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Course Content Key Terms: Definition of the approach Central nervous system (CNS) Synapse Receptor Neuron Neurotransmitter Genes Hormones Brain lateralisation Research Methods: PET and MRI scans Twin and adoption studies Evaluate experiments in terms of o Reliability o Validity o Generalisibility Strengths and weaknesses of using animal research IVs and DVs Hypotheses (experimental, null, one and two tailed) Levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval) Use of control groups Randomisation and sampling Levels of significance Mann-Whitney U Test Key Content: The role of the central nervous system and neurotransmitters in behaviour The role of genes in behaviour The nature-nurture debate Gender behaviour in terms of hormones, genes and brain lateralisation Evaluation of the biological explanation of gender Comparison of gender behaviour with the psychodynamic and learning explanations Studies in detail: Money (1975) Raine et al (1997) Key Issue: Is autism an extreme male brain condition? Practical: A laboratory experiment looking at sex differences with regard to performance on mental rotation tasks

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 Read through the book and make a table with a two sentence definition for each key term listed in the contents table Definition of the Approach: The biological approach looks at chemical activity in the brain, including how neurotransmitters act at synapses to enable messages to be transmitted. Another way messages are transmitted is through hormones. The biological approach includes an evolutionary perspective, which examines how characteristics are inherited via genes. Also considered will be brain lateralisation how the two parts of the brain work together. 2. HORMONAL TRANSMISSION This is another way messages are passed around the body. 1. FUNCTIONING OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS These send messages more slowly than neurotransmitters and are used for different purposes. This is one way messages are passed within the brain by neurotransmitters. These are chemicals that pass from neuron to neuron. Between neurones there are gaps called SYNAPSES. If the receptors of one neuron are set to receive the neurotransmitters of another, then the message continues. Hormones have a large part to play in our development as either male or female for example, ANDROGENS are male and OESTROGEN is female. 3. GENETIC INFLUENCES How genes are passed on from parents to children and how they govern behaviour as well as physical characteristics. Children receive half their genes from their fathers and half from their mothers. The human genome has recently been decoded, which means that all genes have been identified. Does not mean the function of each gene is known because it is often the combination or the position of genes that leads to certain characteristics, rather than one particular gene.

4. PARTS OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS The brain has many parts; - the LIMBIC SYSTEM is linked to aggression - the HIPPOCAMPUS is thought to be where short-term memory occurs - the brain is in two halves, joined by the CORPUS CALLOSUM It is thought females use both halves of their brain more than males, and males are more right-brain dominant. BRAIN LATERALISATION is the term used when considering the two halves of the brain separately.

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Central nervous system (CNS) The central nervous system is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The biological approach focuses on the brain as it controls our behaviour.

The Brain The brain contains a number of areas responsible for different functions Function

Brain part

Hippocampus Corpus Callosum (connects the two hemispheres) Amygdala Hypothalamus

Short term memory Brain lateralisation, sex differences Emotions and aggression Regulates eating, behaviours drinking and motivated

See the website below for more information on the brain

http://www.g2conline.org/?gclid=CISUpYPCgq8CFQINfAodkwER2g#Psychology?aid=2022&cid=271

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Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters (e.g. Dopamine, serotonin, noradrenalin etc..) are chemical messengers that act between the neurons in the brain. This allows the brain to process thoughts and memories. Neurons are cells that receive and transmit messages, passing them from cell to cell. At one end, a neuron has dendrites, which are finger-like structures surrounding a nucleus. From the nucleus there is a long extension called an axon, which reaches an axon terminal.

A single Neuron

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Two Neurons note they do not touch, there is a gap at the synapses

The axon terminal of one neuron reaches to the dendrites of another neuron. Between the terminal and the dendrites there is a gap called the synapse. The synaptic gap or cleft sits between two neurons. On one side, at the dendrites are receptors of a certain shape prepared to receive the neurotransmitter from the other neuron. If the neurotransmitter fits the receptor, the message is passed on, if it does not fit it is blocked. Neurons transmit signals electrically along their axons The synapses (junctions between neurons) transmit signals chemically

At the synapse

Vesicles release neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft/ gap

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(Pre-synaptic neuron)

Neurotransmitter

Synaptic gap
Receptors

Neurotransmitter binds to receptors & activates them

(Post-synaptic neuron)

