CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS The Preparatory Stages of Research Adapted from Seliger and Shohamy

Phase 1: Formulating the general question Sources Experience and interests Other research Sources outside research and teaching

General question Phase 2: Focusing the question Is the general question: 1. Important and feasible? 2. Synthetic or Analytic? 3. List the possible factors comprising the general question

If Synthetic What are the phenomena encompassed by the question?

If Analytic What are the specific constructs to be investigated? Conceptual definition of constructs

Phase 3: Deciding on an Objective Heuristic Description of research procedures, observations, etc. Deductive Formulation on research questions Conceptual definition of variables

Phase 4: Formulating the research plan or hypothesis

Descriptive or qualitative research The process may end here or

Research hypothesis

While reading research in second language acquisition and other fields, readers should ask themselves a number of questions to their own thinking about possible original research, such as: 1 Does this research test or generate hypotheses? 2 If the research is descriptive, where do the data come from? 3 If the data are gathered from other studies or sources, how reliable do the data seem to be? 4 What is the hypothesis or theory being tested? 5 Is the design or methodology appropriate for the kind of research? 6 Does the research really test the hypothesis or theory? 7 How are the conclusions reached by the research supported by the research and the data? 8 Are theoretical claims made by the research supported? How? 9 Does the research make a clear distinction between the results of the study based on data and inferences & projections which may go beyond the data? 10 Are hypotheses which still remain to be tested presented as conclusions or results? 11 Are there good alternative explanations to those given by the author?

Once questions have been raised in the mind of the researcher as a result of curiosity, observation, and reading, these questions must be formulated in a general sense. Referring back to the above figure we can see that before entering into Phase 2 or Phase 3, the question must be stated in a form which will allow it to be further narrowed. For the
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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS researcher, this is often a difficult stage because it requires the careful analysis of the general question in order to reduce it to a level where it may be considered researchable.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Finding a RESEARCH QUESTION is probably the most important task in the research process because the question becomes the driving force behind the research-from beginning to end. A research question is always stated in question form. It may start out being rather general and become focused and refined later on (after you become more familiar with the topic, learn what others have discovered, define your terms more carefully, etc.) The research question you start out with forms the basis for your review of related research literature. This general question also evolves into your hypothesis (or focused research question). When you draw conclusions, they should address this question. In the end, the success of your research depends on how well you answer this question. It is important to choose a question that satisfies certain criteria: It must not be too broad or general (although you will focus it even more later on in the process). It shouldn't have already been answered by previous research (although replication with variation is certainly acceptable). It ought to be a question that needs to be answered (i.e., the answer will be useful to people). It must be a question that can be answered through empirical means. You can go to many sources to find topics or issues that can lead to research questions. Here are a few: Personal experience Professional books Articles in professional periodicals Professional indexes (LLBA, MLA, ERIC etc.) Other teachers and administrators Bibliographies of various types Unpublished research by others It is wise to focus your research so that it is "do-able." Be careful! Don't try to do too much in one study. It is, however, very possible (and quite common) to address several related research questions in one study. This approach is "economical" in that it produces more results with about the same amount of effort. Here are a couple of examples: Will students learn a foreign language better when they are in a relaxed state of mind? What is the relationship between learners' ages and their accents? There are three basic types of questions that research projects can address: 1. Descriptive. When a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists. Public opinion polls that seek only to describe the proportion of people who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature. For instance, if we want
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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS to know what percent of the population would vote for a Democratic or a Republican in the next presidential election, we are simply interested in describing something. 2. Relational. When a study is designed to look at the relationships between two or more variables. A public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and females say they would vote for a Democratic or a Republican candidate in the next presidential election is essentially studying the relationship between gender and voting preference. 3. Causal. When a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables (e.g., a program or treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. If we did a public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent political advertising campaign changed voter preferences, we would essentially be studying whether the campaign (cause) changed the proportion of voters who would vote Democratic or Republican (effect).

The three question types can be viewed as cumulative. That is, a relational study assumes that you can first describe (by measuring or observing) each of the variables you are trying to relate. And, a causal study assumes that you can describe both the cause and effect variables and that you can show that they are related to each other. Causal studies are probably the most demanding of the three.

