C O P I N G WI T H T H E R I S I N G WAT E R S 243

fers.Tisresultsinstreetandbasementoodingafterheavyrains.InRotter-
dam,excessrainwatercanbetemporarilystoredbeneathmunicipalparking
orinwaterplazasthatalsoserveasparksorplaygroundswhendry.Planting
greenroofsalsohelpscurbexcessruno.
43

New York City

Astheygoabouttheirdailytasks,mostNewYorkersremainoblivioustothe
citysstatusasanislandandamajorseaport.Tecityboastsnearly600 miles
(970kilometers)ofshoreline,andfourofitsveboroughsareislands.How-
ever, the citys waterfront is undergoing a major transformation. Shipping,
exceptforcruiseships,haslargelymovedtonearbyStatenIslandandBay-
onne,NewJersey.Pedestrianwalkwaysandbicyclepathsnowreplacerotting
piers and abandoned warehouses and factories. New high-rise apartment
complexessproutlikemushrooms.
New York City recognizes the issues of global warming and sea level
rise in its waterfront redevelopment plans. Te city currently is among the
10 portcitiesmostvulnerabletocoastalooding,intermsofpopulationand
assets.
46
Bythe2070s,NewYorkCitywillstillremainamongthetop10port
citiesatrisk,basedonassets.Wintercyclonesandhurricaneshaveooded
partsofthecityinthepast,mostrecentlyduringthenoreasterofDecem-
ber1992,discussedabove.
Te mayors Oce of Long-Term Planning and Sustainability manages
city-owned infrastructure. Mayor Michael Bloomberg recently commis-
sionedastudybyexpertsfromtheNASAGoddardInstituteforSpaceStud-
ies,ColumbiaUniversity,otherregionaluniversities,andtheprivatesector
toadviseonclimatechangerisksarisingfromchangesintemperature,pre-
cipitation,andsealevelchangeandtorecommendadaptationstrategies.
47

Table 9.1 Rotterdam and New York City Compared

City Rotterdam NewYorkCity
2Iuu 2u8u2u9u
(rel.toI99u) (rel.to2uuu)
SeaLevelRise u.63I.3m u.3u.38m(centralrange)
u.67m(max.)
Rapidicemelt I.uI.4m
I-in-Iuu-yearoodheight 2.8m 2.93.3m
Sources: Rotterdam data from Delta Commissie (2uu8), Aerts et al. (2uu9). New York City data from
Hortonetal.(2uIu).
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244 C O P I N G WI T H T H E R I S I N G WAT E R S
Te New York City Panel on Climate Change (NPCC) 2010 report proj-
ectsfuturesealevelrisebasedonsevenGlobalCirculationModels(GCMs)
andthreegreenhousegasemissionsscenarios(IPCCSRESA2,A1B,andB2).
Teseprojections,modiedfromIPCCmethodology,includeglobalcontri-
butions from thermal expansion and meltwater (glaciers, ice caps, and ice
sheets), as well as local land subsidence, mainly due to glacial isostatic ad-
justments,andlocalchangesinwaterheightfromseatemperature,salinity,
and ocean currents. (Other factors aecting sea level, such as gravitational
androtationalterms,werenotincluded.)Tosimulatepotentialdynamicice
acceleration,anupper-limit,high-impactRapidIce-Meltscenarioassumes
thatglaciersandicesheetswillmeltatratescomparabletothoseoftheLast
Glacial Termination (chapter 5), when sea level climbed at an average rate
of0.390.47inches(1012millimeters)peryear.Tisscenarioassumesthat
meltwaterrisesexponentiallyfromthepresentmeanicemeltrateof1.1cen-
timeters per decade between 2000 and 2004, going to 2100. Tis term is
addedtotheotherthreesealevelterms,whichremainunchanged.
Te GCM-based projections show a sea level rise of 712 inches (18
30 centimeters)
48
bythe2050sand1223inches(3058centimeters)bythe
2080s(table9.2).Sealevelreaches-4155inches(104140centimeters)by
the2080sintheRapidIce-Meltscenario.
Te frequency, intensity, and duration of coastal ooding will likely in-
crease along with a rising sea. Te 100-year ood return curve (or stage-
frequencyrelationship)forNewYorkCitywascalculatedfromaU.S.Army
Corps of Engineers hydrodynamic model with both surge and tidal com-
ponents.
49
Sealevelrisereducesthe100-yearreturnperiodtooncein15
35 yearsbythe2080s.
Ahigheraveragesealevelwouldexacerbatestreet,basement,andsewer
oodinganddisrupttransportationmorefrequently.Itwouldincreaserates
Table 9.2 Sea level rise projections for New York City
2u2us 2u3us 2u8us
GCM-basedscenarios 23inches 7I2inches I223inches
3.II3centimeters I83ucentimeters 3u38centimeters
Rapidicemeltscenario 3Iuinches -I929inches -4I33inches
I323centimeters 4874centimeters Iu4I4ucentimeters
Source:RosenzweigandSolecki(2uIu),Hortonetal.(2uIu).Numbersrepresentsealevelriserelativeto
theyear2uuuforthemid-67percentofthemodelprojections.
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C O P I N G WI T H T H E R I S I N G WAT E R S 245
ofbeacherosion,necessitatingadditionalbeachnourishmentprograms.Salt
waterwouldencroachfartherintofreshwatersourcesandpotentiallydam-
ageinfrastructure.
TeNPCCrecommendsthatNewYorkCitybegintodevelopexiblead-
aptationpathwaysthatcanbeadjustedperiodicallytothelatestprojections
ofsealevelrise.Existingriskandhazardmanagementstrategiescanthenbe
revised as needed. Te NPCCs Adaptation Assessment Guidebook (AAG)
recommendsthatcityagenciesbegintoprepareaninventoryofinfrastruc-
tureandassetsatrisk,linkadaptationstrategiestocapitalandrehabilitation
cycles, and periodically monitor and reassess plans in response to newer
climateinformation.Inaddition,theNPCCoersageneralprocessforcre-
atingasetofclimatechangerelateddesignandperformancestandards(cli-
mateprotectionlevels,orCPLs).Mostimportantistoupdatecurrent1-in-
100-yearoodzonemaps(e.g.,FEMAsmaps)toincorporatefuturesealevel
riseandcoastalooding(table9.2,g.9.10).
Te New York City Department of City Planning has recently unveiled
itsVision2020:NewYorkCityComprehensiveWaterfrontPlanforthere-
vitalization of the waterfront.
3u
Te plan envisions enhanced public access
tothewaterfrontandutilizationofthewaterways,aswellasneweconomic
developmentandresidentialconstruction.TedelineationoftheNewYork
CityCoastalZoneBoundaryusedinwaterfrontrevitalizationshouldalsobe
updatedtoreectthelatestsealevelriseprojections.
REACTING TO THE RISING WATERS
InNorfolk,Virginia,sealevelriseisnotheoreticalmatteritisalreadyoc-
curring! High spring tides regularly ood streets in some neighborhoods,
forcingresidentstore-parktheircarsawayfromtheshoreanddetouraround
deep puddles. Norfolk, near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, is surrounded
onthreesidesbywater.Naturalsubsidenceplussettlingandcompactionof
reclaimed marshland add to the rising water, making the relative sea level
trendof4.44millimeters(0.17inches)peryearoneofthehighestalongthe
East Coast. After extensive lobbying by local residents, the city decided to
raisetheworst-hitstreetby46centimeters(18inches)andtoreadjuststorm
drainpipestopreventstreetooding.FEMAhasalsospent$144,000toraise
sixhouses,stimulatingobjectionsoverhighcostsandthefutilityofendless
countermeasures.
3I
Temayorconcedesthatiftheseakeepsrising,thecity
will eventually need to create retreat zones, but those most aected (like
their counterparts in Corton, England) strongly prefer action at any cost.
C6070.indb 245 1/9/13 4:49 PM
246 C O P I N G WI T H T H E R I S I N G WAT E R S
Meanwhile, the city will select its ood-mitigation projects more carefully
andexplorealternativeslikeinatabledamsorstorm-surgeoodgates.
In general, the response to the rising sea follows either of two divergent
pathways.Terstcourseentailsstayingputandholdingthelineforaslong
as possible. Coastal development continues (with minor restrictions) and
theshoreisdefendedbyamixofhardarmoring,softer,morenaturalsolu-
tions, or accommodation by means of innovative architecture and design.
Figure 9.10 New York City FEMA 100-year-ood maps with sea level rise based on NPCC sea
level rise projections. (Map by K. Grady, A. Marko, L. Patrick, W. Solecki, Climate Protection
Level Workbook, in Rosenzweig and Solecki, 2010, g. 3, p. 317.)
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