What do I need to learn?

Content The following key terms: classical conditioning (including extinction, spontaneous recovery), operant conditioning (including positive and negative reinforcement, primary and secondary reinforcement, punishment), social learning (including imitation, modelling, observation, vicarious reinforcement), stimulus and response. Describe and evaluate the key study Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961), Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models Describe and evaluate another case study: Watson and Rayner (1920) Little Hans Describe the main features of classical conditioning, including unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), conditioned response (CR), extinction and spontaneous recovery. Describe the main features of operant conditioning, including positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, primary and secondary reinforcement. For either classical or operant conditioning, describe and evaluate one treatment/therapy. We have studied Aversion therapy which is based on classical conditioning Describe the main features of social learning theory, including observation, imitation, modelling, vicarious reinforcement. Describe how learning theory can be used to explain gender development/behaviour with particular reference to modelling, reinforcement and behaviour shaping. Evaluate learning theory as an explanation of gender behaviour including comparison with explanations from the Biological and Number of marks 2-3 marks you should define the term and elaborate or give an example

Description evaluation 6-8

8,

Description evaluation 6 Description 6 - 8

8,

Description 6-8

Description 6 Evaluation 6

Description 6-8

Description 4

Evaluation 4

Psychodynamic Approaches. Describe and evaluate one contemporary Outline of issue 4 issue from the Learning Approach: Application of The influence of role models on anorexia theories/ studies/ evaluation 6 Describe and evaluate observation as a Description 4 research method in psychology. Identify, Evaluation 4 describe and apply the terms participant, nonparticipant, overt, covert, naturalistic observations Describe and evaluate the laboratory Description 4 experiment method as it is used in general Evaluation 4 with human and with animal participants Describe and assess and apply ethical Description 8 guidelines for the use of human participants when carrying out psychological research With regard to inferential statistics, identify, describe and apply levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal and interval reasons for choosing a chi-squared (2) test, Spearman and MannWhitney how to compare the observed and critical value(s) to judge significance Evidence of practice the observational study you carried out in class. You must be able to: Outline the theory upon which your practical is based State your alternative and null hypothesis State the variables (operationalised) Describe the ethical problems you encountered and how you overcame them Describe the research method used and why Describe the target population, how you selected the sample and the justification for this Describe how you decided what questions to use and why those questions were chosen Describe how you carried out the study and how the data was analysed Describe the results and the conclusions you made from the study Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of your study

Approach concentrates on the way environment affects our behaviour, each theory of learning suggests that the environment affects behaviour in a slightly different way Our environment shapes our behaviour. Environmental factors act as stimuli and we respond to them. We are born with a blank slate upon which our lives are written based on our experiences of the world. Experiences lead us to behave in particular ways,
the role of genetics is seen as relatively unimportant and does not for example restrict out ability to succeed, we all have equal potential to be anything we want to be

Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour which comes from experience. Classical conditioning sees learning through association between stimuli (two things happening together), operant conditioning behaviour is determined by consequences (positive and negative rein forcers and punishment), whereas social learning theory maintains we learn by imitating others All three theories of learning argue that we act with the same behaviour in similar situations (generalisation), that we can distinguish between different situations and respond to this (discrimination) and we stop acting in a certain way when our behaviour does not lead to a positive outcome (extinction) Behaviour is measurable. We can set up a stimulus and observe and measure the response. Therefore learning is observable and therefore can be studied scientifically. This can lead to general laws about our behaviour such as the Law of Effect by Thorndike The approach uses animals with a view to generalising the outcome of research to humans

Here is a list of the terms which are defined throughout the rest of this booklet. As part of your revision learn the key terms and be able to define them for 2-3 marks of knowledge: Classical conditioning; Extinction; Spontaneous recovery; Operant conditioning; Positive reinforcement; Negative reinforcement; Primary reinforcement; Secondary reinforcement; Punishment; Social learning; Imitation; Modelling; Observation; Vicarious reinforcement; Stimulus and response:

