Mechanical Properties

1. Initial

Elastic Deformation
2. Small load
bonds stretch return to initial

3. Unload

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are they used instead of load and deformation? Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much deformation occurs? What materials deform least? Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent deformation occur? What materials are most resistant to permanent deformation? Toughness and ductility: What are they and how do we measure them?

F Elastic means reversible! F

Linearelastic

Non-Linearelastic

Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial 2. Small load bonds stretch & planes shear elastic + plastic 3. Unload planes still sheared plastic

Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, : Shear stress, :

Ft
Area, A Area, A

Ft

F Fs

Ft F
linear elastic linear elastic

Fs F = s Ao F Ft

F Plastic means permanent!

F lb f N = t = 2 or m2 A o in
plastic

original area before loading

Stress has units: N/m2

i.e., same as Pressure: Pascals (Pa) 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 14.7 psi

Common States of Stress

Ski lift

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES

Simple compression:

Simple tension: cable

F F = Ao M

F Ao
Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

A o = cross sectional area (when unloaded)

Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft

Ac M
2R

Fs

Ao F = s Ao

Balanced Rock, Arches National Park

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F = Ao

Note: compressive structure member ( < 0 here).

Note: = M/AcR here.

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES

Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression: Tensile strain:

Strain
/2 Lateral strain:

= Lo
L /2 Shear strain:

wo

Lo

L = L wo

Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Fish under water

> 0 z > 0

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

x y
90

= x/y = tan
90 -

h < 0

Strain is always dimensionless.

Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test machine Typical tensile specimen

Linear Elastic Properties

Modulus of Elasticity: E (also known as Young's modulus) Hooke's Law:

extensometer

specimen

=E
stress = E

* strain

gauge length

Linearelastic

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)

simple tension test

Poisson's ratio,
Poisson's ratio, :

Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress-strain plot proportional
to the elastic modulus.

= L
metals: ~ 0.33 ceramics: ~ 0.25 polymers: ~ 0.40

depends on strength of material

Units: E: [GPa] ~ 105 atm : dimensionless

> 0.50 density increases < 0.50 density decreases (voids form)

Other Elastic Properties

Elastic Shear modulus, G:

Measuring Elastic Modulus

M
Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
simple torsion test

=G
Elastic Bulk modulus, K:

3-Point Bend Testing often used.

tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
cross section

L/2

L/2
d = midpoint deflection

R
circ.

P K V P Vo

P P
pressure test: Init. vol =Vo. Vol chg. = V

rect.

P = -K

V Vo

Determine elastic modulus according to:

x
slope =

E= F

L3 4bd 3

L3

12 R 4
circ. cross section

Special relations for isotropic materials: G= E 2(1 + ) K= E 3(1 2)

linear-elastic behavior

rect. cross section

Measuring Strength
3-point bend test to measure room T strength. F cross section
L/2 L/2 d
rect.

Comparison of Youngs Moduli (tension)

Metals Alloys
1200 1000 800 600 400 200

Graphite Ceramics Polymers Semicond

Diamond

Composites /fibers

R
circ.
location of max tension

d = midpoint deflection

E (GPa)

100 80 60 40 20 10 8 6 4 2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

Tungsten Molybd. Steel, Ni Tantalum Platinum Cu alloys Zinc, Ti Silver, Gold Aluminum Magnesium, Tin

Si carbide Al oxide Si nitride Si crystal

<100> <111>

Carbon fibers only

CFRE(|| fibers)*
Aramid fibers only

GPa = 109 Pa = 10,000 atm

Glass-soda Concrete

AFRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only

GFRE(|| fibers)* GFRE* Graphite CFRE* GFRE( fibers)* CFRE( fibers) * AFRE( fibers) *

Flexural strength:

Typical values:

fs =
Ff

1.5Ff L
rect.

bd 2

Ff L R3

Material

x
fs

fs (MPa) E(GPa) Si nitride 250-1000 304 Si carbide 100-820 345 Al oxide 275-700 393 glass (soda) 69 69

Polyester PET PS PC PP HDPE PTFE LDPE

Epoxy only

Wood(

grain)

Based on data in Table B2, Callister 7e. Composite data based on reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% of aligned carbon (CFRE), aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers.

