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Integrated Design and Construction of Tall Buildings

Abbas Aminmansour, A.M.ASCE
Structures Program, School of Architecture, Univ. of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, Champaign, IL 61820-6921. E-mail: aamin@illinois.edu
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Kyoung Sun Moon

School of Architecture, Yale Univ., New Haven, CT 06511.

Contemporary tall buildings frequently incorporate distinctive architectural designs that require unique and innovative design of structural, mechanical, lighting, electrical, and other building systems. In addition, the massive scale of tall building systems creates critical interrelationships and dependencies among these systems. Construction of tall buildings is impacted by the building architecture and systems and may require special construction materials, equipment, techniques, or processes that necessitate close collaboration between the contractor and the design team. Moreover, issues such as efciency and economy of operation and maintenance of tall buildings during their life-spans offer incentives for the design and construction team to think critically beyond the construction phase and incorporate features and materials that increase the return on the developers investment. Further, the increased sensitivity to the environment and our limited natural resources inuence not only the design, but construction material and techniques used in the development of tall buildings. Thus, design and construction of tall buildings is a multidisciplinary challenge bringing together the architect, architectural engineering consultants including the structural engineer, mechanical engineer, and lighting engineer, and the contractor from the conception and planning of the project to completion of construction of the building. This collaboration requires general knowledge and understanding of the different disciplines by each professional involved in the process. This paper presents a number of strategies for the successful execution of tall buildings. Teamwork and integrated design and construction for comprehensive and efcient outcomes are particularly highlighted with emphasis on the role of the different parties involved in the planning through to the operation of tall buildings.

column-free ofce environments, providing greater exibility in building use. With their major lateral load-resisting systems located at the building perimeter, tube structures by their nature have great potential of being a major element of building aesthetic. This potential has been either strongly pursued or intentionally minimized depending on specic design situations. Among various tube congurations, framed tubes such as the ones used in the demolished World Trade Center Towers in New York and in the Aon Center in Chicago Fig. 1 are rarely used today due to their very closely spaced columns, which obstruct the great views typically provided by tall buildings. Braced tubes and their variations are still used in contemporary tall buildings such as the World Financial Center in Shanghai Fig. 2. However, unlike the clear expression of structure in Chicagos John Hancock Center Fig. 3, the perimeter braces in the World Financial Center are hidden behind a reective glass facade. One of the most prevalently used tube systems today is the diagrid. With its new aesthetic expressions and great structural efciency for tall buildings in resisting lateral forces, diagrids have been used for major tall buildings such as the Hearst Tower in New York Fig. 4, the Swiss Re Building in London Fig. 5, the Lotte Super Tower in Seoul, and the Guangzhou Twin Towers in Guangzhou. In these buildings, diagonals are strongly ex-

Structural Systems, Spatial Congurations, and Building Aesthetics

The invention of iron/steel skeletal structural systems in Chicagothe technological driving force of tall building developmentsled to the emergence of modern tall buildings. Since then, tall building structures have evolved toward taller and more efcient systems in conjunction with changing functional requirements based on the development of new management systems Abalos and Herreros 2003; Russell 2003. Departing from the conventional frame structures, a signicant evolution occurred with the development of tubular structures in the late 1960s, which satised both structural and functional requirements. Tube systems have provided very efcient structures with

Fig. 1. Aon Center in Chicago Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour

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Fig. 3. John Hancock Center in Chicago Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour

Fig. 2. Shanghai World Financial Center Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour

pressed on the building facade as primary aesthetic components as well as building identiers. While most diagrid structures are designed with diagonals placed at uniform angles, some diagrid structures, such as the Lotte Super Tower, employ varying-angle diagrids, with steeper angles toward the ground. This varying angle conguration of diagrids provides superior structural performance and more dynamic visual expression for a very tall building Moon 2008. Diagrids are also used as structural solutions in irregular freeform shape tall buildings such as the Phare Tower in La Defense and the Fiera Milano Tower in Milan, which lead another direction of contemporary tall building design. Compared with conventional orthogonal structures, diagrid structures require more complicated joints where at least six structural members meet. Thus, careful consideration should be given to design and construction of diagrid joints for successful project execution. Prefabrication of the complicated diagrid nodes combined with the fact that these joints can be designed with pin connections due to the triangulated conguration of diagrids may lead to less work at the job site. Due to the absence of vertical structural members, geometric conguration of faade systems should be well coordinated between architects and engineers to achieve desired aesthetic and functional performance. Another tall building structural system used worldwide today is the core-supported outrigger system. By connecting shear core and exterior columns or mega columns, the system maximizes its bending rigidity with an extended moment arm. While tube struc48 / JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING ASCE / JUNE 2010