HYPOTHESIS & FOCUSED QUESTION

A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory. There is no formal hypothesis, and perhaps the purpose of the study is to explore some area more thoroughly in order to develop some specific hypothesis or prediction that can be tested in future research. A single study may have one or many hypotheses. In deductive research, a HYPOTHESIS is necessary. It is focused statement which predicts an answer to your research question. It is based on the findings of previous research (gained from your review of the literature) and perhaps your previous experience with the subject. The ultimate objective of deductive research is to decide whether to accept or reject the hypothesis as stated. When formulating research methods (subjects, data collection instruments, etc.), wise researchers are guided by their hypothesis. In this way, the hypothesis gives direction and focus to the research.

Here is a sample HYPOTHESIS: College students who have firm career goals achieve higher GPAs than those who do not have firm career goals. soil. Tomato plants exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost rather than in

Sometimes researchers choose to state their hypothesis in "null" form. This may seem to run counter to what the researchers really expect, but it is a cautious way to operate. When
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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS (and only when) this null hypothesis is disproved or falsified, the researcher may then accept a logically "alternate" hypothesis.

Here is a sample NULL HYPOTHESIS: Tomato plants do not exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost rather than soil. In heuristic research, a hypothesis is not necessary. This type of research employs a "discovery approach." In spite of the fact that this type of research does not use a formal hypothesis, focus and structure is still critical. If the research question is too general, the search to find an answer to it may be futile or fruitless. Therefore, after reviewing the relevant literature, the researcher may arrive at a FOCUSED RESEARCH QUESTION. Here is a sample FOCUSED RESEARCH QUESTION: Is a contrastive presentation (showing both native and target cultures) more effective than a non-contrastive presentation (showing only the target culture) in helping students understand the target culture?
Source: http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/henrichsenl/researchmethods/RM_2_05.html Accessed February 2011

HYPOTHESIS A hypothesis can be defined as a statement of expected results. A hypothesis can be defined as a probable solution to the question or problem under research. The researcher intends to see, through the process of research, whether this probable solution is confirmed by facts or not.

It is expressed as economically as possible It organises the researchers work. It is the framework for data collection, analysis and interpretation of data. It can be tested for confirmation or rejection either empirically or experimentally. Some works have no explicit hypothesis you have to infer it. Null hypothesis (H0): When it is stated in a negative way . Enthymeme: when the hypothesis includes reason stated in a clause of reason (because) Recommended: positive statements. Not-recommended: questions

THESIS STATEMENT
A thesis statement is a sentence that makes an assertion about a topic and predicts how the topic will be developed. It does not simply announce a topic: it says something about the topic. A thesis statement indicates the scope and purpose of the research. It is generally located near the end of the introduction.
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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS In a long paper, the thesis statement may be expressed in several sentences or an entire paragraph. A thesis statement should be focused and specific enough to be proven within the boundaries of the research. Specific and accurate key words (nouns and verbs) should be used. They should successfully indicate the main idea of the issue being studied. They should be appropriate for the argument or analysis, and the organization of supporting information. PURPOSE STATEMENT A purpose statement defines the area of research and indicates the reader what to expect. Statements of purpose typically begin: o o o "This paper examines...," "The aim of this paper is to . . .," "The purpose of this essay is

A purpose statement shows what the development of the argument will be, but it does not anticipate any particular conclusion of the research. It usually appears towards the end of the introduction. It may be expressed in several sentences or even an entire paragraph. A purpose statement should be specific enough to satisfy the requirements of the assignment. Purpose statements are common in research papers in some academic disciplines. Based on UW-Madison Writing Center (2006) Read this abstract and identify hypothesis and purpose statement: Author(s):Webb, Stuart. Source:Applied Linguistics, v28 n1 p46-65 2007Pub Date:2007-00-00Pub Type(s):Journal Articles; Reports EvaluativePeerReviewed:Yes Abstract: This article discusses the effects of repetition (1, 3, 7, and 10 encounters) on word knowledge in a carefully controlled study of 121 Japanese students learning English. The study is innovative and original in several aspects. (1) The study uses 10 tests to measure knowledge of orthography, association, grammatical functions, syntax, and meaning and form. (2) The study controls for several different numbers of repetitions. (3) The study controls for type of context in which the word occurs. (4) The study makes use of nonsense words to replace frequently used words in authentic text. (5) The study examines word knowledge acquisition at different levels. The results showed that greater gains in knowledge were found for at least one aspect of knowledge each time repetitions increased. If learners encounter unknown words ten times in context, sizeable learning gains may occur. However, to develop full knowledge of a word more than ten repetitions may be needed.

