Education

Overview

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Contents
Articles
Main article
Education Educology Horace Mann 1 1 17 35 43 43 70 85 85 95 97 102 102 119 135 141 143 153 165 165 169 174 199 213 213 217 217 222

United States
Education in the United States Education reform

Teachers
Teacher School of education Teacher education

Systems of formal education

Primary education Secondary education Higher education Adult education Alternative education Special education

Process
Pedagogy Curriculum List of academic disciplines Educational technology

Education theory
Education theory

Economics
Economics of education

History

History of education

222 240 240 255 255 272 272

Philosophy
Philosophy of education

Psychology
Educational psychology

Sociology
Sociology of education

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 280 286

Article Licenses
License 289

Main article
Education
Education in its general sense is a form of learning in which knowledge, skills, and habits of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through teaching, training, research, or simply through autodidacticism.[1] Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts.

Etymology
Etymologically, the word "education" is derived from the Latin ducti ("A breeding, a bringing up, a rearing") from dc ("I educate, I train") which is related to the homonym dc ("I lead forth, I take out; I raise up, I erect") from - ("from, out of") and dc ("I lead, I conduct").[2]

School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktya Province, Afghanistan.

The role of government

A right to education has been created and recognized by some jurisdictions: Since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. It does not however guarantee any particular level of education of any particular quality.[3] At the global level, the United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13.[4] Throughout history various governments have made it illegal to educate children privately or at home. Various totalitarian regimes, for example, have mandated indoctrination through propaganda in the Hitler Youth and propaganda in education under various communist regimes.

Students at the Technical University of Sofia, Bulgaria

Students in Kagugu Primary School of Rwanda.

Education

Student participants in the FIRST Robotics Competition, Washington, D.C.

Systems
Systems of schooling involve institutionalized teaching and learning in relation to a curriculum, which itself is established according to a predetermined purpose of the schools in the system. Schools systems are sometimes also based on religions, giving them different curricula.

School children line, in Kerala, India

Curriculum
In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and their content offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard. An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the universityor via some other such method. Each School children in Durban, South Africa. discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences.[5] Educational institutions may incorporate fine arts as part of K-12 grade curricula or within majors at colleges and universities as electives. The various types of fine arts are music, dance, and theater.[6]

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Preschools
The term preschool refers to a school for children who are not old enough to attend kindergarten. It is a nursery school. Preschool education is important because it can give a child the edge in a competitive world and education climate.[citation needed] While children who do not receive the fundamentals during their preschool years will be taught the alphabet, counting, shapes and colors and designs when they begin their formal education they will be behind the children who already possess that knowledge. The true purpose behind kindergarten is "to provide a child-centered, preschool curriculum for three to seven year old children that aimed at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them."[7]

Primary schools
Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first 57years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 89% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.[8] Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842. many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school. In India, compulsory education spans over twelve years, out of which children receive elementary education for 8 years. Elementary schooling consists of five years of primary schooling and 3 years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training.

Secondary schools
In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g. university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or Students working with a teacher at Albany Senior vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies High School, New Zealand from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of

Education

schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 113 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession. The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in factories (for instance, the emergence of Students in a classroom at Samdach Euv High electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new School, Cambodia job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both employers and employees, for the improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educational attainment. In Europe, grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which themselves have an even longer history.

Autodidacticism
Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is self-directed learning that is related to but different from informal learning. In a sense, autodidacticism is "learning on your own" or "by yourself", and an autodidact is a self-teacher. Autodidacticism is a contemplative, absorbing process. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in one's life. While some may have been informed in a conventional manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often unrelated areas. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director),and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician).

Vocational

A violin student receiving music education at the Royal Academy of Music, London, 1944.

Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture and the arts.

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Indigenous
Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students."[9]

Anarchistic free schools

An anarchistic free school (also anarchist free school and free school) is a decentralized network in which skills, information, and knowledge are shared without hierarchy or the institutional environment of formal schooling. Free school students may be adults, children, or both. This organisational structure is distinct from ones used by democratic free schools which permit children's individual initiatives and learning endeavors within the context of a school democracy, and from free education where 'traditional' schooling is made available to pupils without charge. The open structure of free schools is intended to encourage self-reliance, critical consciousness, and personal development. Free schools often operate outside the market economy in favor of a gift economy.[citation needed] Nevertheless, the meaning of the "free" of free schools is not restricted to monetary cost, and can refer to an emphasis on free speech and student-centred education.[citation needed]

Alternative
Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, is a broad term that may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of education). This may include not only forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability), but also forms of education designed for a general audience and employing alternative educational philosophies and methods. Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform and are rooted in various philosophies that are commonly fundamentally different from those of traditional compulsory education. While some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophical orientations, others are more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with certain aspects of traditional education. These alternatives, which include charter schools, alternative schools, independent schools, homeschooling and autodidacticism vary, but often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between students and teachers, and a sense of community. Alternative education may also allow for independent learning and engaging class activities.[10]

Special
In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were often educated by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. Special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities in its early years, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning.[]

Education through recreation

The concept of education through recreation was first applied to childhood development in the 19th century.[11] In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities.[12] Educationalist Lawrence L.P. Jacks, who was also an early proponent of lifelong learning, best described the modern concept of education through recreation in the following quotation "A master in the art of living draws no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his labour and his leisure, his mind and his body,

Education his education and his recreation. He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well."(Jacks, 1932).[13] Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of life's activities.[] The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students.[]

Systems of higher education

Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.

The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.

Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.

University systems
University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Universities are generally composed of several colleges. In the United States, universities can be private and independent, like Yale University, they can be public and State governed, like the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education, or they can be independent but State funded, like the University of Virginia.

Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, CTU in Prague.

Open
Higher education in particular is currently undergoing a transition towards open education, elearning alone is currently growing at 14 times the rate of traditional learning.[14] Open education is fast growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its efficiency and results compared to traditional methods.[15] Cost of education has been an issue throughout history, and a major political issue in most countries today. Open education is generally significantly cheaper than traditional campus based learning and in many cases even free. Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX Other universities offering open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U.Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, Caltech. It has been called the biggest change in the way we learn since the printing press.[16] Many people despite favorable studies on effectiveness may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons.[17]

Education The conventional merit system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities. Although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom. Currently many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal "academic value" to traditional degrees.[18] Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials.[citation needed] There has been a culture forming around distance learning for people who are looking to enjoy the shared social aspects that many people value in traditional on campus education that is not often directly offered from open education.[citation needed] Examples of this are people in open education forming study groups, meetups and movements such as UnCollege.

Liberal arts colleges

A liberal arts institution can be defined as a "college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum."[19] Although what is known today as the liberal arts college began in Europe,[20] the term is more commonly associated with Universities in the United States.[citation
needed]

Community colleges
A nonresidential junior college offering courses to people living in a particular area.

Saint Anselm College, a traditional New England liberal arts college.

Technology
One of the most substantial uses in education is the use of technology. Also technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and mobile phones are used in developed countries both to complement established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as online education (a type of distance education). This gives students the opportunity to choose what they are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also means the increase of programming and blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills and understandings of students, including Multimedia, and provides new ways to engage students, such as Virtual learning environments. One such tool are virtual manipulatives, which are an "interactive, Web-based visual representation of a dynamic object that presents opportunities for constructing mathematical knowledge" (Moyer, Bolyard, & Spikell, 2002). In short, virtual manipulatives are dynamic visual/pictorial replicas of physical mathematical manipulatives, which have long been used to demonstrate and teach various mathematical concepts. Virtual manipulatives can be easily accessed on the Internet as stand-alone applets, allowing for easy access and use in a variety of educational settings. Emerging research into the effectiveness of virtual manipulatives as a teaching tool have yielded promising results, suggesting comparable, and in many cases superior overall concept-teaching effectiveness compared to standard teaching methods.[citation needed] Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in education but also in the instruction of students. The use of technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention of students in the classroom. Technology is also being used in the assessment of students. One example is the Audience Response System (ARS), which allows immediate feedback tests and classroom discussions.[21]