tures concentrate lateral load-resisting system components, which resist both shear and bending at the buildings perimeter, typical core-supported outrigger systems resist shear primarily through their cores and bending through the cores and exterior columns connected to the cores by the outriggers Moon et al. 2007. In resisting lateral forces, outrigger systems perform with the couples created by tension and compression in the perimeter columns connected to the outriggers. However, careful structural planning may eliminate the actual tension with gravity loads Smith and Coull 1991. For very tall buildings with multiple outriggers of usually double-story heights, coordination of the structural system with spatial organization and building aesthetics is crucial in successful design. As is the case with the Jin Mao Building in Shanghai Fig. 6, outriggers or other deep structural components may be located at the mechanical oors, which are vertically distributed along the building height and also typically require double-story heights. Fig. 7 shows the mechanical oor of a tall building with signicant structural components present on that oor. Structural efciency and vertical building proportioning related to aesthetics and function as well as efcient zoning of mechanical systems should be considered simultaneously in determining the locations of outriggers. Unlike tube structures, outrigger systems do not rely entirely on building perimeter structures in resisting lateral forces, thereby allowing the exterior columns to be more widely spaced. Consequently faade design is less constrained by perimeter structures Ali and Moon 2007.

Building Form and Structural Performance

Todays architecture, including tall buildings, can be understood only through recognition of the dominance of cultural pluralism.

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Fig. 4. Hearst Tower in New York Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour Fig. 5. Swiss Re Building in London Courtesy of Kyoung Sun Moon

Early design of tall buildings culminated with the emergence of the International style, which prevailed for decades. Today, however, as is true of other building types, multiple design directions are prevalent for tall buildings. The lack of a dominant style has produced various building forms, such as free forms, twisted forms, tapered forms, and tilted forms, and the supporting structural systems. The importance of an integrative design and construction approach is more signicant today due to the complexity of building forms compared to the Miesian building forms produced during the mid-twentieth century. Early irregular freeform tall buildings were proposed by some architects such as Frank Gehry and Peter Eisenman in the late twentieth century, but their designs never left the drawing boards. Today, however, many freeform tall buildings, such as Daniel Libeskinds Fiera Tower, Zaha Hadids Dancing Tower, and Thom Maines Phare Tower, are designed and planned to be actually built. Irregular freeform design has become a new direction in contemporary architectural design. Another interesting approach in tall building design today is the twisted forms found in the Turning Torso in Malmo Fig. 8 and the Chicago Spire in Chicago, both designed by Santiago Calatrava. In conjunction with either the new building forms or the conventional building forms, tapered or tilted forms are also prevalent in todays tall buildings. From the viewpoint of building forms, these approaches can be understood as reactions to once globally prevalent prismatic building forms. This type of cyclic transition in building forms related to architectural aesthetics can be traced throughout the history of architecture Moon 2005. From the viewpoint of corresponding structural systems and performance, todays irregular building forms require more complicated system design, analysis, and construction. But, on the