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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS

Parts of a Research Paper Language Conventions

Generally speaking, we can mention 5 parts: 0- Abstract 1- Introduction 2- Method 3- Results 4- Discussion or Discussion and Conclusion 5- Conclusion 6- References 0 Abstract which you write at the end, as a kind of summary of all the paper (two

hundred words or less - 100 to 130 words). It should include: background information purpose method results conclusion or topic / purpose participants / materials procedures / statistical analysis results & implications

Sometimes a reduced version is used (80 100 words approx.) It includes: Purpose & Method Results (optional) Conclusions & Recommendations

General intent An abstract is a concise single paragraph summary of completed work or work in progress. In a minute or less a reader can learn the rationale behind the study, general approach to the problem, pertinent results, and important conclusions or new questions. Writing an abstract Write your summary after the rest of the paper is completed. After all, how can you summarize something that is not yet written? Economy of words is important throughout any paper, but especially in an abstract. However, use complete sentences and do not sacrifice readability for brevity. Summarize the study, including the following elements in any abstract. Try to keep the first two items to no more than one sentence each. Style: Single paragraph, and concise As a summary of work done, it is always written in past tense An abstract should stand on its own, and not refer to any other part of the paper such as a figure or table Focus on summarizing results - limit background information to a sentence or two, if absolutely necessary What you report in an abstract must be consistent with what you reported in the paper
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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS Correct spelling, clarity of sentences and phrases, and proper reporting of quantities (proper units, significant figures) are just as important in an abstract as they are anywhere else 1. Introduction General intent The purpose of an introduction is to acquaint the reader with the rationale behind the work, with the intention of defending it. It places your work in a theoretical context, and enables the reader to understand and appreciate your objectives. Writing an introduction It may be subdivided into: 1.1 1.2. 1.3 Setting the context Literature review Advancing present research

1.1

Setting the context A) Setting: framing the work, considering the whole area of study. You construct the frame of reference to how your research work fits in a wider field. In this section, you look to give a background to the research, including any relevant information learned during your literature review. You are also trying to explain why you chose this area of research, attempting to highlight why it is necessary. B) Previous research: You read and summarise previous research. Consider more specific statements of your research C) Need for investigation because you have found problems, you think you can contribute in some way, there hasnt been enough work on it. You state the purpose and objectives of your work. Your hypothesis is stated here and that is the backbone of your research. D) Value / Justification: you state if your research has a practical or theoretical application

Conventions: Tenses used: present simple or perfect You move from the general to the specific Begin with generally accepted statements of fact about your area of study Identify the sub-area which includes your topic Arrange ideas in logical sequence Use quotation marks when there is no universal agreement on the label or when borrowing a term. Remember theme rheme both at paragraph and sentence level: old / given information is stated at the beginning of the sentences. At this stage we use author-weak citation, which shows we are generalising: authors surname + year of publication. State all the authors you know or have read who mention
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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS the issue. If there are two books, papers by the same author in the same year, you write a / b after the year. We use the present tense in this case. Font: Time New Roman 12 or Arial 11 Spacing: 1.5 Complete justification Literature review state of the art - concerned, in this case, with the area of

1.2. study.

There are three ways of presenting the literature review: By approach 1 2 3 From distant to close More widely used Distant Those who mention the topic in passing To Your topic has been Close Those who are closely related First cite those who simply mention your topic or are From earliest in date of subsidiary and then go to publication those who are more closely related Latest Earliest Chronological

discussed

from

different

viewpoints or perspectives or linguistic fields

Citation: On the basis of PROMINENCE General Information prominent Weak author prominent Use at the beginning and at Specific (to report specific findings) Author prominent To report specific findings REMEMBER: When you want to express a concept which has been mentioned by an author who is prominent in the field, you use: Brown, 1994, says, claims.... (use your own words to summarise idea)
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Tense: Present Tense: present

transitional points Tense: past

CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS When you want to quote the exact words and they are less than 25 words, you include them as part of the text, between quotation marks, and at the end you must state: author, year of publication: page number. When you are quoting more than 25 words, you use left and write indentation, simple spacing, and a smaller font (10). State again author, year of publication: page number. Use a logical plan to order your citation Use information prominent and / or weak author prominent citations at the beginning and at transitional points. Use author prominent citations to report specific findings.