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Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a "diverse set of tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information."[22] These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. There is increasing interest in how computers and the Internet can improve education at all levels, in both formal and non-formal settings.[23] Older ICT technologies, such as radio and television, have for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest, most accessible and American students in 2001, in a computer therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and fundamentals class taking a computer-based test developing countries.[24] In addition to classroom application and growth of e-learning opportunities for knowledge attainment, educators involved in student affairs programming have recognized the increasing importance of computer usage with data generation for and about students. Motivation and retention counselors, along with faculty and administrators, can impact the potential academic success of students by provision of technology based experiences in the University setting.[25] The use of computers and the Internet is in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access. Usually, various technologies are used in combination rather than as the sole delivery mechanism. For example, the Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka.[26] The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming.[27] Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing technologies.[28] The term "computer-assisted learning" (CAL) has been increasingly used to describe the use of technology in teaching. Classrooms of the 21st century contain interactive white boards, tablets, mp3 players, laptops, etc. Wiki sites are another tool teachers can implement into CAL curricula for students to understand communication and collaboration efforts of group work through electronic means.[citation needed] Teachers are encouraged to embed these technological devices and services in the curriculum in order to enhance students learning and meet the needs of various types of learners.

Adult
Adult learning, or adult education, is the practice of training and developing skills in adults. It is also sometimes referred to as andragogy (the art and science of helping adults learn).Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning and e-learning. A number of career specific courses such as veterinary assisting, medical billing and coding, real estate license, bookkeeping and many more are now available to students through the Internet. With the boom of information from availability of knowledge through means of internet and other modern low cost information exchange mechanisms people are beginning to take an attitude of Lifelong learning. To make knowledge and self improvement a lifelong focus as opposed to the more traditional view that knowledge and in particular value creating trade skills are to be learned just exclusively in youth.

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Learning modalities
There has been work on learning styles over the last two decades. Dunn and Dunn[29] focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli[30] recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner[31] identified individual talents or aptitudes in his Multiple Intelligences theories. Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter[32] focused on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator[33] follows a similar but more simplified approach.

Students in laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University.

It is currently fashionable to divide education into different learning "modes". The learning modalities[34] are probably the most common: Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned. Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information. Kinesthetic: learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities. Although it is claimed that, depending on their preferred learning modality, different teaching techniques have different levels of effectiveness,[35] recent research has argued "there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice."[36] A consequence of this theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them.[37] Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as VAK are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore restrict learning.[][38]

Instruction
Instruction is the facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary institutions are often called teachers, and they direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Instructors in post-secondary institutions might be called teachers, instructors, or professors, depending on the type of institution; and they primarily teach only their specific discipline. Studies from the United States suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar teachers they employ are as effective as possible.[39][40] With the passing of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified. A popular way to gauge teaching performance is to use student evaluations of teachers (SETS), but these evaluations have been criticized for being counterproductive to learning and inaccurate due to student bias.[]

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Theory
Education theory can refer to either a normative or a descriptive theory of education. In the first case, a theory means a postulation about what ought to be. It provides the "goals, norms, and standards for conducting the process of education."[41] In the second case, it means "an hypothesis or set of hypotheses that have been verified by observation and experiment."[] A descriptive theory of education can be thought of as a conceptual scheme that ties together various "otherwise discrete particulars... For example, a cultural theory of education shows how the concept of culture can be used to organize and unify the variety of facts about how and what people learn."[42] Likewise, for example, there is the behaviorist theory of education that comes from educational psychology and the functionalist theory of education that comes from sociology of education.[43]

Economics
It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth.[44] Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital". Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions[45] and the role of cognitive skills.[46]

Students on their way to school, Hakha, Chin State, Myanmar

At the individual level, there is a large literature, generally related back to the work of Jacob Mincer,[47] on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital of the individual. This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling.[48][49] Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis famously argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production on the other.[50]

History
The history of education according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie Universitt Berlin 1994, "began either millions of years ago or at the end of 1770". Education as a science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of

Nalanda ancient center for higher learning.

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11 knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc., formal education, and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500BC.[citation needed] The first large established university is thought to be Nalanda established in 427 A.D in India.[51]Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources At its peak, the university attracted scholars and students from as far away as Tibet, China, Greece, and Persia. The first university establishments in the western world are thought to be University of Bologna (founded in 1088) and later Oxford university (founded around 1096).

Plato's academy, mosaic from Pompeii.

In the West, Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC. Plato was the Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician and writer of philosophical dialogues who founded the Academy in Athens which was the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Inspired by the admonition of his mentor, Socrates, prior to his unjust execution that "the unexamined life is not worth living", Plato and his student, the political scientist Aristotle, helped lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science.[] The city of Alexandria in Egypt was founded in 330BC, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of the Western World. The city hosted such leading lights as the mathematician Euclid and anatomist Herophilus; constructed the great Library of Alexandria; and translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek (called the Septuagint for it was the work of 70 translators). Greek civilization was subsumed within the Roman Empire. While the Roman Empire and its new Christian religion survived in an increasingly Hellenised form in the Byzantine Empire centered at Constantinople in the East, Western civilization suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in AD 476.[52] In the East, Confucius (551-479), of the State of Lu, was China's most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan and Vietnam. He gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in the East into the modern era.
A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088.

In Western Europe after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church emerged as the unifying force. Initially the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe, the church established Cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities.[52] During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of enquiry and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation;[53] and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research[54] The University of Bologne is considered the oldest continually operating university.

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements published in 1607.

Education Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the Islamic caliphate established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilisations as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and the West, translating Western works like Euclids Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of Confucius for Western audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in the West.

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Modern times
Nowadays some kind of education is compulsory to all people in most countries. Due to population growth and the proliferation of compulsory education, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far.[55]

Philosophy
As an academic field, philosophy of education is a "the philosophical study of education and its problems... its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy".[] "The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline."[] As such, it is both part of the field of education and a field of applied philosophy, drawing from fields of metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and the philosophical approaches (speculative, prescriptive, and/or analytic) to address questions in and about pedagogy, education policy, and curriculum, as well as the process of learning, to name a few.[56] For example, it might study what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between education theory and practice.

Criticism
Chesterton said, "Modern education means handing down the customs of the minority, and rooting out the customs of the majority."[57]
John Locke's work Some Thoughts Concerning Education was written in 1693 and still reflects traditional education priorities in the Western world.

Purpose of schools

Education Individuals purposes for pursuing education can vary. However in early age the focus is generally around developing basic Interpersonal communication and literacy skills in order to further ability to learn more complex skills and subjects. After acquiring these basic abilities education is commonly focused towards individuals gaining necessary knowledge and skills to improve ability to create value and a livelihood for themselves.[58] Satisfying personal curiosities (Education for the sake of itself) and desire for Personal development, to "better oneself" without career based reasons for doing so are also common reasons why people pursue education and use schools.[59]

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Psychology
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities. Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).
A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation rates of students from low income [] families.

Sociology
The sociology of education is the study of how social institutions and forces affect educational processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many, education is understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994). Learners may be motivated by aspirations for progress and betterment. Learners can also be motivated by their interest in the subject area or specific skill they are trying to learn. In fact, learner-responsibility education models are driven by the interest of the learner in the topic to be studied.[]
School children in Laos

Education is perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities.[60] The purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their full potential. The understanding of the goals and means of educational socialization processes differs according to the sociological paradigm used.

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Developing countries
Development goals and issues
Universal Primary Education is one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain.[61] Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have World map indicating Education Index (according to 2007/2008 Human indicated that the main obstacles to Development Report) receiving more funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue.[61] Additionally, Transparency International has identified corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa.[62] Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the recurrent costs involved. There is economic pressure from those parents who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education. A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole.[63] Sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be based on some foundational principles: national leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention; strategies must be context relevant and context specific;Wikipedia:Please clarify they should embrace an integrated set of complementary interventions, though implementation may need to proceed in steps;Wikipedia:Please clarify partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development, while working towards some short-term achievements; outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at various levels. Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade)

Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe. (Note, chart does not include population statistics.)

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Education and technology in developing countries

Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and developing countries. There are charities dedicated to providing infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access educational materials, for example, the One Laptop per Child project. The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and supported by several major corporations, has a stated mission to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational software. The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at cost or given away based on donations.

The OLPC laptop being introduced to children in Haiti

In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has launched an "e-school program" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years.[64] An International Development Agency project called nabuur.com,[65] started with the support of former American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development. India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students. In 2004, the Indian Space Research Organization launched EDUSAT, a communications satellite providing access to educational materials that can reach more of the country's population at a greatly reduced cost.[66]

Internationalization (Globalization and Education)

Education is becoming increasingly international. The most represented case is the spread of mass schooling. Mass schooling has implanted the fundamental concepts that everyone has a right to be educated regardless of his/her cultural background and gender differences. The system has also promoted the global rules and norms of how the school should operate and what is education.[67] Though the system can have variations in local, regional, and country level, the similarities in systems or even in ideas that schools share also enable the exchange among students at all levels which are also playing an increasingly important role in globalization process. In Europe, for example, the Socrates-Erasmus Program[68] stimulates exchanges across European universities. Also, the Soros Foundation[69] provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. Some scholars argue that, regardless of whether one system is considered better or worse than another, experiencing a different way of education can often be considered to be the most important, enriching element of an international learning experience.[70] The global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes. This facilitates the globalization of education.

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References
[2] educate (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=educate). Etymonline.com. Retrieved on 2011-10-21. [3] See the Belgian linguistic case. [4] ICESCR, Article 13.1 [6] Education World: Fine Arts (http:/ / www. educationworld. com/ standards/ national/ arts/ index. shtml) [8] UNESCO, Education For All Monitoring Report 2008, Net Enrollment Rate in primary education [23] ICT in Education [25] Whyte, Cassandra Bolyard (1989) Student Affairs-The Future.Journal of College Student Development, v30 n1 p8689. [27] Open University of the United Kingdom (http:/ / www. open. ac. uk) Official website [28] Indira Gandhi National Open University (http:/ / www. ignou. ac. in) Official website [31] Thomas Armstrong's website (http:/ / www. thomasarmstrong. com/ multiple_intelligences. htm) detailing Multiple Intelligences [34] Swassing, R. H., Barbe, W. B., & Milone, M. N. (1979). The Swassing-Barbe Modality Index: Zaner-Bloser Modality Kit. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser. [35] Barbe, W. B., & Swassing, R. H., with M. N. Milone. (1979). Teaching through modality strengths: Concepts and practices. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser, [40] How the world's best-performing school systems come out on top (http:/ / www. mckinsey. com/ App_Media/ Reports/ SSO/ Worlds_School_Systems_Final. pdf). mckinsey.com. September 2007 [43] Webb, DL, A Metha, and KF Jordan (2010). Foundations of American Education, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill, pp. 7780, 192193. [48] David Card, "Causal effect of education on earnings," in Handbook of labor economics, Orley Ashenfelter and David Card (Eds). Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1999: pp. 18011863 [49] James J. Heckman, Lance J. Lochner, and Petra E. Todd., "Earnings functions, rates of return and treatment effects: The Mincer equation and beyond," in Handbook of the Economics of Education, Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch (Eds). Amsterdam: North Holland, 2006: pp. 307458. [52] Geoffrey Blainey; A Very Short History of the World; Penguin Books, 2004 [55] Robinson, K.: Schools Kill Creativity (http:/ / www. ted. com/ talks/ ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity. html). TED Talks, 2006, Monterrey, CA, USA. [58] http:/ / www. bls. gov/ opub/ ooq/ 2006/ fall/ oochart. pdf [60] Schofield, K. (1999). The Purposes of Education (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20020214072003/ http:/ / www. aspa. asn. au/ papers/ eqfinalc. PDF), Queensland State Education [61] Liesbet Steer and Geraldine Baudienville 2010. What drives donor financing of basic education? (http:/ / www. odi. org. uk/ resources/ details. asp?id=4755& title=funding-basic-education) London: Overseas Development Institute. [62] news room/latest news/press_releases/2010/2010_02_23_AEW_launch_en (http:/ / www. transparency. org/ news_room/ latest_news/ press_releases/ 2010/ 2010_02_23_aew_launch_en). Transparency.org (23 February 2010). Retrieved on 2011-10-21. [63] de Grauwe, A. 2009. Without capacity, there is no development. Paris: UNESCO-IIPE (http:/ / www. iiep. unesco. org/ en/ capacity-development/ capacity-development-strategies/ synthesis. html). [65] nabuur.com (http:/ / www. nabuur. com/ ) [67] Baker, David P., and Gerald K. LeTendre. "World Culture and the Future of Schooling." The Globalization Reader. By Frank J. Lechner and John Boli. 4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. 245-46. Print