Excess neurotransmitter is taken up by the pre-synaptic neurone

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Enzymes are released to break down the remaining neurotransmitter

Vesicles are replenished with new & reused neurotransmitter

J Kavanagh: Pensby High School

To summarise the role of the central nervous system: The central nervous system is made up of the brain and the spinal cord Nerves in our body send information via the spinal cord to the brain The brain then processes this information and sends a message to the body through the spinal cord E.g. our eyes send a message about a car coming towards us, the brain processes how far away it is and sends a message back telling us to cross the road Different areas of the brain are responsible for different functions, e.g. the hippocampus is important for memory Neurons in the brain pass messages along through electrical impulses and chemical signals known as neurotransmitter Neurotransmitters are released by neurons and cross the synaptic gap to be picked up by receptor sites at the next neuron

For more information on neurotransmitters read the link below: http://www.integratedsociopsychology.net/neurons-neurotransmitters.html The role of genes in Human Behaviour Explaining the term gene A gene contains a set of instructions and is a carrier of information Each person has a genotype, which is their individual genetic makeup Each person also has a phenotype, which is what the individual becomes when their genes interact which each other and the environment We inherit our genes from our biological parents (50% from each) A gene consists of a long strand of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) A chromosome is a double chain of DNA. DNA controls gene activity Genes contain bases (chemicals) called (G) guanine, (C) cytosine, (A) adenine and (T) thymine The coding sequence of these bases (three letter combinations which are codings for amino acids) contain the instructions regarding what that gene will produce The genome is the term for all of the genes in a cell. The human genome has just under 3 billion base pairs and around 20,000 genes. The genetic message contains millions of combinations of base pairs in DNA carried on chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell (apart from egg and sperm cells).

Dominant and Recessive genes Some genes always lead to certain characteristics; these are called dominant genes. To produce a characteristic, dominant genes only need to be one of a pair in a chromosome. Some genes need more than one copy to produce a characteristic; these are called recessive genes. These have to be on both chromosomes of a pair for the characteristic to occur. If the recessive gene is only on one of a pair of chromosomes, the characteristic will not be seen in that organism although it can be passed onto offspring

Examples of the effects of genes on humans Some diseases and characteristics are sex linked they are controlled by the sex genes. E.g. most colour blind people are men

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If one parent contributes two copies of chromosome 21, then the child has three copies and the consequence is Downs Syndrome. Human chromosome 4 has a marker known as G8 if a parent and child both have Huntingdons Disease, then in 98% of cases they both have the same form of G8 marker suggesting that the gene for Huntingdons travels with the G8 marker

Environmental Triggers on Genes Sometimes genes do not influence physical characteristics unless the right environmental conditions occur. One example is phenylketonuria (PKU) which is tested in babies at birth with the pin prick blood test from the heel of the foot. PKU can lead to brain damage, however, if it is not that a person has the gene from birth, careful diet can stop the brain damage from occurring

The Nature Nurture Debate The effects of nature on behaviour This includes the influence of genes and other biological structures Nature includes neurotransmitter functioning, brain structure and genetic make-up

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Nature says that our characteristics are determined by our biology It says that genes affect our brains and nervous system These in turn affect our physical and psychological characteristics

The effects of nurture on behaviour This means the effects of everything else! This could be upbringing, experience of schooling, peer-group influences, position in the family (e.g. Middle child), social and cultural influences etc... Nurture refers to the influence of our environment on our characteristics It can include factors such as poor diet whilst a child Nurture can include the influence of our relationship with our parents

For more information on genes see the link below: http://www.integratedsociopsychology.net/genes-behaviour.html Biological Explanations for gender development Sex is the term used when referring to biological aspects of male or female Gender is used for the development and behaviour of the different sexes in relation to environmental and social aspects

Genes and sex determination Individual sperm and egg cells contain 23 unpaired chromosomes When an egg is fertilised the 23 unpaired chromosomes come together to form 23 pairs of chromosomes A male baby (XY) receives an X chromosome from the mother and a Y from the father A female baby (XX) receives and X chromosome from the mother and a Y from the father