Useful Linear Elastic Relationships

Simple tension: Simple torsion:

Plastic (Permanent) Deformation

(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

= FL o = Fw o L EA o EA o F
Ao /2 Lo

2ML o

4 r o G

Simple tension test:

engineering stress, Elastic Elastic+Plastic at larger stress

M = moment = angle of twist

wo
L /2

Lo 2ro

initially permanent (plastic) after load is removed

engineering strain, plastic strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a), Callister 7e.

Material, geometric, and loading parameters all important.

Yield Strength, y
Yield Strength = YS = y = Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation occurs (when p ~ 0.002).
tensile stress,
2000

Yield Strength : Comparison

Metals/ Alloys
Steel (4140) qt

Graphite/ Ceramics/ Semicond

Polymers

Composites/ fibers

Yield strength, y (MPa)

10 00 700 600 500 400 300 200

Note: for 2 inch sample = 0.002 = z/z z = 0.004 in

Hard to measure , since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a W (pure) Cu (71500) cw Mo (pure) Steel (4140) a Steel (1020) cd Al (6061) ag Steel (1020) hr Ti (pure) a Ta (pure) Cu (71500) hr

Hard to measure,

Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 7e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered

100 70 60 50 40 30 20
Tin (pure) Al (6061) a

dry

engineering strain,

PC Nylon 6,6 PET humid PVC PP HDPE

p = 0.002

LDPE

10

Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
5000

Tensile Strength : Comparison

Metals/ Alloys 3000 2000 1000 Graphite/ Ceramics/ Semicond Polymers Composites/ fibers
C fibers Aramid fib E-glass fib Steel (4140) qt Diamond W (pure) a Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a Steel (4140) Si nitride Cu (71500) cw Cu (71500) hr Al oxide Steel (1020) Al (6061) ag Ti (pure) a Ta (pure) Al (6061) a Si crystal
<100>

engineering stress

F = fracture or ultimate strength

Typical response of a metal

Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

TS

Adapted from Fig. 6.11, Callister 7e.

AFRE(|| fiber) GFRE(|| fiber) CFRE(|| fiber)

300 200 100 40 30 20 10

Room Temp. values

Nylon 6,6 PC PET PVC PP HDPE LDPE wood(|| fiber) GFRE( fiber) CFRE( fiber) AFRE( fiber)

Neck acts as stress concentrator

Glass-soda Concrete Graphite

strain engineering strain

Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts. Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.

wood (

fiber)

Based on data in Table B4, Callister 7e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE = aramid, glass, & carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy composites, with 60 vol% fibers.

Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure:
Engineering tensile stress,
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister 7e.

Toughness
%EL = Lf Lo x 100 Lo Energy to break a unit volume of material Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
small toughness (ceramics)

smaller %EL larger %EL tensile stress,

Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister 7e.

Lo

Ao

large toughness (metals) very small toughness (unreinforced polymers)

Af

Lf

Engineering tensile strain,

Another ductility measure:

%RA =

Ao - Af x 100 Ao

tensile strain,
Brittle fracture: elastic energy Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region

Elastic Strain Recovery

Ur =

If we assume a linear stress-strain curve this simplifies to

Ur
Adapted from Fig. 6.15, Callister 7e.

1 y y 2

Adapted from Fig. 6.17, Callister 7e.

Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface. Large hardness means:
resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression. better wear properties.

Hardness Scale: Comparison

e.g., 10 mm sphere

apply known force

measure size of indent after removing load

D
most plastics

Smaller indents mean larger hardness.

cutting tools nitrided steels diamond

brasses easy to machine Al alloys steels file hard

increasing hardness

Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20 -100. Minor load Major load 10 kg 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg

Hardness: Measurement

A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

True Stress & Strain

Note: Surf. Area changes when sample stretched

Hardening
An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

True stress True Strain

T = F Ai

T = ln(l i l o )

T = (1 + ) T = ln(1 + )

y 1 y

large hardening small hardening

Adapted from Fig. 6.16, Callister 7e.

Curve fit to the stress-strain response: T = K T

true stress (F/A)

( )n

hardening exponent: n = 0.15 (some steels) to n = 0.5 (some coppers) true strain: ln(L/Lo)

Design or Safety Factors

Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit. Factor of safety, N Often N is

Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load and displacement, respectively. Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation, select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G). Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches y. Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material. Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

working =

y N

between 1.2 and 4, i.e., Rule of Pi

Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does

not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a factor of safety of 5.

working =
220,000N d2 / 4

y N

d Lo

1045 plain carbon steel: y = 310 MPa TS = 565 MPa F = 220,000N

d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm