, less noise Cons: also easier for enemies to crack it Developed the SIGSALY, the unbreakable code, helped Allies win G. After his wartime research, Shannon went to MIT to teach.
11.6 Weavers Interpretation of S-W Model

Shannon and Weaver disagreed about how the model should be applied: Weaver Weaver thought that it could be applied to a lot of fields Messages come preloaded with meaning Subjectivity of sender and receiver Info Theory applicable to other levels Shannon But Shannon thought that it should be limited to technical concept Messages have no inherent meaning Senders encoding = receivers decoding Info theory only applies to tech levels Shannon only sees his theory as applicable to engineering comm (i.e. how machines communicate) Technical communication
Champions the broad application to broader sciences Human communication
Served as powerful heuristic.
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Weaver: message sent message received:Technical problem Inaccurate transmission Was there any interference in the sending process? Did the signal get there? Shannons model limits comm problems to this level only Semantic problem Behavioral problem No conveyance of Undesired effect meaning Did the Did the receiver communication have understand it the way the intended the sender intended outcome, the desired it to be? effect? Did the receiver Did they act they way we understand it correctly? intended them to? Weaver: model works for other levels.
Shannons theory does not consider intention, meaning, context and rsn. Students have been using the SMCR model, but those are engineering terms used for machine. Yet, humans have emotions and experiences. those SMCR terms are inadequate. Shannons theories allowed comm study to flourish in US unis and be ingrained into other disciplines (biology, psychology etc).
11.7 Implications of Shannons Info Theory

Bit allows us to quantify information. Fundamental unit widely applicable. Info theory optimizes coding:Error-correcting codes To overcome noise in a message Reduces no. of bits Reducing the number of bits needed, reducing redundancy
brought us from analog to digital digital recording (MP3) Allows us to examine transmission capacity (even tho comm scholars are more interested in effects than capacity due to their lousy math skills).
E.g. broadband
Tells us how noise affects transmission, and how to use redundancy to counteract the noise redundancy is a safeguard against dropping of signals signal:noise ratio (the higher the better the message). Repeating info helps reduce loss of info thru direct repetition, built-in redundancy
e.g. waving of hands is redundant when we say hello
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11.8 Application of Shannons Model

The one-way, linear model of communication. Ev: it served as the paradigm for communication study:Key var of Comm: SMCR Provided an easily understandable list of the main parts in the comm. act (SMCR) Can study ind. variables e.g. source variables, message var. etc And also dependent var. e.g. effects, knowledge change, persuasion, behavioural change
Berlo added a Feedback element SMCR + Feedback (thanks to Wiener). Comms scholars assume an abundance of capacity (so channel cap is not a dependent factor), and they are interested in effects. encouraged by Lasss 5-question model. Weaver distinguished between physical noise and semantic noise: Physical noise Scratchiness over the phone etc weak signal incomplete picture Semantic noise Related to the meaning goes to the heart of human communication do we have shared understanding?
E.g. static, TV dishes not strong enough
Importance of redundancy in readability reduced uncertainty.

E.g. news articles have much higher redundancy than novels so easier to guess what words will come out.
Cloze test of readability

E.g. Today, I went to the ________ and bought some milk and eggs. I knew it was going to rain, but I forgot to take my ________, and ended up getting wet on the way ________.
Strengths and weaknesses of Shannons model: Strengths Simple straightforward General speaks to wide range of phenomena; Highly generalizable Quantifiable Weaknesses Oversimplified- exclude some things Misleading as a metaphor telephony not the best way to conceptualise networked comm Comms is a actually a process, not an act (comm is not linear, one-off, but cyclical, continuous)
moving away from Shannons definition. Shannons theories sets the ground for better theories to follow. Unfair to criticize it since it provides useful guidelines. Yet, we must realise the limitations and assumptions. Including the comm us often unintentional and nonlinear.
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S-W Model does not address four things:Intention Why does he want to communicate? Meaning What is the semantic meaning of the message? Context What external thing influences the boxes in the model? Surely they dont exist in a vacuum History (Rsn) What came before or comes after the communication? The past affects the audience. Communicators past influences the message. E.g. Shared experiences helps us understand slangs.
11.9 Conceptual Models

Simplification: models are reductionist in nature, simplifications by definition. But can be overly simplified. They identify the key elements, and their relationships. Models:Organize Organize complex info, give order to chaos, makes things simple, patterned Explain Why these things are organized the way they are +ve / -ve relationship Predict Take the known to extrapolate to other conditions and times
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12 Comms Study in US and the World Today

How Schramm played his role in founding CS, and let CS gain acceptance in US unis turn comms into a discipline (identity & place in history).
Theoretical Fathers Darwin Marx Freud Communication History & Theory CS Forerunners CS Founder Lasswell Schramm Lazarsfeld Lewin Hovland Weiner Shannon formulated CS concepts, made CS a field of study theories and methods of CS in its own right with other social sciences
Schramm may have bias: skew / slant / selective interpretation. Schramm founded comm rsh institues at Illinois and Stanford, which investigated scholarly, trained PhD students and brought together the interdisciplinary field of comms. Unlike the other forerunners (Laz, Hov), Schramm stayed on in CS after the war created the first uni modules, wrote the first textbook, awarded the first PhD in comms. Schramm was the dean of Comms in Illinois. Struggled for recognition and funding (unlike Singapore).
12.1 Schramm at Illinois

Communication study of Phenomena and its forms Communications study of messages Stoddard, president of Illinois wanted to revitalize Illinois. Conducted one Payne Fund study on effects on movies on children knew about mass comm research & media effects (as with Parks Blumer) Churn out PhDs students become faculty in other countries. Stoddard hired Schramm to come over from Iowa to Ill. Offered Schramm to create & direct the Institute of Comms Research at Illinois.
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Schramm elevated to eminence in Illinois, took on many responsibilities: i/c every activity connected with comms Asst to president Director of Ills ICR Editor to unis press Dean of Div of Comm
Speech department remained independent from Comms Comms later also divided into mass and interpersonal comm sub-disciplines.
12.2 Schramms Institute of Comms Research at Illinois

The ICR was already an ongoing idea proposed by Sandage. Sandage, a Illinois prof teaching advert. Sandage proposed the Bureau of Comms Research, after consultation with Laz of Lazs Bureau of Social Science Research at Columbia. Idea was put on hold by Stoddard until Schramm came in. So, Schramms idea of CS went thru:Birthed (1942) Washington Developed (1943) Iowa Realised (1947) Illinois Success Stanford
Schramm held a conference that Hov, Laz and Bleyer children attended created the first textbook. Has an interdisciplinary approach for his doctoral programme. Schramms ICR was supported by hard (uni budget) and soft money (external sponsors for rsh projects) gave permanency unlike Lazs BASR. External projects gave doc students apprenticeship and doc training.
12.3 ISRs Berlo & Osgood

Berlo: ICR MSUs Comms Chair math undergrad, finished Ba in Illinois out stationed in air force, was recommended to ISR at Illinois. Wooed by Sabine, Dean of Michigan State (MSU). Offered to chair the Dept of Comms at MSU first dept of mass and interpersonal comm Schramms vision. replaced Schramm as director of ICR Osgood Psychologist and linguist Key hire of Schramm at ICR Created the Semantic Differential
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Subsequently, Stoddard grew unpopular with the uni and was replaced by Morey who hated Schramm. Took away his duties. Schramm scrammed to Stanford.
12.4 Schramm & 2nd ICR at Stanford (1955~70)

Bush, one of the Bleyer children recruited Schramm to Stanford. Hilgard, dean of grad school at Stanford, colleague at OWI, was very impressed with Schramms wartime duties. Provided salary to Schramm. Stanford had a dept of speech and drama & div of journ (both split from dept of Eng) Bush wanted to join them into a Dept of Comm and Journ Bush became char of DCJ and director of ICR at Stanford. Bushed offered Schramm to direct the ICR; Stanford dominated comms. Research for decades after golden era at Stanford
12.5 Stanford, the Seed Institution for CS