Observation: Sometimes, the behaviour to be observed is carried out in a structured setting, where observation can be by using a one-way mirror or screen. Apparatus is available, and a structure for the behaviour is laid down. This is usually in situations such as childcare, or observations of other relationships. These are called structured observations. Most observations are naturalistic, because natural behaviour is what is required. Naturalistic Observations - Take place in the participants' natural setting. Non-Participant Observations - The observer is not part of the situation. Participant Observations - The observer is also a participant. Observations can be;Overt - The participants know that they are being observed and possibly why. Covert - The observation is kept secret from the participants. Observations usually include tallying. Tallying produces quantitative data, whereas if observations include writing down quotes or telling the story of what is happening, that is qualitative data. Evaluation Of Observation As A Research Method Strutured Observations Strengths; Structured observations can be useful because there are controls, which means that cause and effect conclusions are more easily drawn, as there are fewer factors to affect what is observed. Such observations can be tested for reliability, as they are replicable. Weaknesses; Structured observations can lack validity, as there is a baseline expectancy for behaviour. Naturalistic Observations Strengths; They take place in a natural setting, and the observations are of naturally-occurring behaviour. Weaknesses; May be seen as not very reliable because they take place in the participants' natural setting, which is hard to replicate. Behaviour at one moment in time is not likely to 4

be repeated. However, if the procedure of the observation is fully documented, another researcher could repeat it, and it might be found reliable. The more controlled the observation, the more likely it will be found to be reliable. Overt Observations Strengths; Informed consent can be obtained, and the right to withdraw can be given. Weaknesses; Might lead to unnatural behaviour, simply because the participants know that they are being watched. Covert Observations Strengths; The participants do not know that they are being studied. Their behaviour should therefore be as usual, which makes it valid behaviour. Weaknesses; Less ethical because the participants are not aware that the study is taking place, therefore, have not given consent to be observed, and do not have the right to withdraw from the study. Non-Participant Observations Strengths; The observer can concentrate on time sampling and tallying, which is hard to do if you are also trying to take part in the group or behaviour. Weaknesses; Can lack validity because the observer affects behaviour. Participant Observations Strengths; Valid because there is no 'strange' observer affecting behaviour. The observer is already part of the group. Weaknesses; Difficult - There is no time to make notes or actually observe. If you are a participant it may be hard to step back and watch. On the other hand, the participant observer has shared understanding with the group, and so understands the data in a way that a non-participant observer might miss. Laboratory Experiments: An independent variable is manipulated and a dependent variable is measured. An experimental hypothesis explains what is predicted. The hypothesis is directional or non-directional. There is often an experimental group and a control group. Extraneous variables are controlled for, so there are no confounding variables. 5

A cause and effect relationship is claimed. Behaviour is reduced to a measurable concept by operationalising the IV and DV. Sampling is careful to avoid participant variables. Controls are careful to avoid situational variables. Care is taken to avoid experimenter effects. With a repeated measures design, counterbalancing or randomisation is used to avoid order effects. Tend to gather quantitative data.

Strengths; They tend to be reliable because controls mean they are replicable. They tend to be fairly generalisable because sampling is careful and representative. The data is gathered objectively, usually because someone other than the researcher can often run the experiment, and also because the IV is tightly controlled and the DV follows - there is then little need for interpretation. Weaknesses; They tend not to be ecologically valid because the setting is usually unnatural. They tend not to be valid with regard to the task, because of all the controls. They can lack credibility because of the artificial setting and artificial task. There can be ethical problems because of the controls, and the artificial tasks and setting. Laboratory Animal Learning Studies: Ethical issues concerning use of animals must be adhered to, such as suitable caging, use of anaesthetics, not using endangered species, not causing unnecessary pain and suffering, having a licence when required, using as few animals as possible, always looking for an alternative first. Studies must pay attention to features of the species used, so that conclusions are appropriate given the natural tendencies of different species. Generalising from animal studies to humans is problematic - to the point where animal studies may not be useful. Findings from animal studies can benefit animals with regard to their care - though this may not be a strong enough arguement for their use.

Levels of Measurement: This refers to how the dependent variable is measured There are three main levels of measurement:Nominal Data - Categories are recorded, such as 'yes/no' answers or gender (male/female). Ordinal Data - Ranked data, such as when someone rates something on a scale. E.g. most to least attractive 6

Interval/Ratio Data - Data where there is a real measurement, such as height or time. You need to know your levels of measurement and also be able to identify the design of a study in order to decide which statistical test to choose. You therefore need to memorise the following table:

How to Choose a Research Design Statistical Test Independent Groups Nominal Level of measure Ordinal ment Interval X2 Mann Whitney Unrelated T-Test

Repeated Measures Binominal Sign Test Wilcoxon Related T-Test

Correlational

Spearmans rank Pearsons Product Moment Correlation coefficient

The shaded area indicate that in this case the calculated value (the number produced from carrying out the statistical test) needs to be lower than the critical value (the value in the statistical table) to be significant. You can remember this because the shaded area produces a backwards L (for lower). For the other tests it needs to be higher.

Probability and Significance Inferential tests such as Spearmans rank are used to test the likelihood your results could occur by chance. Probability = the likelihood of something happening by chance.

The main reason to use statements of probability together with statistical tests is to answer are the experimental results due to chance? It is necessary to specify numerically the element of luck that may be involved when testing a hypothesis In psychology probability is represented by use of a p-value of between 0 and 1. A p-value of 1 would be a complete influence of chance, a p-value of 0 would be no influence of chance In psychology p<0.05 is used. This means that there is a one-in-twenty, or a 5% probability that the results were due to chance This allows you to be confident that the results are more likely to be due to experimental manipulation than a chance result

The results of a psychological study are described in terms of their significance this does not refer to how important the experiment is, it refers to the outcome of the statistical analysis of the data Again the lowest level of confidence is one-in-twenty or a 0.05 level of significance, this determines whether you can accept or reject the null hypothesis

Classical Conditioning: This is learning through association. This was pioneered by Pavlov (a biologist) who was studying the digestive system. Mechanisms of Classical Conditioning (How does it work) Pavlov noticed that dogs would salivate to the sound of footsteps, in expectation of food. He then trained dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell. Food UCS (Unconditioned stimulus) will always lead to salivation UCR (Unconditioned response). Pavlov believed that pairing a NS (neutral stimulus) with food would lead to the NS producing the same reaction in an animal. This process is called conditioning. During conditioning the NS is called the CS (Conditioned stimulus). Pavlov rang a bell at the same time as he fed his dogs. After a number of pairings the dog would salivate to the sound of the bell alone the is known as the CR (Conditioned response) An unconditioned response is an unlearnt response we do not learn to salivate, this happens automatically when we eat (food is therefore an unconditioned stimulus). We do not learn to feel pain this happens when something hurts us. This relationship is sometimes know as a reflex action like when a torch is shined into our eyes our pupils dilate

Stage 1 (before learning)

Food (unconditioned stimulus) UCS

Salivation (unconditioned response) UCR

A bell (a neutral stimulus, NS) does not produce/ elicit any response. It does not produce salivation

Stage 2 (during learning)

Bell (conditioned stimulus) CS

Food (unconditioned stimulus) UCS

Salivation (unconditioned response) UCR

Stage 3 (after learning)

Food (conditioned stimulus) CS

Salivation (conditioned response) CR

Classical conditioning in humans: Little Albert is an example of classical conditioning in humans (see key studies) Extinction and spontaneous recovery: If the CS is presented repeated without the UCS the CR will disappear (extinction), e.g. if Pavlovs dogs heard a bell ringing lots of time with no food around they would stop salivating to the bell. If the bell is then silent for a while and then rung again the CR may start up again. This is known as spontaneous recovery.

Discrimination: If, for example, a dog is continuously exposed to a CS of a bell with a low tone paired with food (UCS), and a bell of a high tone is rung alone, the dog can discriminate between the different tones it will salivate to the low tone and not to a high tone.

