UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS

JUDUL: DESIGN AND DEVELOP 3-WAY LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM
SESI PENGAJIAN: 2006/2007-1 SAYA : MOHD ZAMRI BIN JUSOH (HURUF BESAR)
mengaku membenarkan tesis (PSM/Sarjana/Doktor Falsafah)* ini di simpan di Perpustakaan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan seperti berikut: 1. 2. 3. 4. Tesis adalah hak milik Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Perpustakaan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk tujuan pengajian sahaja. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis ini sebagai bahan pertukaran antara institusi pengajian tinggi. **Sila tandakan ( )

SULIT

(Mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keselamatan atau kepentingan Malaysia seperti yang termaktub di dalam AKTA RAHSIA RASMI 1972) (Mengandungi maklumat TERHAD yang telah ditentukan oleh organisasi/badan di mana penyelidikkan dijalankan)

TERHAD 9

TIDAK TERHAD Disahkan oleh

___________________________________ (TANDATANGAN PENULIS) Alamat Tetap: PT 9824 Kg Kolam Permai, 23100 Paka Dungun Terengganu Darul Iman

__________________________________ (TANDATANGAN PENYELIA) ASSOC. PROF. DR. MOHAMAD NGASRI DIMON (Nama Penyelia)

Tarikh

: 3 NOV 2006_ Tarikh : 3 NOV 2006_

I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my opinion this is sufficient in term of scope and quality for award of the degree of Master of Engineering (ElectricalElectronics & Telecommunications)

Signature Name of Supervisor Date

: : : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamad Ngasri Dimon 3 NOV 2006

3 DESIGN AND DEVELOP 3-WAY LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM

MOHD ZAMRI BIN JUSOH

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Master of Engineering (Electrical Electronics & Telecommunications)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

NOVEMBER 2006

I declare that this thesis titled Design and Develop 3-way Loudspeaker system is the result of my own research except as cited in references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature in any other degree.

Signature

Name

Mohd Zamri bin Jusoh

Date

3 Nov 2006

Dedicated to my beloved mother, Hajah Mek Ngah bt Mohamad, my father, Jusoh bin Abas, all my brothers and sisters and my friends whom support me to complete this project.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to praise to ALLAH who has given me the opportunity to pursue my Master Degree and also who has given me the ability physically and mentally in order for me to complete this thesis.

I would like to express my gratitude and thanks to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamad Ngasri Dimon for his care and support, motivation, encouragement, patience, and guidance from the beginning of my study until this thesis is completely written. His support and care have helped me through various obstacles and difficulties. His motivation and time have guided me to finish this hard work in time.

I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to Mr Adnal Bakar and IVAT and the staff members who helped and provided me the technical and equipments to resolve and complete the construction and testing of my 3-way loudspeaker.

And finally, special thanks for all friends who have directly or indirectly offered help support and suggestions, contributing towards the successful completion of this thesis writing. Thank you very much.

ABSTRACT

The typical loudspeaker product is designed to make money and not necessarily to provide accurate sound reproduction. Since customers prefer small, unobtrusive speakers and judge sound quality by the amount of bass that they hear and by high frequencies they had not noticed before. There is a staggering number of essentially identical designs on the market that meet these requirements at different price.

In addition current loudspeaker system technology need a large amount of investment in drivers and enclosures. So the price usually become expensive and a large number of customers could not afford to buy the prestige and high quality loudspeaker system. Furthermore in addition to achieve great and accurate sound reproduction, most manufacturer begin to use high cost material such as Aluminium , Titanium & Diamond for the drivers.

For a 3-way loudspeaker which are designed perfectly, it is enough to cover the range of frequency from 20 Hertz until 20 KHertz. 3-way loudspeaker allows drivers to operate in more narrow, optimized ranges, eliminating the distortion that result from excessive driver excursion. Many advantages can be achieved especially decreasing the cost for research and production to build full range loudspeaker sound reproduction.

In this project the 3-way loudspeaker system was designed and developed successfully.

ABSTRAK

Kebanyakkan pembesar suara yang boleh di dapati sekarang di buat hanya semata-mata untuk memperolehi keuntungan dan bukan untuk tujuan asalnya yang sebenar- iaitu menghasilkan bunyi yang mantap.Para pembeli pembesar suara masa kini lebih memilih pembesar suara yang bersaiz kecil,lebih menarik dan menilai kemampuan pembesar suara tersebut melalui kekuatan bunyi berfrekuensi rendah dan bukan pada bunyi berfrekuensi tinggi yang sebelum ini belum pernah mereka

dengar,mengakibatkan kekurangan dalam keperluan untuk menghasilkan pembesar suara yang memiliki kelebihan sebegini dengan harga yang berbeza-beza.

Tambahan lagi, teknologi pembuatan pembesar suara masa kini memerlukan sumbangan modal yang agak besar lebih kepada komponen-komponen seperti pemacu dan kotak pembesar suara.Maka sudah tentu harganya semakin mahal hinggakan pembeli tidak mampu untuk memiliki pembesar suara yang berprestij dan berteknologi tinggi.Tambahan lagi bagi mencakupi pembesar suara tersebut supaya mencapai

keupayaan yang lebih baik , para pengeluar mula menggunakan bahan-bahan yang lebih mahal harganya seperti Aluminium , Titanium dan Berlian .

Bagi pembesar suara 3 arah yang dicipta dengan sempurna, ianya sudah cukup untuk merangkumi sambutan frekuensi antara 20Hertz hingga 20 KHertz. Sistem

pembesar suara 3 arah membenarkan pemacu untuk berfungsi dalam julat frekuensi yang lebih kecil, dan lebih baik untuk mengelakkan berlakunya penghasilan bunyi yang tidak baik kerana pemacu tidak mampu untuk menghasilkan bunyi pada sambutan frekuensi yang tertentu. Banyak kelebihan akan di dapati terutamanya mengurangkan

9 kos pembuatan dan ujikaji tentang bagaimana untuk menghasilkan pembesar suara yang boleh merangkumi sambutan frekuensi sepenuhnya.

Di dalam projek ini direkabentuk dan prototaip pembesar suara 3 arah telah dihasilkan dengan jayanya.

10

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

TITLE

SUPERVISOR DECLARATION DECLARATION OF COOPERATION TITLE AUTHOR DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF SYMBOLS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF APPENDICES i ii iii iv v vi viii xi xii xiv xv xvi

INTRODUCTION 1.1 Projects objective 1.2 Projects background 1 2

11 1.3 Scope of project 1.4 Methodology 1.4.1 Decide loudspeaker component parameter and purchasing 1.4.2 Drivers parameter measurement 1.4.3 System construction 1.4.4 Performance measurement and analysis 2 3 2 3 3 3

LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Loudspeakers system overview 2.1.1 Loudspeaker types 2.1.1.1 Multidriver 2.1.1.2 Woofer 2.1.1.3 Midrange 2.1.1.4 Tweeter 2.2 Comparison between 3-way and 2-way system 2.3 Important parts of 3-way loudspeaker 2.3.1 Drivers and crossover 2.3.2 Enclosures 2.4 Loudspeakers construction and testing 2.5 Loudspeakers enclosure developement 4 6 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 10 11

METHODOLOGY 3.1 Phases to complete the project 3.2 Components/Drivers parameter measurement 3.2.1 Drivers Impedance characteristic 3.2.1.1 Drivers Impedance characteristic measurement procedure 3.2.2 Measurement for drivers Vas value 3.2.2.1 Drivers Vas measurement procedure 13 13 15 17 17 18

3.2.3 Measuring the frequency response and Total Harmonic 19 Distortion

12 3.2.3.1 Frequency response and THD measurement procedure 3.3 Loudspeakers design and construction 3.3.1 Constructed enclosure 3.3.2 3-way crossover design 22 22 27 32

MEASUREMENT RESULT AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Measurement result 4.1.1 Impedance characteristics and Vas measurement result 4.1.2 Frequency response measurement result 4.1.2.1 Subwoofers frequency response measurement result 37 37 42 42

4.1.2.2 Midranges frequency response measurement result 4.1.2.3 Tweeters frequency response measurement result 4.1.3 Frequency response after install crossover measurement result 4.1.3.1 Subwoofers frequency response after install crossover measurement result 4.1.3.2 Midranges frequency response after install crossover measurement result 4.1.3.3 Tweeters frequency response after install crossover measurement result 4.1.4 3-way loudspeakers frequency response 4.1.5 Total Harmonic Distortion result 4.2 3-way loudspeakers analysis and comparison 4.3 Frequency response comparison result 4.4 Total Harmonic Distortion comparison result 4.5 Problem encountered

43 44 44 45

45

47

48 49 50 52 53 54

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK 5.1 Conclusions 55

13 5.2 Other area on loudspeakers research and development 5.3 Future work and recommendations 56 56

REFERENCES APPENDICES

58 59

14

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO

TITLE

PAGE

3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2

Enclosure dimension Price list Measurement result for Impedance characteristic and Vas Comparison for both JBL and constructed loudspeaker

28 31 38 51

15

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15

TITLE

PAGE 5 8 9 10 11 14 15 16 18 20 20 21 21 24 25 26 26 27 28 29

Diaphragm of common loudspeaker US made JBL 4311 B loudspeaker Sample 3-way crossover system Sample enclosure with absorbent material Trapezoidal shape enclosure Selected drivers including subwoofer , midrange and tweeter Jig connection Driver's Impedance Characteristic's measurement connection 1 inch cubic feet standard box Jig connection for Frequency Response's measurement test Driver on base in the anechoic chamber The Audio Analyzer and Power Amplifier Result printed by HP LaserJet Design plan for the loudspeaker's enclosure Design plan for the driver's location on the enclosure Equipment for construction Material for enclosure Front and Back side of the enclosure Left and Right side of the enclosure Completed 3-way loudspeaker system

16

3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14

Battan bracing Silicon coating Frequency response overlapping Sample of Lalena.com's result 3-way Butterworth crossover design result Equipment during crossover construction Designed 3-way Butterworth crossover Measurement result for Impedance characteristic and Vas Subwoofer frequency response Midrange frequency response Tweeter frequency response Subwoofer with crossover frequency response Midrange with crossover frequency response Tweeter with crossover frequency response Prototype loudspeaker's frequency response THD result Both JBL and constructed loudspeaker Constructed 3-way loudspeaker frequency response JBL 3-way frequency response Constructed 3-way loudspeaker THD JBL 3-way THD

30 30 33 34 35 36 36 39 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 52 52 53 53

17

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Vas Vb Ro Z max Re Z' Fs Qms Qes Qts(Q)

Driver's compliance state as equivalent air volume Net internal volume of enclosure Internal resistance Total Driver's impedance Driver's DC resistance Reduced impedance Driver's free air resonance Mechanical value Electrical value Total Q factor

18

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AC ACVM DC HP FKE IVAT RM SPL SNR SSR THD TSR

Alternating current Alternating current Voltmeter Direct current Hewlett Packard Faculty of Engineering Institute of High Voltage and High Current Ringgit Malaysia Sound Pressure Level Sound to Noise Ratio Steady State Response Total Harmonic Distortion Time Selective Response

19

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX

TITLE

PAGE

A B

Table of Audio Spectrum Metric Unit Conversion Table

60 61

20

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Projects objective

The objectives of this project is to design and analyze the 3-way loudspeaker system with new enclosure design concept which changing from usual square shape enclosure into trapezoidal shape. There are also including 3-way crossover design to complete the 3-way loudspeaker system and some measurement of the loudspeakers component by using acoustic laboratorys measurement instrument chamber. and anechoic

Before starting this project, several targets and goals have been set to achieve excellent performance with high fidelity 3-way loudspeaker system. The following are the goals for this project :

a) To design and develop 3-Way Loudspeaker with nice looks and big size - new concept of design development which is trapezoidal shape b) Frequency Response coverage within 20Hz-20KHz range c) Low cost construction < RM 500 d) Good low end bass which result in making a 3-way loudspeaker system

21

1.2

Projects background

This project mainly to develop and to design a 3-way loudspeaker system in different shape and construction technique with low cost to achieve or at least can be comparable to other same system with very high price and technology.

1.3

Scope of work

Based on the objectives of the project, several scopes have been decided to achieve all the objectives :

a) Design 3-way loudspeaker to meet the objectives b) Construction c) Testing of loudspeaker prototype d) Analysis of testing result

1.4

Methodology

Below are the methodology to complete this project :

1.4.1

Decide loudspeaker components parameter and purchasing

Study and set the components parameters including the drivers to achieve optimum performance with less money.

22

1.4.2

Drivers parameter measurement

By using acoustic laboratory measurements instrument, all the drivers will be measured to collect certain data which are important to design the 3-way loudspeakers system.

1.4.3

System construction

Based on the 3-way loudspeaker components parameter measurement result, the enclosure and 3-way crossover will be built and these items will be tested to make sure these items are suitable and possible to produce high performance of sound reproduction.

1.4.4

Performance measurement and analysis

Finally after the construction, several testing including the frequency response and audible testing to the finished 3-way loudspeaker system with comparison to another branded and high performance 3-way loudspeaker system.

23

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Loudspeaker systems overview

Loudspeaker is a device that converts an electrical signal from an amplifier into sound. A loudspeaker driver is an electromechanical-acoustic device with two electrical input terminals, to which an electrical signal is applied, and a diaphragm which vibrates and radiates sound. An electromechanical motor mechanism exerts a force on the diaphragm to cause it to vibrate.

By far the most common type of motor mechanism, the electromagneticmechanical transducer employs a coil of wire immersed in a magnetic field; electric current flowing through the coil causes a force to be exerted on the coil which is mechanically coupled to the diaphragm. A less common type of motor mechanism is the electrostatic-mechanical transducer. It uses a capacitor to which an electric voltage is applied, causing a force to be exerted between the capacitor plates, which is mechanically coupled to the diaphragm.

Two types of electrostatic transducers are used: the piezoelectric transducer and the condenser transducer. The piezoelectric transducer uses a piezoelectric crystal between the capacitor plates. The condenser transducer uses an air dielectric. One plate

24 of the capacitor is a flexible membrane which serves as the diaphragm on figure 2. 1 below.

Figure 2. 1 : Diaphragm of common loudspeaker

A loudspeaker system employs one or more loudspeaker drivers in a common enclosure. A one-way loudspeaker system employs a full-range driver to cover the full audio spectrum. A two-way system employs a low-frequency driver called a woofer and a high-frequency driver called a tweeter. An electrical low-pass filter is used in series with the woofer and a high-pass filter is used in series with the tweeter. These filters are commonly referred to as the crossover networks. A three-way system adds a midfrequency driver called the midrange or squawker. The crossover network for this driver is a band-pass filter. In some systems, a driver called a supertweeter is used to reproduce audio frequencies into the ultrasonic range. A driver called a subwoofer is used to reproduce audio frequencies into the infrasonic range. [1]

25 2.1.1 Loudspeaker types

There are several types of loudspeaker system. This project will be using multi driver system where one system would include more than single driver connected to each other.

2.1.1.1

Multidriver

Home loudspeaker systems are generally multi-driver systems. 'Multi driver' refers to any speaker system that contains two or more separate driver units, including woofers, midranges, tweeters, and sometimes horns or tweeters. In loudspeaker

specifications, there are loudspeakers classified as an "N-way" speaker where N is a positive whole number greater than 1, indicating the number of separate frequency bands into which the system divides the sound (not the number of drivers, as one frequency band may be handled by more than one speaker driver). A 2-way system consists of woofer and tweeter sections; a 3-way system is constructed as a combination of woofer(s), tweeter(s) and midrange etc. The frequency bands are separated and routed to the correct driver by an N-way defined in the same manner.

2.1.1.2

Woofer A woofer is a loudspeaker capable of reproducing the bass frequencies. The

frequency range varies widely according to design. Whilst some woofers can cover the audio band from the bass to 3 kHz, others only work up to 1 kHz or less.

2.1.1.3

Midrange A mid-range loudspeaker, also known as a squawker is designed to cover the

middle of the audio spectrum, typically from about 200 Hz to about 4-5 kHz. The

26 distinction between woofers and mid-ranges is blurred however since many woofers can operate up to 3 kHz. These are used when the bass driver (or woofer) is incapable of covering the mid audio range. Mid-ranges typically appear where large (>16 cm or 8") woofers are used for the bass end of the audio spectrum.

2.1.1.4

Tweeter

A tweeter is a loudspeaker capable of reproducing the higher end of the audio spectrum, usually from about 5 kHz to 20 kHz.

2.2

Comparison between 3-way and 2-way loudspeakers

If compared to other different type of system, for example the 2-way loudspeaker system, the 3-way loudspeaker system is far better and have more kind of advantages especially in a large size room as in cinema or large scale private room for home theatre.

These are the list of advantages for 3-way loudspeaker system if compared to the 2-way loudspeaker system : Compare to 2-way system, 3-way loudspeakers can control both mid and high frequencies without introducing distortion Possible to achieve ultra high sensitivity with low distortion and more manageable--can control all range of frequency with greater ease 2-way loudspeaker have smaller format high frequency and produce much less distortion, but lack the necessary pattern control at certain frequencies.

27 Since 3-way design does not ask a single driver to control directivity from large range of frequency, pattern control can be optimized without introducing distortion. [2]

2.3

Important parts of 3-way loudspeaker system

2.3.1

Drivers and crossover

The 3-way system employ a subwoofer crossed over to produce

bass

frequencies, a midrange driver crossed over to produce mid frequencies and a tweeter crossed over to produce high frequencies. Because of effects such as resonance and various inertial effects, a single loudspeaker is not usually used to cover a wide range of frequencies; instead, a number of specialized drivers are employed. These drivers are often wired together using crossover circuit, which allocate different frequency bands to the different units. The drivers are subwoofer, mid-range, and tweeter. [3]

This type of system, if implemented correctly, can achieve full frequency response at very high fidelity with little or no need for an added powered subwoofer.

Figure 2. 2 :US Made JBL4311B

28 As shown as figure 2. 2, the JBL 4311B 3-way loudspeaker includes 3 kind of drivers and usually, the drivers are arranged based on the design and technology developed by the manufacturer. There are also additional technology included at the JBL 4311B loudspeaker such as the L-Pad control - for gain and frequency adjustment and also the duct hole between the midrange and the tweeter .

Good crossover circuits take a full-frequency, full-power signal from an amplifier and send the appropriate frequencies to each driver. They are generally found within the loudspeaker enclosure. Figure 2. 3 shows sample of 3-way crossover system.

