Inevitable revolutions Chapter 4 1970s began with failure of Aliiance for Progress and collapse of Central American CVommone

Market (effect worsened after 1073 oil cirsis0 Setback triggered political chain relaction Romant Catholica chirce emerged as a leader of the poor masses who began to organise for self proetetcion Collapse of the system Nixon not interested in Latin America, thought a diplomatic and political dead end Nixon doctrine of post-Vietnam acceptance that US couldnt act as sheriff to the world. But would work closely and arm heavily allies who could. Included military regimes of central America, especially Somoza who he had a good relationship with Central American military enjoyed best of both worlds direct assistance levels remained relatively high UD provided liberal trade credit so arms sales for cash steadily rose Alliance designed civi action programs that were well publicises in order to show soldiers building schools and roads But this just took jobs away from civilians during rampant unemployment Promoted militarism and gave generals increased voice in economic and social policies. Publicly allied US with central American military at grass roots level. Carter applied a human rights policy that very much depended on strategic consideration So central America, seen as not that important, felt the full force. Aldo clear that their military gov treated people badly and lots of groups like the roman Catholics kept records of human rights violations Announced he would cut off aid to 5 (including lel Salvador) countries because of HR violations but before he could they said they didnt want it and organised to buy arms from other countries But consequences of more political polarization, growing isolation and brutality of military regimes and spreading revolution fed on repression Carter and Kennedy basically both wanted better economic situations and HR records in central America, but wanted it to happen without huge chane. Didnt want revolution but painfully slow evolution 1973 exposed US vulnerability

Mexico -

Constantly foiled US attempts at control Didnt lke the idea of US controlling Central America but still careful because of how many Mexicans lived in the US. 1973 discovery of oil reserves later used them to help other small Caribbean nations when oild prices went up Maybe Mexicans didnt like Central American juntas, but they liked US power even less.

Mexico opposed somoza and gave aid to Sandinistas even as US crtized the Sandinistas But stil vulnerable to US migration, oil, technology

Venezuela Church Church supported Frei and opposed Castro for a while Priests rich which again created divide between them and peasants etc Membership and attendance fell Pope Paul VI decided to speak personally at Medellin conference in Columbia in 1968 0 triggered religious revolution Church started focusing on poor and how society created them liberation theology idea that masses should be catalyst for own freedom El salvaodr first place where started to say thinkgs like should split up idle farms and give to peasants and one bishop dismemberd among other violence Repression deepened as revolution spread in 1970s Priests and nuns at lower levels started off just helping ppor but realised couldnt doi it without political actions at first non-violent and then violent 1979 puebla conference in Mexico talked about not confusing ideology withr elgion, talked about helping most vulnerable (Indians, women, other marginal- important because those groups later supported revolution in Nicaragua, el Salvador and Guatemala), rejected selfish multinationals Talked about poverty not being a stage of growth but a result of structure thus structure needed to change so whole society had to change 1980 4 bodies of Christians found, some sexualy assaulted support for revolution spread, even in US (because US citizens) Betweem 1968 and 1979 puebla conference 850 priests, nuns bishops, tortured, murdered, expelled or arrested Found oil When opec raised prices, discovered power 1974 Andres Perez nationalised (took it from US) US retaliated by removing trade preferences from OPEC nations which hit Venezuelans People protested Perez resumed diplomatic relations with Cuba and started supplying oil, reducing USSR burden A move at the US and because wanted Cuba back in hemisphere and not as close with USSR Venezuela started helping and giving credit to costa rica and Honduras

Nicaragua First revolutionary triumph Seemed most safe from upheaval apart from costa rica Somoza did as he was told very close to Nixon US aid an investment flowed but took all land 200,000 peasants left with nothing