other hand, they may offer better performance in response to dynamic wind forces. Unlike conventional rectangular box building forms, any irregularity in building form helps prevent wind from forming organized vortexes which in many cases produce the most serious vibration problems in the across wind direction. There exists a great potential in design integration to produce better performing buildings. As an example, the World Trade Center towers required viscoelastic dampers to be installed for motion control after occupancy, while the Burj Dubai Fig. 9, a much taller building, is designed without any damping mechanisms. With many irregular setbacks in the Burj Dubai, winds are expected to be confused without forming organized vortexes Baker et al. 2008. The coordination of irregularity in building forms between architects and engineers to satisfy building aesthetics and at the same time to maximize structural performance will lead to a higher-quality built environment. Some typical features used by architects and structural designers to reduce tall buildings responses to wind forces include vertically tapering proles, reduced wind sail at top of the building, rounded or chamfered corners, and notches or vents Nordenson and Riley 2003. Today, wind tunnel analysis is an integral part of design of tall buildings. Such experimentations offer the designers valuable insight into the building response to wind. Information obtained from wind tunnel tests are based on the building shape as well as any obstacles, such as other buildings, that may inuence airow and formation of vortices around the building. To further reduce vortex-shedding-induced dynamic motion of tall buildings, various damping systems can be installed integrally with other building systems. For the structural design of a very
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Fig. 6. Jin Mao Building in Shanghai Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour

Fig. 8. Turning Torso in Malmo Courtesy of Antony Wood, CTBUH

tall building, it is possible for the serviceability requirements to be dominant Connor 2003. In early days, even structural bracing members were always hidden from building faades because exposure of these structural elements was opposed to the architects aesthetic direction. It took a long time for these once purely structural elements to be exposed in building faades, as can be seen in Chicagos John Hancock Center of 1969 and todays diagrid structures. Damping devices, like bracing members, have often been kept out of the view in tall buildings as well. However, the pendulum-type mass damper in Taipei 101 is exposed for viewing in the atrium of the building as an ornamental element Fig. 10.

There is a great potential to integrate these performance-driven technologies with building aesthetics. Constructability is a serious issue for the successful execution of irregular forms. As building forms become more irregular, pro-

Fig. 7. Two-story mechanical oor of a tall building with signicant structure present Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour
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Fig. 9. Burj Dubai Courtesy of Kyoung Sun Moon

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Fig. 10. Taipei 101 tuned mass damper Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour)

Fig. 11. New York Times Tower in New York Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour

ducing appropriate construction modules, the structural and faade systems become more critical for improved economy. Extracting regularity from an irregular building form and adjusting the building form following the extracted regularity can be one approach. Another approach may be to make the construction modules relatively regular and design more adaptable connections so that they can accommodate any irregularity.

Structure, Faade, and Environmental Systems

From the viewpoint of technology, the emergence of tall buildings began from the functional separation of structures and faades. Iron/steel skeletal structures and the curtain wall concept replaced traditional masonry walls, and the era for tall buildings began. The functional separation of building structures and faades, however, did not accompany complete physical separation. Structural and faade systems have always been constructed together with physical contacts for their mutual benet. The two systems, once fully integrated with serious limitations when implemented in tall buildings, have been relatively separated with minimum connections necessary to contribute to each other. Thus, new modern ways of integration to accommodate new concepts have been developed. Some designers capitalize on portions or all of the structural and faade systems serving as prominent parts of the building architecture Fig. 11. Such decision on the part of the designer is a choice, though, and not a necessity. Faades are typically supported by the primary structures at the building perimeter. They provide enclosure for the building and protect its interior from the outdoor environment. However, structures are subjected to movements due to various reasons,