Generalisation: However, if other stimuli are sufficiently similar to the CS, generalisation can occur. For example, someone who has a phobia of snakes may also be slightly scared of worms. An example generalisation is Little Albert his fear of white rats generalised to other white fluffy things e.g. santa claus masks Pavlovs dogs also salivated to other bells with different tone, although the further the tone was from the CS, the less the dogs salivated One-trial learning: Learning can occur after only one paring of the UCS and the CS. Usually happens when the consequences of failure to learn are fatal. Garcia et al (1974) used a taste aversion test with rats, he found if rats tasted food that made them sick they would avoid the food in the future this is essential for survival

Higher order conditioning: Pavlov showed how once a dog had been trained to respond to one stimuli, this could be used to elicit a response to another stimuli. E.g Pavlov, once he had conditioned dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell, he paired the ringing of a bell (CS) with a black square. Eventually the square alone would make a dog salivate (the square was now a CS and the salivation a CR) During conditioning: Food (UCS) + Bell (CS1) ---- Salivation (UCR) After conditioning: Bell (CS1)------ Salivation (CR) During second order conditioning: Bell (CS1) + Black Square (CS2) ----- Salivation (CR) After second order conditioning: Black Square (CS2) ------- Salivation (CR) Different types of classical conditioning: Simultaneous UCS and CS are presented at the same time (most effective form of conditioning) Forward or delayed conditioning CS is presented and still on when the UCS is presented (a half second time gap is most effective) Trace conditioning CS is presented, removed and then the UCS presented, only a memory trace of the CS remains (not as effective with some animals) Backward conditioning UCS is presented before the CS (least effective) 10

Operant Conditioning: Unlike classical conditioning, which is learning through association, operant conditioning involves learning through consequence. Thorndike (1911) used a puzzle box in which he placed a kitten. The kitten clambered around the box until eventually it happened upon the escape latch. When it got out, the kitten was rewarded with food. The next time it was put in the box the kitten escaped faster. It has associated the escape with food which is a positive consequence. From this he developed the Law of Effect which states that the consequences of a behaviour determines whether it is repeated

B. F. Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning, and recorded the behaviour of animals in response to different consequences. The Skinner Box, which he designed, contained a lever for an animal such as a rat or a pigeon to press for food to be delivered. It also had a speaker and lights that could be used to trigger a behaviour, and a shock generator was connected to the floor to deliver an electric shock in response to a behaviour.

11

Skinner described the ABC Model Of Operant Conditioning to illustrate how this theory of leaning works: Antecedent - The chamber could present a stimulus (e.g. lights, noises) that triggers behaviour. Behaviour - A response that could be observed and measured as a result of the antecedent (lever pressing). Consequence - A reward or punishment followed the behaviour (e.g. food, shock).

The stimulus-response association is only repeated or learnt if the consequence of the pairing is a positive one. A negative consequence would weaken the stimulus-response link. - Positive Reinforcement is giving something pleasurable to the animal following a desired behaviour to make sure the behaviour is repeated e.g. giving a rat food for pressing a lever. The consequence of lever pressing is desirable, so is repeated to gain more food. - Negative Reinforcement is removing something nasty or uncomfortable in response to the desired behaviour. This also results in the behaviour being repeated, in order to escape the nasty stimulus e.g. giving a rat an electric shock until a lever is pressed. The lever pressing stops the shock, so the rat presses the lever again to ensure that it avoids it in the future. Both types of reinforcement produce repeated behaviour. Although fears are typically acquired through classical conditioning, they are maintained through negative reinforcement. Punishment on the other hand, weakens the behaviour by presenting something unpleasant or painful whenever the behaviour is shown e.g. when a rat presses a lever it is given an electric shock; it ceases lever pressing at that time to make sure that it does not have another shock.