National guard officers and family had monopoly over all profitiabkle industried gambling prostitution etc) 1976 - Low infltation, high growth, trade surplus but meant little to most Nicaraguans 1972 earthquake destroyed much of capital and viallgeds Nixon sent $30 mil in aid but national guard couldnt keep control of devastated areas Earthquake chain of events that led to Sandinista victory National guard discipline fell as soldiers deserted to find family or loot Somoza and other looted from US aid took half Business class never forgave saw him as wanting everything of theirs but not helping them when they needed it 1974 somoza mistake of filing criminal charges against those who urged people to boycott elections and made 9 parties illegal Roman catholic church denounced it Some journalists arrested Bribed voters Won but results meant little Members of FSLN seized a number of Nicaraguan and foreign officials at dinner party and Somoza immediately paid random and let them fly out (crowds cheered at airport) Somoza retaliated through terrorist campaigns against areas suspected of harbouring Sandinistas Some victories Anti Somoza feeling spread in US in 1975-1976 priests testified in congress about guard atrocities Congress started to move to cut all military aid and eventually Carter told Somoza that had to ease repression if still wanted money Somoza begrudgingly did but revolution just spread Disorder also because of sudden decline in economy, declined forced by ever higher military spending and fleeing of capital to NY and Switzerland nd guerrilla attacks o large farms and power plants Carter policy of trying to change political methods but not doing anything to redistribute wealth meant couldnt stop revolution When Somoza eased repression, carter sent $2.5 million in arms in late 1977 withheld economic aid. Basically forgot all his HR stuff Jan 1978 Jaoquin Chamorro murdered by pro-Somoza gun men- triggered mass uprising against regime, first time people from urban slums joined rebellion. NG repression followed Operation pigpen in 1978 captured officials, got some humiliating concessions from Somoza crowds cheered on way to airport FSLN army multiplied 10 times to 7,000 members Sept 1978 national guard massacred thousands Anti-Somoza uprisings occurred spontaneously and without FSLN co-ordination Venezuela , Mexico, costa Rica and panama sensed end and started helping revolutionaries, some just to make result as acceptable as possible US tried to find middle ground instead and failed

1979 early tried to pressure somoza by cutting of economic and military aid but all that did was show that Somoza no longer had support but bought arms elsewhere Israel and Argentina Mexico broke diplomatic relations with Somoza and urged others to do same much to Washingtons anger Suffering series of military defeats, Nationalu Guard retaliated by rocket-bombing the slums, killing thousands of women and children because most men had already left to fight For first time in history, OAS rejected US proposal to send in peacekeeping force to get a stable regime humiliated for carter. Carter tried to make it seem Cuba was doing everything but ultimately not even the most important supporter US scrambled to make best possible deal with revolutionary army - seemed to assume traditional role of arbitrator but traditions changed. Somoza resigned, but junta refused to enlarge themselves on his request Carter turned to Venezuela and Mexico and pressure created an 18 member cabinet of mostly professionals but junta not enlarged Refused to let some of NG back into gov appalled that they wanted them to do it NG had no chance against dedicated revolutionaries because NG had proved toughness byu killing unarmed civilians. Had all the weapons they needed but as one foreign mercenary fighting for Somoza said they ran like rats As NG disintegrated, so did US Policy. Somoza finally fled in July 1979 UsS now had to live with a gov they had long opposed Sandinistas had always wouldnt depend on anyone and would be part of non-aligned movement Sandinistas got help from Cuba But needed a lot of help from US Allowed US companies back in and only nationalised banks After 1979, US Sandinista relations declined sanidinstas gave relationship sever jolt when delayed elections Congress delayed in sending them money because inserting clauses about monet to private sector, not allowing money anywhere ther are Cuban personnel and desire for propaganda to show US helped more than they did Delayed so long, Nicaragua turned to USSR and series of trade agreements followed Sandinista started helping revolutionaries in el Salvador with Mexicos 2 moderates lefty junta because junta too leftist Nicaraguans started building up army because feared somoza forces would come back Aid packaged by congress finally passed in june 1980 prob because wanted some influence, didnt want them going to uSSR etc But critical reason was the major 120 international banks didnt want them to default on $1.5 billion debt Junta agreed to reschedule $600 million somoza debt to pay back over 12 years workers bonus pay had to be cut Cant overstate importance this locked Nicaragua into private money market Deal struck sep t 1980

But again relations deteriorated 1980 carter told CIA to fund anti-Sandinista press, labour unions and political parties and mistrust increased After Reagans victory Sandinistas tightened control prohibited opposition partoes and increased censorship