At golden era, Stanford seeded other institutions in CS: Turned out large no. of PhD scholars rose to leadership positions became deans and directors across US
Seeded other institutions with other faculty members spread of CS. CS training was interdisciplinary with stats, psychology and sociology etc. Schramms protgs were out everywhere and in hot demand across US. Schramms vision of CS: an objective understanding of human info exchange based on scientific research. Not normative perspectives.
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12.6 Green Eyeshades vs Chi-squares

A conflict of perspectives ensued about knowledge of human communication as applied to journalism:Green Eyeshades (Sch of Journ) More vocational, professional approach to journ education Opposed new science of CS Believed journ is to report, write and edit Journ could not have survived as a vocational study Wanted to keep Journalism name as vocational discipline Hated quanti methods Hard news = normative aim of paper values > Profits Chi-squares (Schramms students) Scientific and less vocational approach to journ education Had a perspective of journ edu that fit the US research unis
Wanted to rename journ to Communications, a soc science Employed surveys Soft news better serve the
Eyeshades eventually lost to Chi-squares as newspapers and media institutions became engaged in polling and market research applied comms research was very valuable. Bleyer children did a crucial lot: Organized the Chi-squarers against the Eyeshaders at AEJ conferences Prepared schs of journ for Schramms vision Administered the journ schools at Wis, Minne, Ill, and Stanford formed a network of journ schools in the US
Schools did not totally follow Schramms idea of renaming to communication. Many still stayed as journalism even after changing to Schramms vision of CS.
12.7 Daddy Bleyer Schramm: a Palimpsest

Schramm was well-aware of Daddy Bleyers important role in prepping journ education for Schramms vision of CS. Schramm never met Daddy Bleyer, but did meet many of his children. Ev talks about the palimpsest: reuse of ancient parchment manuscripts. paths of reconstructed history to understand the Bleyer-Schramm connection (repeated patterns of history). Bleyers concept of journ edu was different from Schramm...
Bleyer journ as an academic field awards PhDs through join programs with social sciences Schramm Wanted to pioneer a new field
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Important network links formed at OFF / OWI: impt network links formed at OWI helped to home Schramms academia for his CS at Illinois & Stanford. Schramm met Stouffer, Nafziger, Casey at OFF / OWI Bleyer children that Schramm met:Stouffer Consultant OFF / OWI Nafziger Consultant Casey Consultant Illinois Siebert Worked with Schramm Stanford Bush Colleague
12.8 Cold War & Schramms International Comm

Schramm specialized in international comm at Stanford. Previously his work was limited to US, but due to the US army and the Korean war, he was sent to Korea to study the effects of comm. Two major war events (Hungarian uprising & Egyptian attack by Britain, France and Israel to Suez Canal crisis) called for major news coverage Schramm content-analysed the ways newspapers reported the events. Discovered each paper had its own ideological position directly affected its reporting. Urged a comparative study of comm systems across countries. Asked Stanfords ICR to pursue research outside the US. A way to spread CS to other nations. After retirement, went to Hawaii and directed intellectual exchange between US and Asian parties. Died in 1987.
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12.9 Why was Schramm so influential?

Ev: wont have CS if not for Schramm.
Prolific writer Could write simply, clearly and effectively, can type blazingly fast Every book was timely and hence, influential to set the agenda for CS e.g. using Freudian pleasure Broad background in lit and soc and reality principle to sciences explain peoples taste for Prepared him for a new crime news and health news interdisciplinary field like CS Students all had a strong indsp. Links to psy, soc, pol sci etc. Dealt nicely with people, considerate Allowed him to get along with famous scholars and get money for his programmes Visionary: saw the up and coming of persuasion research and envisioned CS Draw on world famous social scientists credibility to his work Made intellectual bridges outside his own scope (e.g. Lewin, Stouffer, Likert) Reason why Schramm coined the four founders myth Need to have borrowed credibility The myth gave Schramm prestigious ancestry
Interdisciplinary background (esp at Stanford)
Good interpersonal skills Leveraged on established disciplines
Sexism prevalent during Schramms time, but is becoming better now. The center of activity was wherever Schramm went Schramm was very influential. Made CS a reality and a well-established academic field. Spawned comms, mass comms, journ, etc. Schramm: wanted a scientific orientation instead of an interpretive manner.
12.10 Contributions of Schramm to CS

Schramms Journey:Forming his vision at OWI Launching in Iowa Preparation by Daddy Bleyer and Bleyer children who believed in social science grounding Establishment in Stanford and opposition (Eyeshades) Infection of depts. of speech to dept of interpersonal comm
He wrote well, had charm, seeding PhDs across the world, accredited comm credits made CS visible.
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Established unis tend to be reject new fields for fear to hurting their rep, only Stanford accepted CS. Sociology, like CS, also had a time-lag before they were really accepted by:1. CS overtook existing journ schools changed professional scientific orientation 2. CS overtook depts. of speech humanistic study of rhetoric interpersonal comm.
Universitys spread:Midwestern (Daddy Bleyers influence) Wisconsin Minnesota Illinois Diffusion of CS cos its prestigious, private, compared to Midwestern Stanford Forefathers of CS
Schramm implemented his vision at high-prestige uni like Stanford crucial
Chicago (Lass) Yale (Hov) Columbia (Laz) MIT (Lewin) Unis did not accept CS
12.11 Schramms Fitting of CS into Existing Places

Schramm did not want to have a new school or department, but to fit his vision into existing structures (dept or schools), even tho he just wanted the name changed to communication. Have good and bad points: Advantages of Fitting CS is both professional and scientific Allows industries to back students up, offer jobs, aid funding for research Association and recognition Disadvantages of Fitting Much emphasis on skills focusing on mass and interpersonal comm CS has become too applied for it to further advance comm theory Ignores the need of CS students to be grounded theoretically e.g. externally funded applied research helps the sponsor, but not the scholar
e.g. ICA, AEJMG, recogised by National Research Council
Only Berlo (Schramms student) of MSUs Dept of Comm did not fit CS into existing structures. Berlo followed Schramms vision of a communications name, and created the Dept of Comms, which some other units followed suit decades later.
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12.12 Technological Determinism: Innis & McLuhan

CS has its place in the technological era. Canadian scholars Innis & McLuhan called scholars to study comm tech. Innis & McLuhan, theorists of comm tech. helped to popularize CS. What determines society? Two arguments:Tech. Determinism (i.e. Marx) technology changes society (the driver of social change) Hard TD: tech is the main driver Soft TD: tech, among other things Some argue that the society will affect the tech that is produced Cultural Determinism Soc / cult gives tech its meanings Depends on embedded context Horse-cart analogy (which powers what) but even embeddedness cannot deny that tech is an impetus for social change.
12.13 Inniss Social Organization (Media)

Innis believes comm media is the essence of civilization itself how media organized society. Believed that transport and comm were vital factors to expansion of empires. Comm media is biased towards time or space: Time-biased Can last thru time, but not easily transported Space-biased Highly efficient sys of info exchange, but cannot convey richness of oral traditions E.g. print, telephone, radio, tv Orientated to the present day and future
E.g. Etched writing on clay, parchment, stone Orientated in patriarchal societies with rich oral tradition E.g. Mosess 10 commandments
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12.14 McLuhans Media & Human Senses / Cognition