such as external forces, aging, and environmental changes. Therefore, faades are designed and detailed to accommodate the structures movements without causing damage to the often delicate faade material. Based on these fundamental interactions, the two systems have developed toward each othersand in turna whole buildings better performance. Architects and engineers are in charge of developing better performance in these two independent but very closely related systems. Compared with heavy masonry walls, relatively light modern curtain walls, typically composed of metals and glasses, allow more visual and environmental connections between the exterior and interior. More visual connections including introduction of more natural light and great views into the interior space are desired by architects and occupants alike. However, potential harsh exterior environments require careful considerations for design and detailing of curtain walls. During the period when outdoor environmental conditions are unfavorable for human comfort, maximum insulation value for the faade systems is desired. On the other hand, for the periods when outdoor conditions are close to the human comfort zone, faade systems may be designed to allow use of the outdoor environment to generate indoor comfort more economically. Further, faade designs that permit free nighttime cooling through natural ventilation may be considered. In such cases, structural systems and interior nish designs should be carefully congured to augment the use of thermal mass capacity. However, sometimes faade designs that allow occupants control for natural ventilation create a dilemma for designers. Some designers do not favor permitting occupants access to outdoor air to avoid losing environmental control. Among other things, access to outdoor air impacts control of
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increases the buildings exposure to high winds, which in turn may require a stronger structure. Thus, decisions that increase the buildings height must be carefully studied and made in collaboration with other team members. Tall building perimeters are very important zones architecturally, structurally, and environmentally. Thus, it is expected that many building components are congested along their perimeter to fulll the necessary multiple complex functions. From the viewpoint of structural behavior, it is quite desirable to concentrate as much lateral load-resisting systems as possible on the perimeter of tall buildings where building faades are located. This idea increases structural depth against lateral loads and increases the systems efciency. However, the idea may not be desirable in terms of architectural and environmental control system design. Nonetheless, observed from a slightly different angle, this could increase the possibility of design integration because more maneuverable components are concentrated at the same location. Faades serve as the environmental mediator between the building interior and exterior and are supported by the building structure. If integrally designed, they can coexist with the structure without conict and can enhance the performance of the structural and environmental systems. Other building systems can be designed in the same manner as well. With this approach, each system is designed for its best performance while at the same time actively participating in the enhancement of related systems performances. For this type of synergistic integrative design methodology, it is absolutely necessary for architects and engineers to holistically understand the project.

Fig. 12. Double-skin faade design example Courtesy of Adam Gimpert

Case for Sustainable Design

Over the last several years, sustainable design of buildings in general has gained more attention from architects, engineers, and constructors. Appropriately, sustainable design and construction of tall buildings has become more popular among building professionals as well. Given their enormous scale, the impact of sustainable design and construction of tall buildings will be proportionately large. The number of tall buildings designed and constructed around the world with sensitivity to our environment and natural resources is ever increasing. The Hearst Tower in New York City Fig. 4, which opened in October of 2006, is the rst ofce building in the city to receive Gold LEED certication. The tower was built on top of the existing six-story Hearst ofce building, which was built in the late 1920s. The idea of placing a new building on top of an existing building or using portions of an existing building structure is not a new concept. In Chicago alone there have been a number of examples of such projects in recent years. The Dearborn Center, a tall building recently added to the citys skyline, was built on top of existing foundations built about a century earlier. Another example of such projects in Chicago is the vertical completion of the Health Care Service Corporation HCSC, also known as the Blue Cross Blue Shield building Fig. 13. The project, which began in 2007, will add 24 stories on top of the existing 31-story tower built 10 years earlier with the future expansion in mind. Using existing structures to build on top of saves material, energy, and labor through reuse of existing constructed material. However, these projects require careful investigation for adequacy of the existing structure to accommodate new additions. But in the end, in addition to the savings just mentioned, such projects could bring the new project to completion earlier, thereby generating considerable revenues for the owner as opposed to

stack effect also known as chimney effect phenomenon in tall buildings. Double-skin faades Fig. 12 can be an effective design choice for tall buildings. They represent one of the most advanced forms of contemporary building envelope systems. Properly designed double-skin faades can successfully accomplish visual lightness and transparency as well as better environmental control than single-skin faades. Studies suggest that the productivity of the occupants in the buildings clad with double-skin faades is higher because of the more comfortable work environment these faades can offer Oesterle et al. 2001. However, usable area reduction due to the cavity spaces, higher faade self-weight, and more expensive cost of construction are some of the concerns to be carefully considered in the design of double-skin faades. An obvious function of building faades is to allow natural light in the building, thereby creating a more comfortable environment as well as reducing energy costs. Higher ceilings in buildings with considerable glazing allow natural light to reach deeper in the space, but add to the buildings overall height. The depth of the oor sandwich may also increase the buildings overall height. Building oor sandwiches typically include oor beams, girders, and slabs, as well as mechanical and other building components. Strictly from the structural point of view, deeper beams are more desirable because of their potentially higher bending strength and lower deection. However, they too increase the oor sandwichs thickness and add to the building height. Increased building height results in additional use of material and more space to condition during the life of the building. It also
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equipment; energy efcient glass; use of construction materials, furnishings, carpet, paint, sealants, etc. that are made of recycled material and do not emit undesirable fumes; reuse of waste water and collected rain water; and reducing the amount of walls and partitions acting as barriers for natural light reaching deep inside the building. Effective implementation of these and similar ideas requires a collaborative and integrated approach by the design and construction team.