12

Behaviour Shaping: The principles of operant conditioning can be used to develop complex behaviours that would not be displayed naturally. This is achieved by reinforcing any behaviour that closely resembles that of the desired target behaviour. Reinforcement then gradually becomes more selective by reinforcing more and more closely-related behaviours, until the target behaviour is produced. This process is known as behaviour shaping, as reinforcement is given for successive approximations until the desired response is achieved. Types of reinforce: Primary reinforcer the reward is a basic need such as food, drink, warmth, shelter e.g. A pigeon pecks at a disk to receive food Secondary reinforcer the reward is something which can be used to satisfy a basic need, but is not a basic need itself e.g. A child is given pocket money which can be used to buy food Schedules of reinforcement: Name Continuous reinforcement Fixed schedule Example for Merit given each time homework handed in ratio Related to the number Factory worker of behaviours given money for performed every 100 items Description Reward given every behaviour Strength Low, steady response, fast extinction

High steady response rate, may have a postreinforcement pause, fast extinction Variable ratio Reinforced after Gamblers winning High response rate, schedules several responses, after variable slow extinction varying around an attempts average Fixed interval Reinforcement at Pocket money Response rate low as regular times every sat, if behaviour only has to bedroom has been be performed once to tidied. get rewarded, fast extinction, may have PRP Variable interval Reinforcement at e.g. average of 60 High response timed intervals varying secs- reward could slow extinction. around an average be at 20 secs, 80 secs etc rate,

13

Social Learning Theory: For social learning to occur, one individual must acquire a new behaviour by imitating another the model Study: Mineka and Cook (88) They brought lab reared monkeys into contact with wild monkeys who were afraid of snakes. The lab monkeys then modified their behaviour to match the model. Later, when exposed to snakes, the lab monkeys showed fear. If, however, the lab monkeys had observed monkeys who had no fear of snakes before being exposed to monkeys who were scared of snakes, they did not develop a fear We learn from people we look up to and identify with. SLT recognises that behaviours often occur that have not been reinforced but merely observed in others. The individual observes a behaviour being performed by a model (another person) and also notes the consequences of their actions. The observer then imitates or models (copies) the behaviour that they have seen. There is no cognition or planning involved, it is just as mechanistic as operant or classical conditioning The likelihood of the behaviour observed being imitated depends on the consequences of the activity for the model. If the model was rewarded for their actions then the likelihood of imitation is increased. Whereas, if they are punished for a behaviour then reproduction is unlikely. (Athough research by Bandura showed that they could reproduce the actions if requested to do so). Bandura suggests we are motivated to imitate in order to also gain the reinforcers that we saw the model receive. This is known as vicarious reinforcement Bandura (77) Argues that there are 4 requirements for observational learning to take place: o Attention: Observer must pay attention to the model o Retention: Observer must be capable of remembering the behaviour o Reproduction: Observer must be capable of performing the desired action o Motivation: observer must have a motivation to carry out the behaviour, either through a reward, or because the model is of a high status What features may affect the modelling process? Bandura et al (61) same sex models are more effective than opposite sex models for increasing aggressive behaviour in children. Powerful people and people who are liked are effective models (e.g. footballers). Nicol and Pope (99) Hens tend to imitate the behaviour of high status hens than those with low status again same-sex models were imitated more frequently. Pennington (86) identified variables which affect imitation: age and status of the model and the observers level of self-esteem models of a similar age are likely to be imitated. E.g. young people who see drug users of high status may take drugs because this high status is more influential than they threats of their parents.

14

Name: Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models, Bandura, Ross and Ross 1961 Aim: To investigate whether exposure to a real-life aggressive model increases aggression in children. Method: Bandura et al tested 72 children enrolled at StanfordUniversity Nursery School, 36 male and 36 female, between the ages of three and five. The participants were divided into 8 experimental groups of 6 children, with the remaining 24 children forming a control group.
AGGRESSIVE MALE ROLE MODEL 6 BOYS 6 GIRLS NON-AGGRESSIVE MALE ROLE MODEL 6 BOYS 6 GIRLS

FEMALE ROLE MODEL 6 BOYS 6 GIRLS

FEMALE ROLE MODEL 6 BOYS 6 GIRLS

The children in the experimental groups watched an aggressive or non-aggressive role model of the same or different sex to themselves. The children in all groups were matched for physical and verbal aggression from ratings made by the experimenter and a nursery school teacher. The children were individually brought in by the experimenter, who then invited the model to come in. The child was placed in one corner and shown how to design a picture. The model was taken to the opposite corner which contained a table, chair, tinker toy, mallet and a five-foot inflatable bobo doll. The experimenter then left the room. The child could only watch the model, and overheard the experimenter tell the model that it was 'their' play area, and that the child had no access to it. The model played with the tinker toy for a minute, then began to act aggressively towards the bob doll. In the non-aggressive condition, the model continued to play with the tinker toys. After 10 minutes, the child was taken to another room and given toys to play with, which were then taken away. All children were therefore in an equally frustrated mood. The child was then taken to an experimental room where they were allowed to play with a variety of aggressive and non-aggressive toys. The child had 20 minutes of free play in the room whilst being observed through a one-way mirror.