Genes and gender development In the very early stages of development, an embryo starts to generate hormones and genes start organising the brain along gender lines. Studies of mice (Vilain, 1964) have identified 54 genes where activity levels vary according to gender There are four main steps involved in normal sex differentiation in humans 1. Fertilisation determines the genetic sex (XX or XY) 2. The egg divides to form a large number of identical cells. Both males and females at this stage have a gonadal ridge and after 6/7 weeks gestation, two sets of internal ducts, the Mullerian (female) ducts and the Wolffian (male) ducts. At this stage, the external genitalia appear female 3. The gonadal ridge becomes either an ovary or a testis. In males the testes develop because of a product from a gene on the Y chromosome (known as the H-Y antigens). In females other genes trigger the development into ovaries * Note more research has been done on male development 4. Hormones then act to enable the different sexes to develop. Mullerian (female) inhibiting substance (MIS) and androgens (e.g. testosterone) are the two main hormones involved. MIS prevents the growth of the female Mullerian ducts (the uterus and the fallopian tubes) which are present in all foetuses up to this point. Androgens are also secreted by the testes but not by the ovaries, this affects the growth of the Wolffian ducts. For male development MIS is needed to stop female duct growth and androgens need to be released to allow the male ducts to grow. If androgens are not produced the external genitalia will remain female in appearance.

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Abnormal (more politically correct to say atypical) sex differentiation Problems with sex differentiation can occur at any of the stages above At fertilisation boys with XXY chromosomes will develop Klinefelters syndrome and girls with XO chromosomes will have Turners syndrome Abnormalities can occur where the gene is not present to develop the gonad into a testes, despite the presence of a Y chromosome

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Incorrect Mullerian or Wolffian duct development also causes problems. For example, MIS secretion may occur without androgens. In this case the foetus will have neither male nor female internal duct structures. Lack of MIS but with androgen secretion can lead to a foetus having male and female duct structures Further research look at the case of Caster Semenya

Klinefelters Syndrome This occurs in about 1 male in every 500-1000 males Males with Klinefelters have an extra X chromosome so are XXY Their testes are much smaller and fertility is greatly reduced (males are usually infertile) Small testes leads to low testosterone production Some people with Klinefelters have learning difficulties, poor muscle development and increased breast tissue Treatment in given through testosterone although the genetic variation cannot be reversed

Turners Syndrome This occurs in about 1 female in every 2500 It is caused by a missing X chromosome Symptoms include reduced height and the ovaries do not function properly Most people with Turners do not produce the sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone at puberty, without this they will not develop breasts or have periods Females with Tuners have normal intelligence but can show some problems with memory skills and fine movement

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Hormones and gender development Hormones, like neurotransmitters, carry messages, but the messages travel at a slower speed because they are carried in the bloodstream Hormones affect processes such as growth, mood and metabolism Hormones are produced by endocrine glands, which are groups of cells and include the pituitary and thyroid glands Hormones are also produced in the testes and ovaries Too much or too little of a hormone can cause problems Female hormones are oestrogen and progesterone and male hormones are androgens such as progesterone These reproductive hormones dictate gender differences and cause the male and female brains to develop differently Hormones can affect health and lifestyle throughout a persons life. For example, females are more likely to suffer from mood and anxiety disorders and men are more likely to suffer from alcoholism

Some examples of how hormones affect later development: Testosterone makes males more aggressive/tough and oestrogen makes females more emotional In puberty the hormone testosterone lead males to develop facial hair and causes sperm to be produced In females oestrogen released at puberty causes breasts to grow and fatty tissue to be deposited on the hips

Abnormal/ atypical development: adrenogenital syndrome/ congenital adrenal hyperplasia This is caused by a deficiency in the hormones aldosterone and corsitol and overproduction of androgens Symptoms include an enlarged penis and smaller testes in males Females may have ambiguous genitals (due to an enlarged clitoris), will fail to menstruate and have a deeper voice and excessive hair Treatment involves correcting corsitol levels which can, in turn, bring progesterone levels back to normal

For more information on hormones and gender development see below: http://www.integratedsociopsychology.net/hormones-behaviour.html Brain lateralisation and gender development The brain is divided into two hemispheres (halves). It is claimed that the left hemisphere controls language and the right visuo-spatial ability and perception Studies suggest that males use the right hemisphere more and females use both due to the fact that the corpus callosum the bundle of fibres that connect the two hemispheres, is larger in women Males are meant to be better at visuo-spatial tasks such as map reading and mathematics because they have a preference for using the right hand side of their brain, however, a meta-analysis of studies showed there was no significant difference in male/female visuo-spatial abilities Further evidence for gender differences in brain structure comes from the fact that the anterior commissure, which communicates sensory information is larger in females and in male homosexuals