El Salvador 1960s US involvement on bigger scale than ever before 1974 top 1% of families in San Salvador received more income that top 50% of poorest Inhabitants in urban areas developed the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) Jose Napoleon Duarte leader By 1968 became dominant nationwide party by gaining control of hundreds of cities, towns and villages Duarte became most popular politician in country 1972 elections ran in a coalition. Blatant fraud by army-controlled government Junior army officers revolted Skirmishes = 300 died Senior military command put down coup with help from US, Somoza and Guatemala Duarte arrested and sent to Guatemala, he escaped then to Venezuela for 7 years Army set out to destroy PDC Leaders dispersed All military did was futehr bipolarize the country and drive opposition to violence (kidnappings and ransom of wealth family memebrs) 1973 oil embargo and inflation in 73 and 74 led desperate Salvadoran to joing guerrilla groups that robbed banks and carried out bombings 3 groups created 1. Farabundo Marti Popular Liberation Forces (FPL) 2. Peoples Revolutionary Army (ERP) 3. Armed Forces of National Resistance (FARN) Had their differences but posed threat to national structure Thousands who joined unions disappeared or found dead 1972-1977 150 teachers vanished Parish priests executed and expelled Terroirts groups suchs as ORDEN carried out most of these Throughout, US provided Salvadoran army with aid and training even gave helicopters General Carlos Humberto Romero (ordered many of te manhunts) won presidency in 1977 fraudulent Military aid from US already cut off so he turned to Israel and west Europe US catholic church raised concerns when they found out about atrocities At first HR advocates won in US and Romero eased repressions But then pro-leftist forces grew and pro-Romero voices said if Europeans built damn, US would lose influence.

Priorities changes and Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs sain in 1978 that HR not the concern but rather Terror and subversion are major problems and congratulated police for cracking down on rioters $10 mil in economic aid from US Carter administration completely changed course Romeros HR violations grew seeking to destroy Left and Church Succeeded in mobilizing peasant and unions, turning Church against him and ruining economy After rise of oil prices in 1979, unemployment went up Couldnt borrow from international banks Domino effect talk when Somoza fell in US Carter asked Rimero for at least cosmetic HR reforms so that Carter could resume sending assistance (just like in Nicaragua, president championed HR untile a revolution caused in part by absence of HR, threatened the gov) Romero couldnt do it fast enough and army divided under US perssions and on 16 oct junionr officers overthrew Romero and seized power Strong evidence that US encouraged coup Romero porved reluctant to take advice while junior officers heaven sent opposed oligarchs and sneiour officials, wanted moderate reforms that would redistribute wealth and wanted a close relationsjip with US (for counterinsurgency weapons) could fight off guerrillas and satisfy moderates with promise of reforms seemed like exactly what carter was looking for anf failed to find in Nicaragua Coup marked beginning of heavy US involvement in revolution 2 officers Colonel Jaime Guiterrez and Colonel Adolfo Majano led junta - agreed to let in 3 civilians into junta Roman Mayorga, Guilerrmo Ungo, Mario Andino Junta moved to o Disban ORDEN o Free poliyoical prisimnors o Nationalise coffee o Establish min wages o Land reform Reform program shook leadership because thought it would result in collapse of military base and many army eladers had been implicated in atrocities For Gutierrez and to a lesser extent Majano, immediate issue was protecting own profession and power base rather than revolution Reform movement collapsed Andino constantly voted with 2 colonals (firm had military ties) Teroism and violence rose as junion army officers couldnt control other army members 1st week of junta existence 160 killed Government charged with have romeroism without romero Leftist guerrillas stepped up attacks, at first of fear that reforms would destroy left political base and then because army had chosen repression over reform Carter didnt want any settlememy with left even though Ungo advised that it was an altermnative to escalating bloodshed

Junior officers finally admitted defeat 3 civillian mmembers resigned in January GUiterrez and jose huillermo garcia assumed power and brought in 2 chirycian democrats to join US dep moved quickly to consoliodate ties with military Since 1972, PDC moved to right church had deserted it, left ognored it. Now lent undeserved respectability to military regime One of Christian democrats resigned, and Duarte came in (not as powerful or popular as before so acceptable o military) US diplomats portrayed Duarte as moderate hope Duarte pushed out of power in 1982 surprised US Bipolarization accelerated as violence escalated Army chased peasant to Honduran border and slaughtered 600 Archbishop Romero spoke out on killings march 1980 killed Murder didnt slow US aid Early 1980 Carter asked for $5.7 million in military supplies to help strengthen armys key role in reforms congress gave it While pushing military supplies, Carter pressures newly conservative junta to undertake massive land reform# Became centrepiece of us-Salvadoran strategy for winning revolution US groups wrote it (anti-communist, American federation of labour, US multinationals etc) Announced plan in march-april 1980 idea was to buy huge plots then redistribute to peasants Wanted to destroy oligarchs power on far right and create mass peasant support for military controlled junta Resulted in oligarchs disappearing with walth after selling at inflated prices and peasant killings Private wealth fled country 1978-1981 because of rising violence and threat of reforms ($5billion) In april 1980 revolutionary groups finally decided to coper\te and coordinate actions because US involvement rising, death of archbishop, reagani popularity meant possibility of greater future firepower to resist and splintering if junta as an opportunity 2 coordinating groups appeared 1. Revolutionary Democratic Front (FDR) (16 orgs including communists) Leadership Ungo, Enrique Alvarwez Cordoba, Ruben Zamora Arose from moderate Social Democrat and Christian Democrats movement from 70s 2. Farabundo Marti National Lioveration Front (FMLN) (5 guerrilla groups) as military counterpart to FDR Developed out of Marxist groups and guerrilla fighting 2 groups different origins and ideology but united to remove oligarchic and now military rule and replace it with land reform and nationalization programmes Washington feared more radical military side would dominate Nov 1980 government security forces assassinated Enrqie Alavrez Happened in contexts