External links
Education (http://www.dmoz.org/Reference/Education//) at the Open Directory Project Educational Resources (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/edresour.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs UNESCO Institute for Statistics: International comparable statistics on education systems (http://stats.uis. unesco.org/ReportFolders/ReportFolders.aspx?CS_referer=&CS_ChosenLang=en) OECD education statistics (http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=RPERS) Child and Teacher Educational (http://www.kireetjoshiarchives.com/education/) from Kireet Joshi Planipolis: a portal on education plans and policies (http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/basic_search.php) IIEP Publications on Education Systems (http://www.iiep.unesco.org/information-services/publications/ search-iiep-publications.html)

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Videos
The Meaning of Educational Quality (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S7HVfxq4l-8)

Educology
The term educology means the fund of knowledge about the educational process.[1] Educology consists of discourse about education. The discourse is made up of warranted assertions, valid explanatory theories and sound justificatory arguments about the educational process. This conception of educology derives from the common usage of the term by educologists in articles, journals and books published since the 1950s.[2]

Use from the 1950s through the 1970s

The term educology has been in use in the English language since the seminal work in educology by Professor Lowry W. Harding[3] at Ohio State University in the 1950s and Professor Elizabeth Steiner [Maccia][4] and her husband, Professor George Maccia,[5] at Indiana University in the 1960s. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, John B. Biggs[6] and Rachel Elder [7] coined the term independently of Harding, Steiner and Maccia. Other researchers in the English speaking world who worked on clarifying the implications of the concept of educology in the 1970s and 1980s included James E. Christensen,[8] James E. Fisher,[9] David E. Denton,[10] Diana Buell Hiatt,[11] Charles M. Reigeluth and M. David Merrill,[12] James F. Perry,[13] Marian Reinhart,[14] Edmund C. Short,[15] John Walton,[16] Catherine O. Ameh,[17] Laurie Brady,[18] Berdine F. Nel,[19] Maryann J. Ehle[20] and others.[21]

Developments since the 1980s

In Europe, important work on clarification of the concept of the term educology in the 1980s and 1990s was done by Anton Monshouwer,[22] Theo Oudkerk Pool,[23] Wolfgang Brezinka,[24] Nikola Pastuovic[25] and in the 2000s by Birgitta Qvarsell,[26] Kestutis Pukelis and Izabela Savickiene[27] and Sharon Link.[28] One of the most important recent contributions to educology has been by Theodore E. Frick of Indiana University, Bloomington.[29] The International Journal of Educology (initially published in Australia and later in the USA) commenced publication in 1987, and it continues in electronic form into the present.[30] The IJE has been an important forum for the clarification and extension of educology, with the publication of over 100 refereed articles in educology over a period exceeding 20 years. Some universities have adopted the term for their publications, e.g. the University of Illinois[31] and Indiana University.[32] Other universities have used the concept of educology for institutional organization and curriculum arrangements. Since the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, some universities in the Baltic countries and elsewhere in Europe have established departments and faculties of educology and offer courses and degrees in educology. They include Siauliai University (Lithuania), Vilnius Pedagogical University (Lithuania), Vytautas Magnus University (Lithuania), Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania), Kaunas University of Medicine (Lithuania), Klaipda University (Lithuania), Tallinn University (Estonia), Stockholm University (Sweden), University of Presov (Slovakia)[33] and Comenius University in Bratislava (Slovakia).[34] In addition to academic institutions, some proprietary concerns have adopted the term in either the name of their businesses or in their publications.[35]