1.3 Advancing present research A) Information missing - state inadequacy (something is missing; Sb has failed to show...) - present unresolved conflict (my work also shows that...) - expand the topic (Say something else: your topic as a contribution) - raise a new research question B) Statement of purpose i) report oriented: The purpose of

this paper is.... (Present) ii) research oriented (use past tense) C) Statement of value: In what way your work might contribute to the field ( here use modals) i) Theoretical oriented: Both the factors under investigation in this study may be of importance in explaining the irregular acquisition of... / Results of this study may suggest a broader hypothesis for further research into the effects of ... ii) Applied oriented: This research might provide and alternative to correction.... 2. Method A key concept is to keep this section as concise as you possibly can. People will want to read this material selectively. The reader may only be interested in one formula or part of a procedure. Materials and methods may be reported under separate subheadings within this section or can be incorporated together. General intent The objective is to document all specialized materials and general procedures, so that another individual may use some or all of the methods in another study or judge the scientific merit of your work. It is not to be a step by step description of everything you did, nor is a methods section a set of instructions. In particular, it is not supposed to tell a story. By the way, your notebook should contain all of the information that you need for this section.
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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS There is a big methodological difference between the apparatus based research of the physical sciences and the methods and observation methods of social sciences. However, the key is to ensure that another researcher should be able to replicate the experiment exactly, whilst keeping the section concise. You can assume that anybody reading your paper is familiar with all of the basic methods, so try not to explain every last detail. In the case of a survey, if you have too many questions to cover in the method, you can always include a copy of the questionnaire in the appendix. In this case, make sure that you refer to it. Writing a materials and methods section You should include all the information necessary for somebody to replicate your procedure. The section you tell the reader who participated in the study, including when and where, what type of materials were used, what participants were asked to do and how the analyses were performed Overview Sample / Population Location Restriction Sampling techniques Materials Procedures Variables Statistical treatment

When you discuss Materials, you must follow an organized description. You must: present an overview first description of the functional parts functional description (what each part does) describe in alternating way

Materials can refer to equipment used, questionnaires, tests, etc. All written material will be presented completely in the appendix Conventions: - If they are conventional or well known - use the present (simple or perfect) - If they were specially designed: use the past When you discuss Procedures, you should tell the reader how the materials and equipment were used and you do so chronologically. When you refer to the general procedure, use the present tense. When you refer to your experiment, use the past + passive. It is awkward or impossible to use active voice when documenting methods without using first person, which would focus the reader's attention on the investigator rather than the work. Therefore when writing up the methods most authors use third person passive voice. Use normal prose in this and in every other section of the paper avoid informal lists, and use complete sentences. - You can also integrate materials with procedural description
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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS What to avoid Materials and methods are not a set of instructions. Omit all explanatory information and background - save it for the discussion. Omit information that is irrelevant to a third party, such as what color ice bucket you used, or which individual logged in the data. Conventions and advice: Briefly identify conventional materials. Use a spatial or functional order to describe specially-designed material. Remember: general: present / your experiment: past. If a human agent is involved in the description, you use the passive. If no human agent is involved you use the active: The spectogram detected faulty production.