McLuhan: how comm tech changes basic senses of hearing, seeing, touching, smelling and tasting. Took Innis concepts and developed on it. Media is an extension of the man. All media, from phonetic alphabet to the computer, are extensions of man that cause deep and lasting changes in him and transforms his environment Lippmans Pictures in our heads
E.g. Wheel extension of our feet; Crane extension of our arms
Proponent of tech det. Technology itself affect us on a subliminal level of sense medium is the message. The way we think is different thanks to tech. McLuhan: The Medium is the Message, because its the medium that shapes and controls the scale and form of human association and action.
Hot Media High-def: Media filled with data Low in audience participation e.g. Movie, radio, photography, lecture Cold Media Low-def: Media has little data given Need to be filled in by receiver e.g. TV, telephone, cartoon, seminar, books
12.15 Comm Studies in Other Nations

US Methods Survey data gathering quanti analysis Media effects Return of Scholars to Europe after WWII helped the spread Latin America New beginnings in Latin America Egypt, Korea & Asian ctys Institutionalization of CS around the world In WKW: what is our perspective related to Comms
Schramms vision is sometimes modified to suit local contexts, has influenced everyone.
12.16 The Comms Discipline Today

CS today is: Empirical Quantitative Focused on comm effects
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Most scholars today follow Schramms model of dominant research paradigm: a social science perspective of using statistic analysis to study humans and their society. Means gathering quanti data applying a stats test draw conclusions.
1. Arrival of great European theories 2. Social science becomes empirical at Chicago School 3. Late-Chicago scholars stress move from quali quanti + stats, met with conflict:Solely Quanti Quanti + Includes Quali Laz led BASR to do quanti Lewin & Hov led experimental and qual Schramm used quali in some cases 4. Early CS was empirical, quanti and effects oriented but there were two divisions:Objective vs. Normative Conventional vs. Interpretive Mainstream CS scholars look at Mainstream scholars view indv what is difference in message interpretation as noise Critical scholars look at what should Interpretive scholars see it as be difference messages for everyone
Heart of CS: quanti studies of the effects of comm. Schramm predicts CS will be unified into social sciences.
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13 Towards A Culture-centric Perspective in Comms

Article highlights: Most CS in Asia adopts a Western perspective, which may not be best suited Asiacentricity instead of Eurocentricity in Asian CS Critique of Asiacentric agenda (Implications & Premises) Harmonious perspective, gathering all CS scholars A new Culture-centric approach as a meta-theory
Westernized Comm Studies from the 1980s

There is increasing cultural bias in comm theory. Recognized that existing (western) comm theories are not enough to explain global comm phenomena. Culture was not a huge concern in the past for CS. Most Asian scholars used Western-styled theories, treated cultural differences as errors. 1980s saw the internationalization of CS. New intl associations of CS were founded intercultural studies, facilitated by globalization. Intercultural CS used to be: Rigid and Uni-directional Assuming peoples cultures are defined geographically Universality within a sub-group Deviations considered errors Now, dynamic and multi-directional Indv within societies are not that different (despite societies themselves are very different) Increasing doubt about validity of methods employed across cultures
Shift in cultural viewpoints over time: Monoculture view Homogenous pop Pre-1980 CS rsh Cross-culture view Recognized cult. Differences between pop started intl cultural exchanges Dynamic cultural view Cultural traits depends on situations Corresponds to growing bicultural and multicultural pop in the world
Cultural theories need to reflect the population they study. Kuo argues for a perspective reflecting the dynamism in cultural comm.
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Why move away from ethnocentric approaches?