Summary
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Fig. 13. Vertical expansion of the Health Care Service Corporation building in Chicago Courtesy of Abbas Aminmansour

Tall buildings are an integration of architecture, structural, and environmental systems, and they require substantial resources to build and operate. Therefore, design and construction of tall buildings is a highly multidisciplinary process. To realize a desirable built environment through tall buildings, all professionals involved in the design and construction of such projects should work collaboratively from project inception to completion. Further, operation and maintenance of the building after completion must be taken into consideration during the design stage. The knowledge, experience, and input that each team member can offer throughout the design and construction process will add substantially to producing a built environment that is creative, environmentally sensitive, aesthetically pleasing, functional, and reasonable to construct, operate, and manage. Every team members basic background and knowledge of aspects of tall building design and construction beyond his/her own discipline is crucial. It is true that the workload of individual design and construction team members varies throughout the process, but every professional has a signicant role to play at every stage.

tearing down the building and constructing again. A number of ideas may be included in sustainable design and construction of tall buildings. One such idea is using highly innovative and efcient structural systems that could save signicant material as opposed to conventional systems used in design of tall buildings. Using materials that are recycled and/or more readily available and processed locally as opposed to shipping them from long distances is another example of sustainable design ideas. Sensitive environmental systems design can have a substantial impact on the sustainable design of tall buildings. With the everincreasing cost of utilities and our limited available natural resources, energy-efcient tall buildings can save the environment and our resources as well as offer big savings in the cost of operating the building over its expected life. Creative and efcient use of natural lighting as well as efcient heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems are important factors in realizing a sustainable design for tall buildings. Also, designing tall buildings for better indoor air quality and a healthier environment is the right thing to do and could save considerable healthcare costs. The good news is that, contrary to what some believe, incorporating sustainable design ideas does not substantially increase the cost of design and construction of tall buildings. Indeed it is possible that the additional initial cost of sustainable design and construction of tall buildings may be very minimal, if any. Other ideas for responsible use of our natural resources include use of intelligent environmental system controls; energy generation; energy efcient lighting and equipment; installing sensors for control of lighting and other energy based xtures and

References
Abalos, I., and Herreros, J. 2003. Tower and ofce: From modernist theory to contemporary practice, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Ali, M. M., and Moon, K. 2007. Structural developments in tall buildings: Current trends and future prospects. Archit. Sci. Rev., 50 3, 205223. Baker, W., Korista, S., and Novak, L. 2008. Engineering the worlds tallestBurj Dubai. Proc., Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitats, 8th World Congress: Tall & Green: Typology for a Sustainable Urban Future. Connor, J. 2003. Introduction to structural motion control, PrenticeHall, Upper Saddle River, N.J. Moon, K. 2005. Dynamic interrelationship between technology and architecture in tall buildings. Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. Moon, K. 2008. Optimal grid geometry of diagrid structures for tall buildings. Archit. Sci. Rev., 51 3, 239251. Moon, K., Connor, J. J., and Fernandez, J. E. 2007. Diagrid structural systems for tall buildings: Characteristics and methodology for preliminary design. Struct. Des. Tall Build., 16 2, 205230. Nordenson, G., and Riley, T. 2003. Tall buildings, Museum of Modern Art, New York. Oesterle, E., Lieb, R., Lutz, M., and Heusler, W. 2001. Double-skin faades: Integrated planning, Prestel, Munich, Germany. Russell, J. 2003. Architectural style and management ideals, AV Monographs 103. Smith, B., and Coull, A. 1991. Tall building structures: Analysis and design, Wiley, New York.

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