3. Results: The purpose of a results section is to present and illustrate your findings. This is probably the most variable part of any research paper, and depends upon the results and aims of the experiment. For quantitative research, it is a presentation of the numerical results and data, whereas for qualitative research it should be a broader discussion of trends, without going into too much detail. For research generating a lot of results, then it is better to include tables or graphs of the analyzed data and leave the raw data in the appendix, so that a researcher can follow up and check your calculations. A commentary is essential to linking the results together, rather than displaying isolated and unconnected charts, figures and findings. It can be quite difficult to find a good balance between the results and the discussion section, because some findings, especially in a quantitative or descriptive experiment, will fall into a grey area. As long as you not repeat yourself to often, then there should be no major problem. Yet, try to this section an objective report of the results, and save all interpretation for the discussion. It is best to try to find a middle course, where you give a general overview of the data and then expand upon it in the discussion you should try to keep your own opinions and interpretations out of the results section, saving that for the discussion. Writing a results section Content Summarize your findings in text and illustrate them, if appropriate, with figures and tables. In text, describe each of your results, pointing the reader to observations that are most relevant.
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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS Provide a context, such as by describing the question that was addressed by making a particular observation. Describe results of control experiments and include observations that are not presented in a formal figure or table, if appropriate. Analyze your data, then prepare the analyzed (converted) data in the form of a figure (graph), table, or in text form. What to avoid Style As always, use past tense when you refer to your results, and put everything in a logical order. In text, refer to each figure as "figure 1," "figure 2," etc. ; number your tables as well (see the reference text for details) Place figures and tables, properly numbered, in order at the end of the report (clearly distinguish them from any other material such as raw data, standard curves, etc.) If you prefer, you may place your figures and tables appropriately within the text of your results section. Figures and tables (Use figure or table as safe words) We use Table + comment. Tables, graphs, diagrams and below a brief comment. Comment: Comments: Write a comment after each important finding or include a general comment - generalise (least common) e.g. Clearly, the findings indicate... - explain: the results may be explained in relation to... (theory) (be tentative) - compare: The results are consistent with earlier findings / coincide with x s findings... Either place figures and tables within the text of the result, or include them in the back of the report (following Literature Cited) - do one or the other If you place figures and tables at the end of the report, make sure they are clearly distinguished from any attached appendix materials, such as raw data Regardless of placement, each figure must be numbered consecutively and complete with caption (caption goes under the figure) Regardless of placement, each table must be titled, numbered consecutively and complete with heading (title with description goes above the table) Each figure and table must be sufficiently complete that it could stand on its own, separate from text
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Do not discuss or interpret your results, report background information, or attempt to explain anything. Do not present the same data more than once. Text should complement any figures or tables, not repeat the same information. Please do not confuse figures with tables - there is a difference.

after Results are presented.

CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS 4. Discussion or Discussion + questions. This is where you elaborate upon your findings, and explain what you found, adding your own personal interpretations. Ideally, you should link the discussion back to the introduction, addressing each initial point individually. It is important to try to make sure that every piece of information in your discussion is directly related to the thesis statement, or you risk clouding your findings. General intent The objective here is to provide an interpretation of your results and support for all of your conclusions, using evidence from your experiment and generally accepted knowledge, if appropriate. The significance of findings should be clearly described. Writing a discussion Interpret your data in the discussion in appropriate depth. This means that when you explain a phenomenon you must describe mechanisms that may account for the observation. If your results differ from your expectations, explain why that may have happened. If your results agree, then describe the theory that the evidence supported. It is never appropriate to simply state that the data agreed with expectations, and let it drop at that. Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected, or if you cannot make a decision with confidence. Do not simply dismiss a study or part of a study as "inconclusive." Research papers are not accepted if the work is incomplete. Draw what conclusions you can based upon the results that you have, and treat the study as a finished work You may suggest future directions, such as how the experiment might be modified to accomplish another objective. Explain all of your observations as much as possible, focusing on mechanisms. Decide if the experimental design adequately addressed the hypothesis, and whether or not it was properly controlled. Try to offer alternative explanations if reasonable alternatives exist. One experiment will not answer an overall question, so keeping the big picture in mind, where do you go next? The best studies open up new avenues of research. What questions remain? Recommendations for specific papers will provide additional suggestions. Conclusion : We state the answers to the original

At this stage, you make: Begin with your hypothesis or purpose. Specific reference to your study Express your most important findings State limitations General statements about study Implications (if any)

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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS Recommendations (formulaic) Further research should be carried out ... Style: When you refer to information, distinguish data generated by your own studies from published information or from information obtained from other students (verb tense is an important tool for accomplishing that purpose). Refer to work done by specific individuals (including yourself) in past tense. Refer to generally accepted facts and principles in present tense. Language: tentative: use modals

The biggest mistake that students make in discussions is to present a superficial interpretation that more or less re-states the results. It is necessary to suggest why results came out as they did, focusing on the mechanisms behind the observations. 5- Conclusion The conclusion is where you build upon your discussion and try to refer your findings to other research and to the world at large. In a short research paper, it may be a paragraph or two, or practically non-existent. In a dissertation, it may well be the most important part of the entire paper not only does it describe the results and discussion in detail, it emphasizes the importance of the results in the field, and ties it in with the previous research. Some research papers require a recommendations section, postulating that further directions of the research, as well as highlighting how any flaws affected the results. In this case, you should suggest any improvements that could be made to the research design.