To carter, slaughters were not as important as preventing FDR_FMLN victory Church counted over 10,000 political murders in 1980- overwhelming amount by gov or right wing vigilante groups As salvadoran gov swung to right, hundreds murdered every month

Guatemala Natural political desce4dedn of US sponsored coup of 1954 presided over slaughter US trained army and US equipped carried out most killings Newly professionalised Guatemalan officer corps seized power in 1963 effectively controlled country for 18 years Told US to suppluy and train them but no advice Troops killed thousands of peasant and political opponents in name of counterinsurgency Wahsington officials largely complied 1967-1976 US virtual sole supplier Investment and aid showed how much US cared about Acted as bellweather for region 50,000 died between 1966-1976 Nixon and ford kept sending supplies 1976 earthquake 22,000 died, 1 million homelsee (op 5 million) Didnt blatantly steal all aid money Indians had been worst treated, most lives destroyed before 1976 when land taken for cattle land and oild Gov opened up the indianc communities and made them enemies International relief eagencies appeared on the scene and subjected vilalges ti new political influences First time in centuries, Indians began to organise Trigger event massacre in northeren town of Panzos may 1978 (because Indians asked their land be protected from beef farms) Economics crises of 70s sharpened conflict earning fell as prices soared Land taken for other mining By 1978, guerrilla activitites had spread through a number of provinces including indian regions here guerrillas had never been seen before Gerenal romeo lucas Garcia army annoite dpresident in 1977 election ordered war on guerrillas Army brutalitis grew until 1980 when contrys civilian vice-presidebt resigned in protest Military killed over 3,000 people in 1979-mid 1980 Liberal, leftist and eleotes died in increasing numbers As economic crisis grew, competition for countrys land and mineral walth crease and military offiers allied with certain business cliques on opposing military business groups l like rival mafias By 1982, even gov general fighting eachother US kept semnding aid but the carter admintsation condemned Presciedent Lucas garcias death squards after 1977 Guatemalan officials responded by rejecting aid becausde interfereiongwith internal politics Carter could no longer control creation

Honduras Poorest in area but knew place ion system so ok for US Country started changing rapidly in 50s and 60s as diversifies enterprises Honduras bascally completely economically dependent on US Army trained by US and ran country mediated economic interest (political parties always weak) Lopez seized presidency from own selected civilian gov in 1972 becaue doing bad job Remarkably aware of conditions sucg as growing peaseant dissatisfaction and sting of economic crisis Lopez announced labour laws that allowed union, provided min wages and placed control on foreign owned mining companies Proposed major land reform and nationalizing rich foerigne controlled timber undystry By 1975 promise dead (FENAGH and COHEP opposed it as did some UD officials, Lopez needed aid after Hurrican fifi sept 1974 and US didnt show much interest in helping) So reforms slowed down lopez took bribes. Resigned. Reform era over but some peasants didny know and tried totake land violence ensued worldwide economic downturn casuse more unrest military ruled despite elections and military pulled country to the right US gave aid so that EL Salvodor could take on Samoza role of being anti communist and anti popular revolte . a lot of aid just to control border and confront sanisintas 1979 assistance secreay of state Vaky said georahpy gives Honduras a central role in prevention of regional conflict between Nicaragua and conservative northern neighbours Questions whetehr such poor illiterate low quality life country could do such a thing but Washington needed friends.

Costa rica Costa ricas ability to cause trouble reduced with eonomy. Especially post 1979recession 1972 started selling coffee to Moscow only country with diplomatic relations with Moscow at the time IMF and world bank gave millions Massive population increase Strain on land Prices soared US didnt really pay much attention becayse as the lone democracy it was too anti-miltary, too anti-dctaorial to fit US Policy