Ethnocentric approaches do not recognize Eastern perspectives. Yet, Asian scholarship is rising. Asian scholarship = need to study an Asian version of CS? Early answer: Asiacentricity (ACA), to respond to dominant ethnocentrism. Asiacentrism (ACA): meta-theory. Insists on placing Asian values and ideals at the center of inquiry in order to see Asian phenomena from the standpoint of Asians as subjects and agents. Asiacentric studies of Asian communication hence demand that Asian communication be researched from Asian theoretical perspectives. But there are problems with this approach as well:1. Assumes Asians and non-Asian are basically different? Asiacentric theories can shed light on Asian communication phenomena Theories now can only have provincial applications (to certain cultures) Lead Asian CS scholars to an Asian Eurocentric crisis No longer universal Need to be more inclusive, more universal 2. Blurring Boundaries between Asian and nonAsian phenomena Using purely Asian thinking to solving Asian problems are no longer relevant in todays age Need to approach CS in a hybridized, deterritorialized manner 3. Application is universal even if approach is Asian in origin Asian findings ought to apply to the West too. AC an addition, not alternative All scholars should address the lack of spirituality in CS and not only Asian CS scholars
Need to recognize people as more culturally hybridized now than ever. No longer purely Eastern or Western! ACA marketed as a diametrically opposing stand to ECA: More visibility as compared to a moderated meta theory To push back Westernization; to decolonize West-dominated academia
Dialectical viewpoints (ECA vs. ACA) is not helping need a more inclusive paradigm CCA.
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Why go towards Culture-Centric Approach (CCA)?

Ethnocentrism: evaluating other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture. Cultural centric Approach (CCA) allows for theorizing without ideological bias or boundaries of what is East or West. a meta-theory. non-polarizing by nature through its placement of culture at the center of inquiry. CCA Influenced by:Intercultural comm (Casmir) Third realm of comm (multi-cultural comm) Transcending indv and cultures Intra-cultural comm (Shuter) Connections between comm patterns within a society and region Able to compare among societies
Western theories getting obsolete, need for a new perspective to develop new theories. Similarities between ECA and ACA:Eurocentric Asia-centric Inferior to the other Focus is on individual culture of study; downplaying the effects of the other
While CCA extends on Yoshitakas ideas:Double-swing Dialogical model of , both cultures are separate but interdependent double swing model Focus is on the dynamic flows between the two cultures Humanocentric Yin-yang of Chinese philosophy + western philosophy more universally applicable dynamic theory of comm
i.e. the Chinese knot. Each culture approaches communication from a different angle and manifests itself in distinctive features, but the holistic effect of culture is best understood as a coherent whole rather than from a single perspective.
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Chinese knot is both:Particularistic To be Asian Universal To be a theory
Chinese knot a holistic general theory of comm. All corners (representing indv culture-specific comm) is essential and dependant on every other one. Theories need to be used in conjunction, not in isolation CCA not a howto-conduct-research theory, but an emphasis on confluence and interaction between different cultures to get more holistic conclusions.
Applications of CCA
Examples: Network theory X Guanxi Chinese equivalent of network theory is Guanxi What western scholars want to know, the Chinese scholars have already known Insiders and outsider // strong and weak ties Social desirability X Mian zi Observed social norms
moving away from political or ideological bias, culture-centricity enables communication specialists to concentrate on explaining phenomenon in the way that it is experienced by peoples from different cultures in the world today. CCA explains that opposing traits can be emphasized depending on the indvs situations.
E.g. may be that Westerners are more individualistic but in an environment where the collective is emphasized, they too tend towards interdependence.
CCA explains the conditions that allow for a particular trait to be active. Eventually, ECA and ACA approaches will become obsolete as cultures become more dynamic and multi-variant. Less defined by geography. Internet cultures allow people of physically diverse background to create a common identity more similar than a real neighbor next door Internet deserves its own theory.
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In Conclusion: ECA ACA CCA

In short: Having an Asian perspective to CS is not enough Need to have a universal theory of CS CS in the past 20 years are polarizing & particularistic theories cannot be widely applied This is a problem especially since the world is converging. Cultures are hybridizing. CCA is a new approach to CS; focuses on dynamic interplay of cultues (i.e. Chinese knot) Allows scholars to be non-biased or constrained by fake boundaries thanks to prevailing perceptions of what is East or West
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13.1 Comms Studies as Social Science

Sociology Webers Soc of press Parks Immigrant Lazs 2-step flows Psychology Hovs persuasion Lewins grp dynamic Banduras TV violence Political Science Lippmans pub opinion, opinion ldr Lasss 5-qsn model
A pragmatic orientation: Enlightenment and social evolution Managing social problems Communication as purposive acts: functions and effects
Premises in social science research