Results: The children were rated for 'imitative aggression' and 'non-imitative aggression'. Children exposed to an aggressive role model displayed significantly more direct imitation than children exposed to the non-aggressive model (for boys a mean of 15

25.8 when they saw a male aggressive model compared to 1.5 when they saw a male non-aggressive model Watching an aggressive role model had a greater effect on boys than girls, particularly when observing a same sex model

Both boys and girls displayed more non-imitative aggression after observing the aggressive role model. The effect was stronger after watching a same sex aggressive model. There was a mean number of non-imitative aggressive acts of 36.7 when a male child saw a male aggressive model compared to 22.3 when a male child saw a male non-aggressive model

Conclusion: A child exposed to an aggressive model is likely to display aggression and to imitate aggressive acts. Boys are more aggressive than girls overall, but are less likely to copy aggressive behaviour from a female model. Evaluation: Strengths; - The study has contributed greatly to the understanding of how children acquire behaviour through observing others. - Further research has led to censorship and certification laws. - The study highlights how non-aggressive role models in the media can encourage helpful behaviour. - Observations of children's behaviour are potentially subjective. However, there were a number of observers and only shared and agreed behaviours were presented, so reliability was established. Weaknesses; - Although the experiment took place in a familiar type of environment, the conditions were not normal, so the study does lack ecological validity. - The children may have been simply showing obedience to the adult. - As the children were from an American nursery, it is unlikely that we can generalise the results beyond the sample. - The children were made to feel aggressive and probably distressed by withdrawal of the toys. Exposing children to an aggressive role model, and effectively teaching them aggressive acts is also unethical. 16

Name: Little Albert, Watson and Rayner 1920, Conditioned Emotional Responses Aim: To explore how classical conditioning could be used to create a phobia in humans using CC principles. To see whether an emotional response such as fear could be conditioned Method: Little Albert was tested at 9 months to see whether he had any fears. He did not show a fear response to a monkey on a lead, a white rat, a rabbit, burning newspaper etc He was scared by a steel bar being struck. At 11 months he was given the white rat to play with, when Little Albert reached out to play with the rat the researchers struck the steel bar loudly. The NS in Watson and Rayners experiment was a white rat. Trials before the experiment had shown that Albert did not mind the rat and certainly did not object to it. The UCS in the experiment was the noise made by hitting an iron bar with a hammer just behind Albert. This produced a loud noise that Albert found very upsetting. On a series of occasions, Watson and Rayner presented Albert with the rat and, when he noticed it, struck the metal bar behind his head. Predictably, this caused Albert to become quite upset. After a few trials, they presented the rat on its own. Even without the noise, Albert started crying. He had learned to associate the rat with the noise, and this had produced a conditioned response Noise (UCS) = Anxiety (UCR) Noise(UCS) + Rat (NS) = Anxiety (UCR) Rat (CS) = Anxiety (CR) Results: After a few trails Albert agitated on seeing rat. It became clear that it wasnt just rats that made Albert upset. His anxiety response had generalised to some other objects white furry ones that were similar to the white rat. This included a Santa Claus mask and a rabbit. The last time Albert was tested his fear response to the rat had lessened. The researchers concluded that conditioned fear responses diminish over time Conclusion: Watson and Rayner concluded that it is possible to classically condition the emotional response of fear, although the response diminishes in intensity over time Evaluation: Strengths The study was carefully documented; witnesses helped record the data and there were strict controls so that other variables could not affect the outcome of the study. The study provides evidence that classical conditioning can occur in humans. Pavlov had shown this to exist in dogs, but questions of the ability to generalise were addressed by this research Weaknesses Unethical Little Albert was clearly distressed and despite this the study continued for weeks. The study lacks ecological validity as the artificial laboratory environment would have already been fearful to Little Albert. It is possible that the outcome would have been different if this study had been conducted in his natural environment As this was a single case experiment it is difficult to generalise the results, especially since replications of this study failed to reproduce the same findings 17