Other evidence for brain lateralisation Women with Turners syndrome use both sides of the brain even more than usual and display very feminine behaviour Men who do not have normal exposure to androgens in the womb tend to use both sides of the brain more In patients with brain damage to the left hemisphere, speech difficulties occur more often in male patients

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Evaluation of the biological explanation for gender development The biological explanation is based on tests that can be repeated e.g. injecting rats with testosterone or using MRI scans to detect blood flow in humans. This replicability makes the explanation reliabile There is validity because different studies using different research methods have similar findings e.g. some experiments show that males are better at mental rotation tasks than females and MRI scans show that the right hand side of the brain is used during these tasks There is a problem with generalisability as many findings come from animal studies, there are important differences between animal and human brains so the findings from these studies may lack credibility Biological aspects are difficult to study without reference to the environment. For example, females may be better at language tasks because they are encouraged more to play quietly and read and write than boys

Name: Money J (1975) Ablatio penis: normal male infant sex-reassigned as a girl, and David Reimers subsequent testimony Background info: In 1965 in Winnipeg, Canada, Janet Reimer gave birth to identical twin boys; Bruce and Brian. At the age of 10 months, the boys were taken for circumcision to correct a medical problem, Bruce was treated first. However, an accident during the procedure resulted in Bruces penis being completely burnt off so that it was unrecognisable. After the accident the Reimers happened to see a TV programme where transgender issues were being discussed and the theory of gender neutrality was explained by Dr John Money. They contacted Dr Money and asked his advice. Acting on this the Reimers decided to raise Bruce as a girl called Brenda. They thought that not having a penis would be too difficult for a boy to cope with and that it would be better for him to be raised as a girl so that the lack of penis would not be an issue. With Brenda socialised as female Money planned surgery when she got older so that she had female genitalia. Aim: Moneys theory was that gender development was determined by upbringing more than biological factors. By studying the twins he would be able to see if this was true. He believed that all children were gender neutral until the age of about 2 years old, meaning that boys and girls were essentially the same until then. Money wanted to gain information about cases where babies were brought up as the opposite sex from which they were born. Method: The study consisted of 45 cases of genetic males brought up and reassigned as females. 43 had defective penises and two were cases of infantile ablatio penis (the penis is removed for some reason). All of the cases were treated at John Hopkins hospital and the age range of the cases were from infants to married adults. Each participant was matched with someone who was similar from birth but brought up as male. Most of the study focuses on one child (David Reimer) because his identical twin was a natural control) Case description: From before she was 2 Brenda was dressed in female clothing, encouraged to play with girls toys and always told that she was a girl she was not aware of the accident at all. Basic genital surgery was performed on Brenda at the age of 2, where she was surgically castrated (had the testicles removed) and a basic vulva was created to give the appearance of female genitals. At the age of 12, Brenda was given Oestrogen to try to encourage female puberty and prevent male features developing such as a deepening voice or facial hair.

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Money tracked Brendas development over her childhood by organising annual visits for her and Brian to the University. In these he would ask them questions about their preferences and behaviour and interview the parents about their observations. Case Analysis: In successive interviews with the twins he reported that Brenda had adapted to the role of female and stated that this was consistent with his theory. For example the girl wanted dolls for Christmas whereas the boy wanted a garage with toys. However Brenda was considered by everyone who knew her to be a tomboy who liked to play with her brothers toys and enjoyed aggressive play. She reported feeling different and her teachers said she was generally more masculine than feminine. Brenda was even seen urinating standing up. Either Money did not know or he chose to ignore this evidence. Money interpreted the data he got from Bruce and Brenda as supportive of his theory. He used the case as evidence in a book he wrote on the subject (Man & Woman; Boy & Girl). He stated that Brenda had accepted her new role and was successfully living as a female and that her behaviour was so normally that of a little girl. Money commented that the mother was a good observer and that her behaviour towards the twins and the comparisons she made between girls and boys helped the girl to adapt. Conclusions: Gender identity is sufficiently incompletely differentiated at birth as to permit successful assignment of a genetic male as a girl. With surgery and hormone therapy it is possible to habilitate a baby with a grossly defective penis more effectively as a girl than a boy. Update on the case analysis and conclusions: The Reimers later identified themselves as haven taken part in the study and gave their version of events in a TV documentary. Brenda at the age of 15 was having severe emotional and behavioural problems, even threatening her parents that she would commit suicide if they made her see Dr. Money again. Her parents then decided that she should be told the truth about who she was and Brenda finally knew she had been born a boy. From this point onwards Brenda became known as David and lived as a male. At the age of 16, David had plastic surgery to create a penis and at the age of 22, further surgery was conducted to make the penis more realistic. During his mid20s, David married a divorcee with 3 children to whom he became a step-father finally fulfilling his masculine identity. Some people argue that Money deliberately kept quiet about parts of Brendas masculine behaviour however, other researchers deny this and say Money was only involved with the Reimers until they were 11. After Dr. Money published his findings and reported that you could successfully raise a boy as a girl, David and his family appeared in a documentary where they put forward their views on what happened. David and his brother Brian reported that Money had used unethical practices to encourage the development of their different gender identities, including photographing them naked in different sexual positions. This could never be proven as 2 years worth of the case notes on the twins were never released by Money. Davids brother, Brian, had mental health problems (he developed schizophrenia shortly after finding out the truth about his twin). In 2002 Brian was found dead in his apartment after an overdose of drugs. After losing his brother, David became depressed, his marriage broke down as a result of financial pressures, and then in 2004 he committed suicide.