Naturalism and scientism Rationalism and positivism Logical-deductive process Search for causal explanation Searching for universal theories
13.2 Communication study as media study

Mass comm rsh emerged in early 20th C. Referred to penny press yellow journ film, radio, TV each was considered new media. The Great War / WWI, WWII, propaganda and the Cold War media was propaganda. Earlier studies done by sociologists and psychologists, Western origin and dominance but new media in 21st C with rise of Asia. Critical review of comm rsh as a social research:E.g. Lasss 5-qsn model: Simplistic linear model Causal and uni-dimensional Individual-oriented: Ignoring process and context Quantitative and statistical Focusing on purposive and intentional communication
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13.3 Some Critical Observations

Mainstream communication study today is rooted in western-based philosophy and social sciences, and grounded in positivistic social science research traditions [Note: There are alternative research paradigms from the West: reflexive sociology, symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology, critical school, cultural studies, etc.] Dominance of western theories in communication education and research today. Tendency to apply dominant (western) perspective in non-western cultural and social settings. Eurocentricism with Western biases; a case of academic colonialism. Dont need to reject, need to build on it.
13.4 The WEIRD Studies

These are WEIRD people from WEIRD nations:
W: Westernized E: Educated people from I: Industrialized R: Rich D: Democracies
Compared to the others, American subjects have been found to be: Prizing choice and individualism (preferring 50 ice creams to 10); The only culture preferring to give newborns their own room. Westerners tend to define themselves by psychological traits, and nonwesterners by relationships
In English (and other western languages directions are given around the self e.g. Take a right after the church in some other languages they refer to immovable objects e.g. Its behind the church
can WEIRD people be generalized?
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13.4 Lessons from the WEIRD Studies

Under the dominance of Western-based theories, Western values may be taken to be universal and impose on non-western societies; as a form of western imperialism Hence, are mainstream communication theories universal? Or, can communication theories be universal at all? Can the positivist methodological perspective be applied to analyze communication behavior and phenomena in non-western societies? Furthermore, can Asian communication research provide new resources and findings to enrich communication theories? How? Particularity vs universality. All theories shd apply to universal settings. Concepts ought to be universal, yet this is not the case to Asia, which may not be valid. Kuo: Human beings: meaning-searching. Search for it is universal.
13.5 Human Universality and Cultural Particularity

A paradox When we look at Asian: Particularistic, but Theories: Universalistic Human Universality Interpretation and negotiation of meaning is universal and we believe in it Cultural Particularity Forms and functions of communication differ from culture to culture Need to consider culture to fully understand
13.6 Answers to a Western Viewpoint

There is a need for De-westernization CS. Need to critically assess and challenge (western-based) communication theories, not debunk but understand need to stop taking things from the west for granted. Research questions should be culturally based and does not need to be the same as other societies. It includes: research questions
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concepts variables methods data sources and interpretative framework
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13.7 Asiacentricity
The notion of Asiacentricity was conceived as one of the answers to the Eurocentrism ideology. The Eurocentric methodological empiricism does not fit the Asian worldview and is not suitable to study and understand Asian communication phenomena. The need for an Asiacentric approach that would contrast the Western approach and carve a place for the development of Asiacentric theories.
13.8 Focusing on Asian Cultures

Knowledge is socially constructed and defined. Communication phenomena are culturally based and socially contexualized Culture and: communication (face, guanxi, kiasu, etc). non-verbal behaviour (silent language). language (kinship terms) Culture and perception.
we need to be socially and culturally sensitive, not all Asian settings are the same. The culture must be taken into account to understand why we act in a certain way.
E.g. Smile is a way of covering embarrassment but the western cannot understand this.
Culture makes a difference to your perception.
13.9 Going beyond the Asiacentric Paradigm