Figure 2. 3 : Sample 3-way crossover system

2.3.2

Enclosures

A loudspeaker is commonly mounted in an enclosure (or cabinet). The major role of the enclosure is to prevent the out-of-phase sound waves from the rear of the speaker combining with the positive phase sound waves from the front of the speaker, which would result interference phase and cancellation causing the efficiency of the speaker to be compromised, particularly in the low frequencies where the wavelengths are large enough that interference will affect the entire listening area. Inside the

enclosures usually stuffed with absorbent or damping material before the drivers are set

29 into the cabinet. The absorbent/damping material inside the enclosure used to avoid resonance and usually build by carbon fiber.

Figure 2. 4 : Sample enclosure with absorbent material

2.4

Loudspeakers construction and testing Speaker design is considered both an art and science. Adjusting a design is done

with instruments and with the ear.

Speaker designers use an anechoic chamber

(essentially a room with soundproofing that inhibits any reverberation or echo) to ensure the speaker will perform the way it is intended to. Some developers (such as Bose) eschew the sole use of anechoic chambers in favor of specific standardized room set-ups designed to replicate likely real-life listening conditions. Some of the issues in speaker design are lobing, phase effects, off axis response and time coherence.

30 2.5 Loudspeakers enclosure development

Loudspeaker shape has changed in the last 10 or 15 years. They used to be wide with a shallow depth but now they're tall with a narrow width and much deeper. That is because of diffraction of sound on the front surface of speakers; even the thickness of the driver flange can cause diffraction of sound. In order to minimize diffraction it is necessary to provide the surface area around the tweeter and midrange as small as possible, the woofer is not as important because bass is non-directional. B&W Nautilus has optimized this concept by placing the tweeter above the box with no surrounding surface area. [2]

Figure 2. 5 : Trapezoidal shape enclosure

Refer to figure 2. 5 , it is also important to phase align the drivers so that the sound leaving each driver leaves together and at the same time. Physical phase

alignment is achieved by lining up the voice coils of each driver in a line perpendicular to the floor.

31

A third benefit achieved from these angles is non-parallel panels. Non-parallel panels help reduce standing waves inside the box. A final benefit, the pyramid shaped speaker that is aesthetically pleasing. But of course further research required to find the volume formula for a frustum of a pyramid which works even though the back panel is straight.

Most speaker manufacturers do not make non-rectangular boxes. Usually this is because of the difficulty in manufacturing odd shapes in large quantities and then most low frequency woofers require a much larger box. It is much more important to keep the tweeter-midrange at ear level than to worry about diffraction, especially if the drivers are pushed to their on axis response. So keeping the shape rectangular allows a larger volume.

32

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1

Phases to complete the project

There are 3 phases that need to be proceeded and completed in term to achieve the targets and goals in this project. Before starting the initial phase, a lot of reading and information has been collected so that optimum result will appears at the end of the project. Several phases have been done during the projects implementation including :

1) 2) 3)

Components / Drivers parameter measurement Design and construction Testing and analysis

3.2

Components / Drivers parameter measurement

After collecting some information about loudspeakers building technique and technology, several approaches on how to start the project have been made. This project will be using the drivers that have same impedance system value -> 8 Ohms.

33 That is because the impedance of most high-fidelity speakers is 8 Ohms. 8 Ohms system loudspeakers can easily response to 3-way crossover networks.

Figure 3. 1 : Selected drivers including subwoofer, midrange and tweeter

Above figure 3. 1 determine all the selected drivers that have been used in this project. In case to save the cost, all the drivers are not purchased from the same manufacturer. The diameter for each drivers are 12 inches for the subwoofer, 6 inches for the midrange and 2 inches for the tweeter. All the drivers have 8 Ohms impedance system.

After preparing the drivers several measurement and procedure need to be prepared. The most important measurement is to measure the drivers characteristics especially for the subwoofer because the size and dimension of the enclosure are fully depending to the subwoofers characteristics and parameter. measurement that have been done to measure the drivers characteristic : Below are the

34 3.2.1 Drivers impedance characteristics measurement

During this measurement several equipments have been used and all of the equipments are available in the acoustic laboratory. The list of the equipments are :

1) Audio signal generator 2) AC Voltmeter 3) 1000 Ohm Resistor 4) 10 Ohm(10%) Resistor 5) Subwoofer 6) Analog multimeter 7) 1 cubic feet standard box

Figure 3. 2 below is the connection of the jig to measure the drivers impedance characteristic measurement :

ACVM R1: 1K Ohm Audio

S1
R2: 10 Ohm (10

+
+

Figure 3. 2 : Jigs connection

35 The Audio Signal Generator is connected to the 1K Ohm resistor and then connected to the AC Voltmeter and then to the drivers with the same polarity. The 10 Ohm 10% resistor are important to calibrate the jig before starting the measurement. Figure 3. 3 shows the actual connection of all the equipments.

From the figure 3. 3, all the measurement equipment are connected and all the reading from the measurement result will appears on the AC Voltmeter screen. The driver need to be placed on a celotape, so that the cone of the driver are in free air state condition. [4]

Figure 3. 3 : Drivers Impedance Characteristics Measurement connection

36 3. 2. 1. 1 Drivers impedance characteristics measurement procedure

After all the measurements equipments are connected, the following are the procedures to measure the drivers impedance characteristic :

1) Start with calibrating with 10 Ohm resistant. Set S1 to 10 Ohm resistor. Setting the generator up to 100Hz and adjust the amplitude output of the signal generator to match the value of 0. 01V at the AC Voltmeter. This mean the 0. 01 reading represent the load of the 10 Ohm 10% precision resistor. All the reading by the voltmeter will represent the load of the driver. 2) Switch S1 to the driver and take the reading at the AC Voltmeter while adjusting the signal generator at 10 Hz intervals from 10 Hz until 100Hz. 3) Follow the step 2 for 100Hz interval until 1KHz . After that follow the same step 2 for 1KHz intervals at higher frequency until 20KHz. 4) Take the reading and plot the result on log paper. This tests purpose is to measure the impedance characteristics of the driver from lower frequency to higher frequency. 5) By using analog multimeter, measure the DC resistant of the driver (Re). [4]

3. 2. 2

Measurement for drivers Vas (Drivers compliance stated as equivalent

air volume) :

The following

are the procedures to measure the drivers Vas value.

customized standard box made from plywood and just 1 inch cubic foot volume are used in this measurement. The standard box are set to 1 inch cubic foot so that easy calculation and decision can be made in term to proceed to next phase. Figure 3. 4 is the picture of the standard box :

37

Figure 3. 4 : 1 inch Cubic feet standard box

Based to figure 3. 4, the standard box has been made manually and cut with the regular woodsaw. To construct all the parts all together, the wood gum has been used. It is important to make sure that the inside standard box is free air condition and even no tiny hole are allowed so that correct measurement value can be recorded . The following are the procedures to measure the drivers Vas Value :

3. 2. 2. 1

Drivers Vas measurement procedure

1) Use the standard box with 1 cubic feet for measurement. 2) Place the drivers cone upside down on the standard box and start the measurement. 3) Follow the same as steps as previous 3. 1. 1. 2 measurement procedure.

38 3. 2. 3 Measuring the frequency response& Total Harmonic Distortion of the driver/loudspeaker system

This measurement is important to measure the driverss frequency response so that it is easy to design the crossover circuit for the 3-way loudspeaker system. The following are the list of the equipments to proceed this measurement.

1) Audio analyzer 2) Power Amplifier 3) Microphone 4) Turnable base 5) Printer

Refer to figure 3. 5, the drivers are placed in the anechoic chamber during the measurement and a microphone is used to received the signal generated from all the drivers. The microphone need to be placed exactly 1 meter away from the drivers and the location of the microphone is the same for every drivers during measurement. The inputs are from the Power Amplifier connected to the Audio Analyzer. After every measurement the graph need to be printed by a printer available in the laboratory.

Figure 3. 5 is the connection of the equipments during measurement of the frequency response for each drivers.

39

Printer

Audio analyzer

Anechoic Chamber
1. 5 m
Testing Component Power Amplifier

1m

1m

Microphone

1. 5
Turnable controller Turn able Base

Figure 3. 5 : Jig connection for Frequency Response Measurement test

Figure 3. 6 : Driver on turnable base in the anechoic chamber

40

Figure 3. 7 : The Audio Analyzer and Power Amplifier

Figure 3. 8 : Result printed by HP Laserjet printer

From figure 3. 6, figure 3. 7 and figure 3. 8 above shows the actual equipments that have been used during this measurement.

41 3.2.3.1 Frequency Response Measurement Procedure

The following are the procedures to measure all the drivers Frequency response : 1) Put driver on the base and connect to the power amplifier. 2) Power amplifier connected to SPL meter and set the channel with certain constant level output. Calibrate the power amp and the microphone by using standard microphone. 3) Setting the SPL meter with TSR measurement mode from range 20 Hz to 20KHz. Others setting follow instructions in the Audio Analyzer manual. 4) Harmonic distortion can be measured by using SSR mode and customized from loudspeaker measurement floppy disc. 5) Result need to be printed after any measurement. [5]

3.3

Loudspeaker Design and Construction

Based on the result and analysis from the measurement 3. 2. 1, 3. 2. 2 and 3. 2. 3 on page 39 until page 43, all the data collected can be used to design and construct the loudspeakers enclosure and 3-way crossover. From measurement result of 3. 2. 1 and 3. 2. 2, the Vas value is

VAS = 1.15 ( f ct f s ) 1 VB
2

.. ( 3.1 )

= 0. 11542 Cubic feet

So that by using this equation,

VB = 15Q 2.87VAS

. . ( 3. 2 )

= 15 1.24 2.87 0.11542

42 = 3. 2099 Cubic feet

For easy calculation, the value need to be changed into cubic inches.

3.21 123 = 5546.72 Cubic inches ( 3. 3 )

So far there are no official ratio to decide the dimension of the enclosure in trapezoidal shape. But for standard box shape the ratio is 0. 6 : 1. 0 : 1. 6 for depth : width : height respectively. In this case by using the following equation with consideration of the diameter for each drivers, the dimension was decided and design plan was designed for easier construction phase.

1 (a + b ) c d 2

. ( 3.4 )

c d b

1 (16 + 4) 32 17 2

( 3. 5 )

= 5440 cubic inches

Which the ratio for depth : width : height = 0. 85 : 1. 0 1. 6 respectively

43

Figure 3. 9 : Design plan for the loudspeakers enclosure

44

Figure 3. 10 : Design plan for the drivers location on the enclosure

Refer to figure 3. 9 and figure 3. 10, the dimension are decided wisely in term to develop odd shape of loudspeakers enclosure and support the whole system to generate high performance sound reproduction for 3-way loudspeaker system. The drivers are designed to be aligned together so that the sound reproduction generated from each driver will reach at a point in the same time. For figure 3. 10, the drivers are placed in between 2 inches from each other to achieved the dimension of calculated value.

45

Figure 3. 11 : Equipment used during enclosure construction

Figure 3. 12 : Material for the enclosure

46
3.3.1 Constructed enclosure

After calculating the enclosure dimension, all the cutting progresses were done at IVATs wood cutting machine. Figure 3. 13 and figure 3. 14 shows some of the parts of the enclosures :

Figure 3. 13 : Front and Back side of the enclosure

47

Figure 3. 14 : Left & Right Side

Table 3. 1 show the dimension and specification for each parts : Table 3. 1 : Enclosure dimension ** (b) = Bottom, (t) = Top
Parts name Length Width

Front side Back Side Left Side

32 " 32 " 32"

17 " 17 " 16"(b) 4"(t)

Right Side

32"

16"(b) 4"(t)

Top Bottom

17" 4"

16" 2"

48

Figure 3. 15 : Completed 3-way loudspeaker system

Refer to figure 3. 16, all the parts of the loudspeaker were assembled by using regular woodgum and screws. After all the parts have been combined together, it is important to try and place the drivers in the hole just to make sure that it is fit enough for the drivers. But if the hole are too big for the drivers, it will be a problem because there will be air leaking problem and can affect the resonance inside the enclosure and also the performance of the loudspeaker.