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Evaluation This was a real-life case that was reported by Money so it has high ecological validity because the boys life and the events that happened to him were all real and not manipulated in any way. This means that the conclusions drawn about the importance of biology on gender identity are based on a real experience and not the result of an experimental condition. Furthermore the case study collected many in-depth and valid data, through long qualitative interviews with the family and observations. This was a unique opportunity to test the effects of nature versus nurture on gender development due to the matched control of a genetically identical twin. This meant that it was possible to compare the gender identity of the 2 boys who had identical genetic make-up but were brought up differently. This study strongly suggests that gender reassignment surgery may not always be successful so careful consideration should be taken over what gender to raise an intersex child. If biology is likely to have the biggest effect this should be considered first. The case study only followed one child and the results may not be applicable to all other children. For example David had an identical twin brother which may have also influenced his gender behaviour. The reassignment of Bruces gender to female was suggested by Money to support his theory, and it could be argued that he coerced Bruces parents into allowing him to study the case. This creates problems because it could be suggested that the studys reported findings could have been manipulated by Money for his own gain and the potential effect on the children was ignored. The behaviour of the twins was misreported by Money as he always claimed that the study was successful in the reassignment of Bruces gender, but Davids later testimony argued against this. This means that the conclusions from the original study were false and did not represent the true findings. Numerous ethical issues surround this case study. The twins were allegedly encouraged to pose naked in sexual positions which they said was degrading Being involved in the case study was alleged to have been a factor in the mental break down of Brian Reimer, and the later suicide of David This study can be challenged by the case study of Daphne Went who is chromosomally male, but has the physical characteristics of and lives as a female. However Daphne was not exposed to testosterone during prenatal development which may account for the difference between her and David. Because David was exposed to testosterone and he would have developed many more male characteristics than Daphne did. Name: Raine et al (1997) Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography Aim: The aim of the experiment was to discover if murderers who have pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) show evidence of brain abnormalities. Method: The study used PET scans to examine the brains of 41 people (39 males and 2 females) who were charged with murder and were pleading Not Guilty for Reasons of Insanity (NGRI), and compared them with 41 controls. All the NGRIs were referred to the imaging centre for legal reasons, such as to obtain evidence for the defence. The reasons for the referrals included schizophrenia, head injury, and personality disorders. The participants were matched by age and sex to a control group of participants. The participants with schizophrenia were matched with other people with the same diagnosis but no history of murder. All offenders were in custody and were kept medication free for the two weeks before brain scanning. The control group were also medication free. All of the participants were injected with a glucose tracer, required to work at a continuous performance task that was based around target recognition for 32 minutes, and then given a PET scan. The NGRIs were compared with the controls on the level of activity (glucose metabolism) in right and left hemispheres of the brain in 14 selected areas. The researchers looked at activity in six cortical areas (part of the cerebral cortex which is the outermost layer of nerve tissues of the cerebral hemispheres) and eight subcortical areas (brain structures below the cortex);

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Results: The cerebral cortex is commonly described in terms of four areas or lobes; the prefrontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. In this study, compared to the controls, the NGRIs were found to have less activity in their prefrontal and parietal areas, more activity in their occipital areas, and no difference in their temporal areas. The results from the subcortical areas found less activity in the corpus callosum They also found an imbalance of activity between the two hemispheres in three other subcortical structures. In the amygdala and the hippocampus, compared to the controls, the NGRIs had less activity in the left side and more activity in the right side. Also, in the thalamus the NGRIs had more activity in the right side, though no difference in the left side. Conclusions: Raine et al. argue that the difference in activity in the amygdala (which is part of the limbic system) can be seen to support theories of violence that suggest it is due to unusual emotional responses such as lack of fear. The authors also comment on the differences in corpus callosum activity between the NGRIs and the controls, and suggest this can be matched up to evidence of people with a severed corpus callosum which show they can have inappropriate emotional expression and an inability to grasp long-term implications of a situation. Evaluation: The main methodological strength of this study is the amount of control the researchers had over the procedure. For example they used a control group who were matched on variables such as age and sex and they were screened for their physical and mental health. It can also be argued that PET scans are useful because we no longer have to wait for a person to die before we can examine their brain. The scan allows for a wide range of non-intrusive studies. However the study does have methodological weaknesses. For example PET scans are still being developed and therefore the data should be treated with caution. The task used by the participants before the scan is a general activity task and has no bearing on violent acts or even the decision to be violent. Therefore the validity of the task could be questioned. The major methodological weakness is related to the design of the study. It has already been noted that the design was a type of natural experiment, which means that the researchers could not randomly allocate participants to either of the two conditions. Therefore we have to be careful in making cause and effect statements. It is possible that any differences in brain activity between the two groups could have been caused by other factors. We can only say that the study shows a correlation and not a causal relationship. For example, it could be that the differences between the two groups might have been a result of the crime and its consequences rather than a cause of it. There is also supporting evidence for Raines study. For example another study by Raine et al. (2000) found that people with anti-social personality disorder had a smaller pre-frontal cortex than normal controls, which supports the findings of this study because it suggests that brain differences may cause anti-social behaviour. Similarly, in a 20 year longitudinal study Raine measured the way that 3 year old children learned fear. He found that some showed little or no fear response despite repeated exposure to an unpleasant noise. These children when looked at 20 years later were significantly more likely to have a criminal record. This suggests that the emotional connection between experience and fear was missing leading to those affected being more likely to take stupid risks. However other evidence suggests that we have to be careful accepting the findings of Raines 1997 study. In a large scale study in Denmark, Raine examined the birth records of people and found 4000 who had suffered complications and therefore possibly brain damage. He also looked at the records of those who had been rejected by their mothers in the first year of life. He found that neither factor alone was enough to predict criminal behaviour but for those who suffered both traumas they had more than double the risk of becoming criminals at aged 18. This suggests that it is nature plus nurture that is responsible for criminal behaviour. Raine thinks that the nature of the criminals brain should be taken into account in sentencing decisions. He has acted as an expert witness on behalf of someone with a dysfunctional prefrontal cortex which led to a reduction in sentence from death to life in prison. If we know that murder may be caused by faults in peoples biological make-up, then it means that we can work on ways to treat violent offenders by altering their biology. There have been some people who have suggested treating criminals by trying to change or alter their brain chemistry is unethical.

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See powerpoint presentation and your own notes.

See practical sheets

Use of Twin Studies to Research Genetics

One way of finding out whether a characteristic has a genetic component is to see whether it runs in families. If relatives have a higher than average likelihood of having the characteristic themselves, then it may be that the characteristic has a genetic component. An alternative approach is to do a twin study. This looks at the concordance rate (degree of similarity) of twins with respect to the characteristic being considered. Concordance rates means the probability of one twin having the characteristic if the other already has it, expressed as a percentage. In a twin study, MZ (identical) and DZ (non-identical) twins are compared. Whilst MZ twins have a greater degree of genetic similarity, both types of twin pair grow up in identical environments. So if we discover that MZ twins have a higher concordance, this cannot be because their environments are more similar than those of DZ twins; it must therefore be because their genes are more similar. When interpreting twin study data, we look for the following features: Feature Interpretation

MZ concordance is significantly higher than DZ The characteristic has a genetic component concordance MZ concordance is same or similar to DZ concordance MZ concordance is 100% MZ concordance is significantly less than 100% The characteristic is environmentally caused. The characteristic is genetically caused The characteristic has an environmental component