Aversion Therapy: Aversion therapy is used to remove an undesirable behaviour such as an addiction like alcoholism or sexual fetishes including paedophilia. It is also used to treat nail biting It has even been used in the past to cure homosexuality How does Aversion Therapy work? The undesirable behaviour is paired with something bad (an aversive stimulus) so that the behaviour is associated with the aversive stimulus Alcoholism is usually treated by pairing the alcoholic drink with an emetic drug which causes vomiting so that vomiting becomes a conditioned response to alcohol Typically the drug is given and then before the sickness begins the patient is told to smell their choice of drink and swill it around their mouth before swallowing

How does aversion therapy work?

(UCS) Emetic drug (UCR) Vomiting

(CS) Alcohol + (UCS) Emetic drug

(UCR) Vomiting

(CS) Alcohol

(CR) Vomiting

It is important that the patient is given other non-alcoholic drinks during the treatment without the emetic drug. Why do you think this is? How would you remove a shoe fetish using aversion therapy?

18

Aversion Therapy and Homosexuality: The effects of aversion therapy can be devastating. In 1964 an 18 year old was admitted to a psychiatric ward in Chester. He recalls his interview with a psychiatrist: He asked me if I realised how revolting homosexuality was. He wanted to make me feel disgusted The patient was locked in a room containing a bed, but no windows or furniture, and given a pile of erotic photographs of men. He was then pumped full of a drug which made him violently sick. This continued for 72 hours. The bed and the room were eventually covered with his urine faeces and vomit. Those three days of therapy he said, destroyed 30 years of his life The most spectacular cure in modern psychiatry was when homosexuality was dropped as a category of mental illness...and millions of people thus recovered overnight Aversion therapy is still used to convert homosexuality to heterosexuality in some circumstances This may involving shocking someone when they see naked images of men but not when they see women Some people argue that it should never be used even when the person requests treatment In 1994 the American Psychological Association said that aversion therapy is dangerous and does not work One gay man, Billy Clegg-Hill was reported to have died from a coma and convulsions caused by an injection of an emetic drug after being forced to undergo aversion therapy in the 1960s

Evaluation: Strengths It has been shown to be successful in some situations. Follow up studies has shown it to have better abstinence rates than other treatments and those receiving aversion therapy were less likely to discharge themselves than on other treatment programmes (despite the ethical issues). Seligman (1966) said that 50% of gay men who received the treatment did not continue with homosexual practises It is based on a clear theoretical explanation of how the behaviour came about a therapy with a clear rationale is more likely to be accepted by people A more ethical version of this treatment has been developed, called covert sensitisation, the patient has to imagine feeling sick or being given shocks Weaknesses As Seligman later reported most of the men cured in his study were bisexual it is much less successful for homosexual men 99.5% failure rate and one gay man died One of the main ethical issues is that the person delivering the treatment has power over the patient, this is problematic especially when society decides which behaviours are desirable/ undesirable. Also shocks or sickness drugs cause distress Relapse rates can be high e.g. If an alcoholic who has had treatment, has a drink and feels sick but is not, the association will weaken

19

The learning Approach draws on operant conditioning and social learning theory to explain gender behaviour. Gender behaviour is, according to this approach, drawn from the environment. Operant Conditioning and Gender Behaviour Even when first born, male and female babies are treated and reinforced differently Boys and girls are rewarded (usually through attention and praise) for gender stereotyped behaviours Children may be punished for gender inappropriate behaviour

Social Learning Theory and Gender Behaviour Banduras study showed that boys are more likely to copy a male model and girls a female model If they see that person being rewarded for their behaviour they are more likely to repeat it due to vicarious reinforcement (e.g. a boy sees his mum thank her husband for opening the door for her) Children learn from their family, peers and the media, gender appropriate behaviour Evaluation: Strengths: There is a lot of supporting evidence from studies. Observations have been carried out which show girls copying their mothers and boys copying their fathers. Girls and boys play with different toys which are gender appropriate for the culture they are in Langlois and Down, 1980, found that fathers tend to punish feminine behaviours shown by their sons Weaknesses: The explanation ignores biological factors such as Y and X chromosomes and hormones the case of David Reimer highlights how the learning approach explanation of gender development is an incomplete explanation (explain this using knowledge of the case study) There are differences between male and female behaviour at birth girls are more sensitive to noise than boys and this is very unlikely to have been a learnt behaviour. New-born baby girls hold eye contact with a speaking adult longer than new-born baby boys Comparing the Psychodynamic and Biological explanations Similarities: They both have biological features (psycho the id) (bio genes and hormones) Both draw upon evidence from case studies (psycho Little Hans) (bio Money) Differences:

20

Psychodynamic is unscientific as it uses concepts which cannot be measured (superego) whereas the biological approach is scientific as hormones and genes can be observed and therefore measured The psychodynamic approach does not use animals, whereas the biological approach does, to test for example the effect of hormones on brain development

Comparing the Psychodynamic and Learning Approaches Similarities: The both use the concept of identification the psychodynamic approach talks about identification with same-sex parent during the phallic stage, whereas the learning approach says children imitate the same sex parent as a model Neither approach considers the role of genes, the brain or hormonal factors Differences: The psychodynamic approach allows for biology in that the development of the Id is innate, whereas the learning approach argues children are a tabula rasa (blank slate) and that everything is learnt from the environment The psychodynamic approach collects qualitative data in the form of case studies whereas the learning approach uses experiments and the objective scientific method, therefore the learning approach is more scientific Comparing the Learning and Biological Approaches: Similarities: Both are scientific use experiments and techniques which are quantifiable and measurable. They look for cause and effect relationships Both use animal studies biological uses animals to look at the role of hormones on brain development, the learning approach uses animals to test operant conditioning Differences: The biological approach focuses on nature (genes and hormones) whereas the learning approach focuses upon nurture (how parents influence gender behaviour) The biological approach commonly uses case studies (e.g. Money) whereas the learning approach generally does not favour the use of case studies

21

The Influence of role models on anorexia: It has been claimed that anorexia could be caused by cultural images such as size zero models and super slim celebrities Anorexia is an eating disorder characterized by being extremely underweight (15% lower than a person should be). Sufferers tend to see themselves as fat, even when others see them as painfully thin. It typically starts in the teenage years, is more common in females than males. 1% of the population have anorexia. Symptoms include periods stopping, increased body hair, tiredness and stomach problems. Left untreated, sufferers become extremely ill and eventually die. In a Daily Telegraph survey, 7 out of 10 girls said they would be happier if they lost half a stone. Two-thirds of the 1000 girls surveyed blamed celebrities with perfect bodies for their own negative body image. Kate Moss And Victoria Beckham were said by 95% of girls to be the most inspirational role models. The issue is: Do role models encourage eating disorders such as anorexia because they lead to teenagers wanting to be impossibly thin? Explaining the issue using the learning approach: Social Learning theory suggests that people imitate role models; celebrities and people of high status are more likely to be imitated People are more likely to imitate the same sex The emphasise on size zero celebrates thinness Vicarious reinforcement is involved as celebrities appear to be rewarded for their looks through TV work, money and attractive partners

22

Other explanations of anorexia: Operant conditioning people rewarded for loosing weight through praise, or punished through teasing for being fat The psychodynamic approach argues anorexia is an attempt by girls to remain childlike because of fixation from an earlier developmental stage The biological approach looks at the role of genes and neurotransmitters for developing anorexia Summary: It is likely that role models encourage the development of eating disorders but are not the cause everyone is exposed to thin celebrities yet only 1% of the population develop anorexia it could be that a person inherits a predisposition to anorexia and exposure to thin celebrities is a trigger for developing the disorder Thin celebrities may encourage extreme dieting, but not necessarily the disorder anorexia

23