During the enclosure construction, several techniques have been used to achieved optimum performance of the loudspeaker system, Below are the techniques that have been used during the construction :

49

Figure 3. 16 : Battan bracing to secure all of the edges of the box. It is a thin wood that runs along the joint of the box

Figure 3. 17 :After box is assembled and braced, to make sure that it is airtight, silicon coated all the edges in the box including the battan edges

50 Table 1. 2 : Price list

Drivers Spec Unit Size Price(RM) Available

Tweeter Midrange Subwoofer

Enclosures

8 Ohm 8 Ohm 8 Ohm

1 1 1

2" 7" 12" 150

Front Back Left Right Top Bottom

Crossover

1" 1" 0. 5" 0. 5" 1" 1"

1 1 1 1 1 1

36"-18" 36"-18" 36"-15" 36"-15" 15"-18" 15"-18"

1 Capacitors 1 1 1 1 Inductors 1 1 1 IC Board

Others

Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal 6"-6"

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Normal

Normal Screw Normal Normal Small Wood Gum Silicone Varnish Normal Normal Normal

20 10 20 20 1 1 1

2" 1. 5" 1" 3/4" large small small

0. 2 0. 2 0. 2 0. 2 10 10

51 Damper Wyre Terminal Sil-Plast 2-coaxial Regular 0. 5"-0. Woodstick Plywood 5" 0. 5" 1 1 4 metres 2m-4m
178. 8

1 1 1

5 litres 3 metres 2"

Total Price(RM)

From table 1. 2, the total cost invested for this project is low as most of the components are available in UTM RACEDs acoustic laboratory. While some of the components were received from the FKEs electrical components store.

After completing the 3-way loudspeakers prototype, the cost are critically below the budget that almost RM 200 different with very good result. Any electronics components that are not available in FKEs store were purchased at several electronics store such as Guo Wa Sdn Bhd at Taman Sri Tebrau and also Shun Fatt Trading in Taman University.

3.3.2

3-way Crossover design

Crossovers are the brains of the loudspeaker system.

It was designed to

optimize driver performance and assure proper blending of the drivers enclosed in the speaker system. The quality of the components used in the filter system have a direct impact on the fidelity of sound which can be achieved.

52 Usually, it is damaging for a speaker to produce frequencies lower/higher than what it was designed for. Also, if two speakers produce sound at the same frequencies, then the sound at those frequencies will be louder. For these reasons, crossover is necessary to make sure that each speaker only produces a certain set of frequencies. [6]

By using logarithmic scale, refer to figure 3. 18 for the mid/woofer crossover there are 4 octaves between 200-3k Hz, 200-400-800-1600-3200. 700 Hz is the middle frequency, with 2 octaves flat in either direction. For the tweeter/mid crossover, there are only 1 octaves, 2000-4000. 3k Hz is the crossover point with 1/2 octave stable in either direction. These two drivers have little overlap.

Figure 3. 18 is the frequency response measurement result for each drivers :

Figure 3. 18 : Frequency response overlapping diagram

Refer to the information of the overlapping between all the drivers, 3rd order Butterworth Crossover have been decided for this 3-wayloudspeaker system. 3rd order Butterworth crossover have been chosen for this project cause this type of crossover are better than other type of crossover such as Linkwitz Riley or the Bessel crossover.

By using 3rd order system the power and range dividing between all the drives, it will be more accurate and improve power handling. 3rd order have more advantages than 1st order crossover since the problem with 1st order crossovers that is the

53 frequency overlap in the drivers would have to always be at least 2 octaves (or more) in each direction from the crossover point and does not suit for higher section between mid-tweeter overlapping.

Fortunately, there are many sources/softwares to calculate the crossover components. This time the software in lalena. com will be used. Refer to figure 3. 19, since the crossover range is decided start from 700hz, in 3 way crossover designation, there must be 3 octave from the lowest frequency. This mean 700-14002800-5600 which each octave will appears to work out for each drivers.

From this software, it is easy if there are the value of every drivers and the frequency response for each drivers available. Before calculating and designing the 3way crossover, these values need to be putted in the space and after selecting the type of the crossover push the Calculate button. Then the software will calculate and show the 3-way crossover result at once. [6]

Figure 3. 19 : Sample result from Lalena. com Software

54

Figure 3. 20 : 3-way Butterworth Crossover design result

Refer to figure 3. 20, there are 12 components in the crossover design including 6 different value of capacitors and 6 different value of inductors. These components were purchased at Electronic shop in Taman Sejahtera Johore Bahru.

During the crossovers construction, several equipment need to be used such as : 1) Analog multimeter 2) Solder kit 3) Knife

55 4) Cutter

Figure 3. 21 : Equipment used during crossover construction

By following exactly from the crossover design result from Lalena. com, the 3way Butterworth crossover design were completed as seen on figure 3. 22. The drivers then need to be test again by connecting to this crossover to measure the efficiency and suitability of designed crossover.

Figure 3. 22 : Designed 3-way Butterworth Crossover

56

CHAPTER 4

MEASUREMENT RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1

Measurement result

The following are the results for every test in chapter 3.

4.1.1

Impedance Characteristic and Vas Measurement result

During the subwoofers testing and parameter measurement, there are several results that could support on how to decide the way to design the loudspeakers system enclosure. These results are too important so that if any mistake or wrong result gained the system will be completely failed to design.

Table 4. 1 shows the Subwoofers Impedance characteristics measurement results and the Subwoofers compliance stated as equivalent air volume (Vas) value measurement results.

57

Table 4. 1 : Measurement result for subwoofers impedance characteristic and Vas value

Frequency(Hz) Impedance(Ohm) Vas(Ohm) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1K 2K 3K 28 40 88 44 31 27 26 25 25 25 26 27 29 30 32 34 35 36 47 55 33 38 52 40 26 26 25 25 25 25 27 28 29 30 32 34 34 35 47 53

Then these data are plotted on the semi-log graph paper. Figure 4. 1 is the result of these measurements :

58

Figure 4. 1 : Measurement result for subwoofer impedance characteristic and Vas value

From figure 4. 1 above, both measurement shows that the characteristic of both impedance characteristic and Vas value have same shape and slope. This explain that during the 3. 2. 1 test, the cone of the subwoofer has no pressure during sound reproduction and can generate sound well without no cone resonance. But not during Vas measurement which the peak of the impedance that resulted at 43Hz are about 52 ohms.

But during the subwoofers impedance characteristic measurement the peak impedance are about 89 Ohms at 40 Hz which at this time the frequency level determine the resonance frequency( Fs) of the subwoofer. So the Zmax of the subwoofer are 89 Ohms. The new resonance frequency after using the standard box is 43 Hz and this is called new resonance frequency Fct( 43Hz).