Adoption Studies: Studying children who have been adopted is another way at looking at whether behavioural characteristics are nature or nurture. If the adopted child is more similar to their biological parents the characteristic is nature based, if they are more similar to their adoptive parents it is nurture based. Adoptive children share no genes with their adoptive parents and 50% of their genes with each of their biological parents. For

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example if the child and its biological mother both have a high IQ you could say it was down to the impact of a genius gene. Evaluation Strengths of twin studies o Twins provide a perfect way of controlling for genetic inheritance as MZs always share 100% and DZ share 50%, a naturally occurring manipulation of an independent variable, yet both have the same environmental experience (control of confounding variables) meaning that the effect of nature over nurture can be studied effectively. With increasing numbers of multiple births, it is possible to replicate the findings of twin studies with large samples in many different world cultures, increasing the reliability and generalisability of the findings; records of multiple births means that researchers can easily find large sample with which to test their hypotheses. DNA analysis can then isolate the gene/ genes involved.

Weaknesses of twin studies o One of the grounding assumptions of the twin study methodology concerns the degree of similarity between the environments of MZ and DZ twins. Because both types of twin pair are born at the same time into the same environment it is assumed that each member of a twin pair is exposed to exactly the same set of environmental influences, regardless of zygosity. However, this not strictly true as ... o MZ twins can experience differences in terms of environmental experiences, even in the womb o MZ twins are typically closer than DZ twins, their parents are more likely to dress them similarly and they are always the same sex; all these factors mean that people will treat them more similarly and therefore it may not be right to assume that both MZ and DZ twin pair share equally similar environments; MZ environments may be more similar than DZs o Even though genetically identical, MZ twins are not exactly the same; their fingerprints are different. One twin is typically larger and more robust than the other; first observable during pre-natal development.

Genes turn on and off at different point in life and in interaction with differing environmental experiences (epigenetic modification); therefore MZ twins may both share a gene or cluster of genes which predispose them to schizophrenia however, only one twin may be exposed to the environmental circumstances which trigger that gene to start affecting the persons thinking and behaviour (cross reference to nature-nurture debate) o Adoption agencies try to place children in similar environments to their biological parents so it is diffuckt to completely rule out the influence of environment

PET Scans Positron Emission Topography scanning allows us to see activity in the brain/working brain A radioactive chemical is injected into the blood of a person As it breaks down it releases radioactivity which can be picked up on the scan The more active the brain for a specific task the more radioactivity will be picked up by the scan The different colours/shades in the image are interpreted Darker/warmer areas show more activity OR lighter/cooler areas show less activity/ Red/orange shows high(er) activity and blue/green shows low(er) activity It allows us to see which parts of the brain are using more glucose/energy The more active the brain the more glucose/energy it uses

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J Kavanagh: Pensby High School

MRI Scans Magnetic resonance imaging has a strong magnetic field passed over the body A dye, called a contrast medium, is injected in the body to help show up the organs and relevant areas MRI scans are effected by movement so the person has to remain very still An MRI scan gives a cross sectional view of the body

Research using animals: Studying genes mice have been studied to see if gene abnormalities in humans are caused by the same gene as in mice. As mice breed quickly it is possible to see the effects on later generations Studying the nervous system rats have been given anti-psychotic drugs to witness the effects on brain structure and neurochemistry Advantages and disadvantages of using animals: It is possible to do things to animals (such as cause brain damage) that would be unethical in humans Skinner gave electric shocks to the rats in the Skinner box, we wouldnt be able to give electric shocks to humans in the same way Some people argue that we should never do things to animals that we would not do to humans and all animal studies are unethical Minimum numbers of animals should be used in studies making them more ethical because any practices are not carried out unnecessarily Using Batesons cube animal studies are ethical if we are certain there will be a benefit, their suffering is low and the research is of a high quality (2 marks) However, whilst we may expect a benefit to come from the research we cannot know

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J Kavanagh: Pensby High School

there will be any benefit until after the research Results from animals such as rats may not be true for humans, meaning that they have been used in vain so making it unethical

A strength elaborated for two marks It is possible to have more control over extraneous variables when using animals compared to humans. This allows us to be more certain about the cause of a specific behaviour as only one thing is changed between the groups of animals.

* Note you must revise, using your research methods revision guide all sections for Unit 1 and 2.

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J Kavanagh: Pensby High School