ACA assumes that Asians and non-Asians are fundamentally different. The assumption of the non-commensurability of Asia and non-Asia would leave us with theories that have only provincial applications. Asiacentricity as a new form of ethnocentrism, replacing Eurocentrism which it criticizes as being partial and incomplete. If ECA is wrong, ACA cannot be right another form of enthnocentrism.
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What is Asia? Is there one or many Asia? Asia is geographical, not cultural. Many Asias exists. The fallacy of geographical essentialism; Asia as geographical vs. Asia as cultural.
13.10 Comm No longer Ethnicity or Area based

Trends in the 21th Century: With increasing integration of global communication, the very subjects of communication inquiries are no longer location or ethnicity base. Transborder migration and multi-directional flows of cultural products globally make it difficult to define what is Asia or non-Asia and what is Western or nonWestern. Globalization and cultural hybridity as the norm and normal. Hence, the need to break away from the East-West polarity
13.11 Beyond Asiacentricity: Culture-centric Approach

Proposed as a mega-theory that places culture(s) at the center of inquiry; It draws resources from the people and its culture for an understanding of the culture within its own context. It recognizes and respects the diversity of various cultural representations beyond the all-encompassing labels (e.g. Asian), including the underlying contradictions and ambivalences. It does not contradict either Asiacentric or Afrocentric approaches; but goes beyond, without being ethnocentric. It is open and inclusive, for all levels of cultures (and thus can be applied in the realms of language, religion, ethnicity, as well as culture and geography). Chinese knot as metaphor.
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13.12 Proposing a CC-Agenda in Asian CS

Critical assessment of dominant (Western based) communication theories: Understanding with full awareness of the biases and limitations. Testing of middle range theories (Robert Merton): media effect, agenda setting, spiral of silence, framing, etc. Seeking cultural interpretations: How do cultural factors (values, traditions, customs, etc.) make a difference?
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CS2007 Communication History and Theories

jeremiah wong Module Chapters

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

Iowa OWI/OFF Iowa Illinois

1.2 A Post-Doc in Experimental Psychology

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

1.3 Iowa Writers Workshop

1.4 World War II (& Schramm in OWI)

1.5 World War II (& Schramm in OFF)

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

1.6 Schramms Vision of Comm Studies

1.6 Iowa Program in Mass Comms Research

1.7 Schramms Departure to Illinois

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

1.8 What is History?

Attribute causation to secular factors

Present evidence according to a pattern

1.9 Critiques of History

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

1.10 Scientific Theories & Research

Marx Darwin Laz Lass

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

Paid dearly for it

Frankfurt School Working poor

2.2 The European Renaissance, 14501600

1389 Florence, Italy

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

2.3 Science and Culture in Victorian Era, end-18th C

2.3 Natural History

2.4 Highlights of the Voyage

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

2.5 Charles Darwin & Evolution Theory

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

2.5 Intellectual Influences on Darwin

Lyell, Principles of Geology Lamarck, Zoological Philosophy

A social philosopher who coined Survival of the Fittest idea

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

2.6 Mendelian Genetics on Darwinism

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

2.8 2nd Darwinian Link with Comm Theory: Non-verbal Communication

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

Slovakia Vienna London

3.1 Life of Sigmund Freud

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

3.2 Psychoanalytic Theory: An Explanation

3.3 Freuds methods: Case Studies

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

3.4 Freuds Intellectual Influences

Fleiss Josef Breuer

3.5 Illness and the Dream Analysis

3.6 Key Concepts of Psychoanalysis Theory

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

Pleasure principle at work

Reality suspends pleasure temporarily

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

3.7 Spread of Psychiatry in Europe

3.7 Spread of Psychoanalytic Theory to the US

CS2007 Communication History and Theories

3.8 Psychology vs Psychoanalysis

Both disciplines diverge Criticism (sexism, not helping people recover)

3.9 Freudian Link to Comm Theory

3.10 Opposition to the Theory: Palo Alto Group

CS2007 Communication History and Theories