59 By referring to obvious result of Fc, Fct and Zmax the total Q or the Q factor of the subwoofer can be determine by below equations and calculations:

By dividing the value of Zmax and Re we can get Ro value:

R0 = Z MAX / RE
= 89/7. 8 = 11. 41 Then calculate value of

. . ( 4. 1 )

R0 and the reduced impedance Z by using this equation :

Z ' = R0 RE
= 3. 378*7. 8 = 26. 348

. . ( 4. 2 )

fS =
=

f1 f 2
35 . 5 45 = 39 . 9687 Hz

. . ( 4. 3 )

60 After that, find the drivers mechanical Q (Qms) by :

QMS =
=

f S R0 f 2 f1
135 .2 = 14 .232 9 .5

. . ( 4. 4 )

Find the drivers electrical Q (Qes) by :

Q ES = Q MS R0 1

. . ( 4. 5 )

14 . 232 10 . 41

= 1 . 367

Then the total Q (Qts) of the driver can be calculated from :

Q = Q TS =

Q MS Q ES Q MS + Q ES
19 .45 = 1 .24 15 .597

. . ( 4. 6 )

The total Q factor for this driver is 1. 24 ** Good driver Q factor range is between 0. 6 < Q < 1. 5 So this drivers quality is good and suite for the system. [7]

61 Measuring the Vas value by using standard box.

By using this equation, the Vas of the driver can be calculated :

V AS = 1 . 15

[( f

ct

fs ) 1VB
2

. . ( 4. 7 )

= 1 . 15 (43 / 40 ) 1 1
2

= 0. 11542 cubic feet

4.1.2

Frequency response measurement result

Each drivers need to be tested to measure the frequency response. The purpose of this test is to measure and determine the range of frequency for each drivers that it can response. Below are the result for each drivers :

4. 1. 2. 1

Subwoofer Frequency response measurement result

Figure 4. 2: subwoofers frequency response

62

From figure 4. 2, the frequency response of the subwoofer at 0 dB are from 100Hz until 3KHz. Despite the subwoofer need to produce lower frequency than 100 Hz, possibly the quality and the low price of the subwoofer determine that good quality of drivers should have better high performance and frequency response. At this

moment, from this result possibly the 3-way loudspeaker system would have problem to generate low frequency during sound reproduction.

4.1.2.2

Midrange Frequency response measurement result

Figure 4. 3 : Midranges frequency response

From the figure 4. 3, the frequency response of the midrange at 0 dB are from 200Hz until 4KHz. This driver response at average range of other midrange drivers. This midrange has no problem during sound reproduction except at almost 2KHz frequency, there is a jumping frequency and this is possibly cause by the quality of the driver itself.

63
4.1.2.3 Tweeter Frequency response measurement result

Figure 4. 4 : Tweeters frequency response

From figure 4. 4, at 0 dB level the frequency response of the tweeter is from 2KHz until 16KHz. This determine that the loudspeaker system would provide sound reproduction until 16KHz. But of course if there is support by the customized 3-way crossover, this system will have the opportunity to lengthen the range of frequency response better yet than the result shown from individual frequency response.

4. 1. 3

Frequency response after installing 3-way Butterworth

crossover

measurement result

After installing and re-test again to analyze the new frequency response of each driver, there are exist some big different especially the range of the frequency response for every drivers. Figure 4. 5 is the result for all the drivers frequency response measurement after installing the 3-way Butterworth crossover.

64
4. 1. 3. 1 Subwoofers frequency response after installing the 3-way Butterworth crossover measurement result

Figure 4. 5: subwoofers frequency response

From figure 4. 5, the weakness of the subwoofer has been neglected as after connected to the 3-way crossover, the subwoofer could generate sound reproduction as low as 80dB. The subwoofer can response until about 3KHz. This result shows that after installing the 3-way Butterworth crossover, the result for the subwoofers frequency response become better than before connected to the crossover.

4. 1. 3. 2 Midranges frequency response after installing the 3-way Butterworth crossover measurement result

From figure 4. 6, there are also some differences if compared to the result before installing the 3-way crossover. The frequency response after installing the 3-way

Butterworth crossover is from 1KHz until 4KHz. The lower end of the frequency response has been increased before installing the 3-way crossover and the different are almost 800Hz.

65

Figure 4. 6 : Midranges frequency response

During the 3-way crossover construction, there are some problems for the component selection especially the capacitors no C4 and C5 (refer to figure 3. 20) as there are no such value of capacitors for 19. 65pF and 61. 05pF in the market. The closest value to the calculated value are 12pF and 68pF. This different may cause the big different than assumed frequency response for the midrange driver.

This project will continue using the constructed 3-way Butterworth crossover and any adjustment for the 3-way Butterworth crossover would need further research and study for proper 3-way crossover design.

66
4. 1. 3. 3 Tweeters frequency response after installing the 3-way Butterworth crossover measurement result

Figure 4. 7: Tweeter frequency response

From figure 4. 7, the frequency response for the tweeter has become better than before as the peak response for this driver can reach until 18Khz and the lower end of the frequency response are about 2KHz. From this result, the 3-way loudspeaker system would generate peak response until at least 18KHz and almost achieve the target of this project to built the 3-way loudspeaker system which have frequency response from 20Hz until 20KHz.

67
4.1.3 3-way Loudspeaker systems frequency response

Figure 4. 8 : Prototype loudspeakers frequency response

From figure 4. 8, the overall constructed 3-way loudspeaker systems frequency response are from 80 Hz until 18KHz. Despite the result are far from the target, if considered to the low cost construction and some problem during the 3-way Butterworth crossover designation, this 3-way loudspeaker would have better performance in frequency response if there are better drivers and precise components values for crossover construction.

At 3KHz frequency response, this 3-way loudspeaker has a problem to generate sound reproduction as there is a jumping frequency and this 3-way loudspeaker would not be able to produce sound as well as male singer and some other musical instruments such as the clarinet and violin.

But this 3-way loudspeaker has good performance at higher frequency as the frequency response from 4KHz until 18KHz are almost flat and this determine that this 3-way loudspeaker has an ability to generate sound well for female voice, lead guitar and other high frequency musical instruments.

68
4. 1. 5 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) measurement result

Figure 4. 9 : Prototype loudspeakers THD result

From figure 4. 9 above shows the Total Harmonic Distortion for the 3-way loudspeaker system. To measure and judge the 3-way loudspeakers THD performance is just simply refer to the 0. 1%, 1 % and 10% territory in the graph. If the result of the measurement has line almost in 0. 1% territory thats mean the loudspeaker have low Total harmonic Distortion and obviously has very good performance in sound reproduction.

This 3-way loudspeaker have passable THD as almost of the line on the graph are between 0. 1% and 1 % distortion. Furthermore the 3-way loudspeaker has bigger distortion at lower frequency below than 50 Hz as the distortion can reach over than 10%.

This determine that the quality and performance of the subwoofer and any drivers would effect the THD performance for the whole system.

69
4.2 3-way loudspeaker systems analysis and comparison

After constructed the 3-way loudspeaker system, the 3-way loudspeaker system has been analyzed and compared to other same 3-way loudspeaker system but very high performance and branded with high price. Figure 4. 10 shows the dimension and shape of both 3-way loudspeaker systems.

Figure 4. 10 : Both JBL and constructed loudspeaker

From above figure 4. 10, there are some big different for both 3-way loudspeaker systems as the constructed 3-way loudspeaker system is taller than the JBL loudspeaker and the shape of the JBL loudspeaker is standard square shape enclosure. The material of the enclosure are not the same and this factors would determine the big gap of the performance between both loudspeakers.

70 Table 4. 2 shows the different items between both 3-way loudspeakers system :

Table 4. 2 : Comparison for both loudspeakers

JBL System Shape Dimension Volume Subwoofer Midrange Tweeter Weight Enclosure type Price 3-way Square box 17-18-35 6. 2 Cubic feet 15" Cone 8" Cone 2" Dome 38 Kilos 2 rear Ported RM 6000

Prototype 3-way Trapezoidal 16-17-32 3. 2 Cubic feet 12" Cone 6" Cone 2 " Dome 20 Kilos Vented <RM200

There are big different such as the JBL loudspeaker has higher price than the constructed loudspeaker and the weight also is 18 Kilos heavier than the constructed loudspeaker. Despite the height of both loudspeaker are almost the same but the JBL loudspeaker has much volume than constructed loudspeaker as the shape is different.

Both loudspeakers have been measured for frequency response and Total Harmonic Distortion the result shows big different and more conclusion have been made on further page.

71
4.3 Frequency response comparison

Figure 4. 11: Constructed 3-way loudspeaker frequency response

Figure 4. 12: JBL 3-way loudspeaker frequency response

From both figure 4. 11 and figure 4. 12, the results shows that JBL loudspeaker have more frequency range from almost 20Hz until 19 KHz while constructed loudspeaker achieved frequency response range from 80Hz until 18Khz. The JBL loudspeaker has better frequency response than the constructed 3-way loudspeaker system.

72
4.4 Total Harmonic Distortion comparison

Figure 4. 13: Constructed 3-way loudspeaker THD

Figure 4. 14 : JBL 3-way loudspeaker THD

From figure 4. 13 and figure 4. 14, the results shows that JBL have Total Harmonic Distortion below than 1% from 90Hz until 20Khz while constructed loudspeaker have below 1% from 80 Hz until 20Khz.

By refer to audible testing & graph, there are several findings that cause constructed loudspeaker do not match the performance as JBL loudspeaker;

73 1) Factor of driver efficiency large Q factor and box ratio not match at subwoofer area as THD too high above than 10% and reduce power handling) 2) Factor of enclosure material (plywood have density) no constant

Trapezoidal shape have better THD result at higher frequency (refer to figure 4. 14, THD is below than 0. 1% start from 2Khz as the area are small at midrange and tweeter driver and reduce the cone diffraction both of the drivers and can improve power handling.

4.5

Problem encountered

During crossover design, the parts and component mostly do not match to calculated value. Some of the capacitor especially for midrange have big different value to the circuit. The effect is to the frequency pattern control.

Mostly about the budget as the subwoofer is not a good driver as the price is below RM100. Usually better subwoofer is more expensive but can guarantee the quality of the loudspeaker system and can response to very low frequency.

74

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK

5.1

CONCLUSIONS

There are several conclusions after completing this 3-way loudspeaker project. The conclusions are :

The 3-way trapezoidal loudspeaker system was successfully designed and developed

Frequency response is near to flat response from 100Hz-16KHz. Several technique and design has been developed during the loudspeaker system construction

Trapezoidal shape also is a suitable shape to design 3-way loudspeaker system. The size of the enclosure and shape contribute a large effect to the quality and good sound reproduction to the loudspeaker system besides the quality of the driver and crossover reliability.

75
5.2 Further work and recommendations

Based on the results and data gained after this project, there are several requirements to upgrade the quality of the drivers and also the crossover. Further research are needed for the crossover especially as there are some problem during crossover design and further research would probably provide precise and perfect crossover design for certain loudspeaker system and design.

The driver would contribute large effect to the loudspeakers performance despite high cost and expensive research and development but there are still exist a big hole on designing good drivers with average production cost. For example starting using different material on the cone and dome by avoiding using high cost material such as titanium and aluminium. It is possible that there is another materials with low cost to replace these kind of materials in term to reduce manufacturing cost.

5.3

Other area on Loudspeaker research and development

Beside developing the odd but high performance loudspeakers enclosure technology, there are still several areas that are possible to be developed. Furthermore there are wide range of research area that are still open and requiring additional factors and higher technology to assure perfect loudspeakers sound reproduction . At the moment there are still no perfect loudspeaker technology existed that can cover full range and flat frequency response with zero distortion and low signal to noise ratio(SNR).

Other areas that are possible to be developed in loudspeakers system are : 1) 2) 3) Material of the enclosure Drivers System wiring and connection

76 4) 5) Damping material Crossover

77

REFERENCES

[1]

McGraw Hill(1990). Loudspeakers-Design and Construction TAB Books Amateur Manual

[2]

AudioHolics.Com. AudioHolics Online Audio and Video Magazine CD Media Incorporated

[3]

Don Davis Carolyn(1994). Sound System Engineering Second Edition Davis Prentice Hall Computer Publishing

[4] [5]

Gordon McComb(1991). Building Speaker Systems. Radio Shack Audio Analyzer(August 1994).Technical Documentation User
Manual. Bruel&Kjaer

[6] [7]

Lalena(2006).Crossover Calculator free software. Lalena.com-Online John L. Murphy(1993). MacSpeakerz. True Image Radio Marteen Design(2006). Coltrane Supreme Swedish Statement.

[8] [9]

KL AV Show JW Marriot Hotel University of Technology Malaysia(2005).Thesis Manual. Pusat Pengajian Siswazah

[10]

Nordin Bin Asari(1998).Rekabentuk dan Membina Pembesar Suara Prototaip Jenis Talian Penghantaran.Tesis Sarjana Muda, UTM.

78

APPENDICES

79