6-References: Include ALL authors which have been mentioned in you paper. Surname, 1st initial (and 1st initial Surname. (Year) Title in italics. Publisher. Place The phrase et al may be used within the paper but not in references.

e.g. Snow, M. A. (2001). Content-based and immersion models for second and foreign language teaching. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed.) (pp. 303-318). Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Spack, R. (1997). The rhetorical construction of multilingual students. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 765-74. Sternglass, M. (1997). Time to know them: A longitudinal study of writing and learning at the college level. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Refer to Citation Styles in separate reading files

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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS Tips on Conventions and language: Degrees of Tentativeness SURE

Statement of purpose no doubt about the future no doubt about the future, assuming certain conditions reasonable expectation about the future some doubt about the future more doubt about the future will would should may could TENTATIVE

Statement of value -

# Quotes: excerpt of the exact words of a source presented within your own work exactly as they originally appeared. Less than 25 words: within the body of the work, using quotation marks. Surname, year: page number. More than 25 words: double space between paragraph and quote quote in smaller font in italics: 10 and single spaced (while your work is spaced at 1.5) Quotation marks are not used. Author, year: page number. Double space again when you resume your own writing Explain the relevance of the quote included. When you paraphrase or mention a concept by an certain author, even if you use your own words, you must acknowledge the source: surname, year (no page number in this case) All authors cited are included in the reference section. In Bibliography section you may include works by authors you have read, but not actually quoted in your paper.

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CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLS TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADMICAS PRACTICE: ABSTRACT, HYPOTHESIS, STATEMENT OF PURPOSE, METHODOLOGY Read the two abstracts below and, for each of them, indicate: Is there a hypothesis? Is there a statement of purpose Can you identify the methodology they applied? If so, mention it briefly

Pragmatic strategies in English as an academic lingua franca: Ways of achieving communicative effectiveness? Beyza Bjorkman * Unit for Language and Communication, Department of Speech, Music and Hearing, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Lindstedtsvagen 24, SE 100 44, Stockholm, Sweden

ABSTRACT
This paper will report the findings of a study that has investigated spoken English as a lingua franca (ELF) usage in Swedish higher education. The material comprises digital recordings of lectures and student group-work sessions, all being naturally occurring, authentic high-stakes spoken exchange, i.e. from nonlanguage-teaching contexts. The aim of the present paper, which constitutes a part of a larger study, has been to investigate the role pragmatic strategies play in the communicative effectiveness of English as a lingua franca. The paper will document types of pragmatic strategies as well as point to important differences between the two speech event types and the implications of these differences for Englishmedium education. The findings show that lecturers in ELF settings make less frequent use of pragmatic strategies than students who deploy these strategies frequently in group-work sessions. Earlier stages of the present study (Bjorkman, 2008a, 2008b, 2009) showed that despite frequent non-standardness in the morphosyntax level, there is little overt disturbance in student group-work, and it is highly likely that a variety of pragmatic strategies that students deploy prevents some disturbance. It is reasonable to assume that, in the absence of appropriate pragmatic strategies used often in lectures, there is an increased risk for covert disturbance. _ 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

The acquisition order of coherence relations: On cognitive complexity in discourse

Wilbert Spooren a,*, Ted Sanders b
a Department of Language and Communication, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1105, NL-1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands b Utrecht institute of Linguistics UiL OTS, Trans 10, NL-3512 JK Utrecht, The Netherlands Received 14 July 2006; received in revised form 14 February 2008; accepted 23 April 2008 Abstract This article presents an analysis of the acquisition order of coherence relations between discourse segments. The basis is a cognitive theory of coherence relations (Sanders et al., 1992) that makes predictions about the order in which the relations and their linguistic expressions are acquired, because they show an increasing cognitive complexity. The child language literature lends support to two distinctions in the theory, Basic Operation (causal versus additive) and Polarity (positive versus negative). In two studies, additional data were collected to test the validity of two other distinctions, Source of Coherence and Order of the Coherence Relation. In the first study, children described a picture or conversed freely with the investigator. Both distinctions turn out to be necessary to account for the acquisition patterns. In the second study, the childrens proficiency in dealing with negative causal relations was investigated. The two studies use different research designs. The first is a study of relatively naturalistic, only partially structured elicitation of extended stretches of speech produced by children, the other is an experiment on the understanding and production of coherence relations in short sequences of statements relying on nonsense words that lack a conventional semantic content. The two procedures tap very different kinds of communicative skills and linguistic as well as conceptual knowledge. The combination of these two studies allows us to draw valid conclusions about the acquisition of the various coherence relations. The data support the claim that cognitively complex coherence relations show up later than cognitively simple relations. # 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Child language; Discourse coherence; Cognition; Dutch
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