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Derivation
The term educology derives from the term education and the suffix -logy. The term was coined to dispel the confusion caused by using the term education to name the process of teaching, studying and learning under guidance, and calling knowledge about the educational process by the same name, education.[36] A range of arguments for the use of the term educology has been developed over the past fifty years and more. Some have argued that the term educology should be used to name only philosophy of education, or only theory of education,[37] or only scientific knowledge about education (science of education)[38] or only knowledge about effective practices in education (praxiological knowledge, also spelled praxeology).[39][40] The prevailing and generally accepted argument which has emerged out of the discourse among educologists over the last half of the 20th century is that the term educology names the entire fund of knowledge about education including theoretical, philosophical, scientific and praxiological knowledge.[2]

Argument for the term "educology"

Within common usage of the English language and also within special usages (i.e. technical usages) of that language, several terms are used to name the fund of recorded knowledge about education. Included among those terms are pedagogy, andragogy,[41] ethology,[42] Education, Education Studies, Professional Education and psychopedagogy.[43] However, educologists argue that one term performs the job of naming the fund of knowledge about education even better than these seven: educology.[44][45][46] Educologists maintain that the term educology suits the job best for three compelling reasons: 1. It names nothing less than the fund of knowledge about education. 2. It names nothing more than the fund of knowledge about education. 3. It prevents conceptual conflation of (a) the educational process with (b) recorded propositional knowledge about that process. Educologists argue that the concept of educology implies the inclusion of the entire fund of recorded propositional knowledge about the entire process, from nascence to senescence. It is not limited only to knowledge about the education of children (pedagogy)[47] or to that of male adults (andragogy). It is not recorded knowledge about processes other than education, such as knowledge about character development (ethology)[48] or a combination of psychological knowledge and knowledge about the practice of teaching (psychopedagogy). The name educology eliminates the ambiguity which is created by naming the process of guided study with the term education and naming the fund of recorded propositional knowledge about that process with the same term education. Educologists demonstrate the power of the term educology to dispel ambiguity through techniques such as word substitution in sentences. For example, the practice of capitalizing the term education and of adding the term professional to the term education are attempts to remove ambiguity. Educologists argue that the use of these two terms (Education and Professional Education) are not nearly as cogent in dispelling the ambiguity as is the use of the term educology. This can be illustrated with, for example, the sentence, In their [education] to qualify as primary school teachers, students study some psychology, sociology and [education]. The ambiguity created in the meaning of the sentence can be reduced with some substitutions for the term education. 1. In their [study under guidance] to qualify as primary school teachers, students study some psychology, sociology and [Education]. 2. In their [study under guidance] to qualify as primary school teachers, students study some psychology, sociology and [Professional Education].

Educology 3. In their [study under guidance] to qualify as primary school teachers, students study some psychology, sociology and [educology]. Educologists argue that each of the term substitutions reduces the ambiguity progressively. The third term substitution, educology for education, reduces the ambiguity altogether, removes the anomalies in conventions for capitalization and conforms with the convention for naming funds of knowledge with the suffix -logy: for example, psychology from psyche (mind) plus -logy (knowledge about); sociology from society plus logy (knowledge about); educology from education plus logy (knowledge about). Educologists maintain that there are at least three compelling reasons for creating new terms in discourse about the educational process. 1. A new term is indicated when a new meaning arises for which there is no satisfactory existing term. 2. It is indicated when a meaning is misnamed by current usage. 3. A new term is called for when current usage is ambiguous. Educologists conclude that the case for the term educology is supported by all three reasons. The term education functions ambiguously to name the process and also to name warranted assertions about the process. To educologists, it is a misnomer to name warranted assertions about the educational process with the term education. It is like using the term animals to name zoology. It is a category mistake. The term educology names a new meaning for which there is no satisfactory existing term. It names, and only names, and names nothing more than, nor less than, knowledge about education.[2]

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Educational discourse and educological discourse

Educologists recognize that there is discourse in education and discourse about education.[] Discourse in education occurs in the form of talk and writing within the educational process. Discourse in education is one of many phenomena within the educational process. Discourse about education, when it is sound, well founded and warranted, is educology. These two categories of discourse are illustrated in Table 1.
Example of discourse in education (educational discourse) Example of discourse about education (educological discourse)

The scenario is that Mark is a single parent who This is an educological analysis of the conversation between Mark and Bronwyn. lives in Los Angeles. He works as an insurance adjuster. He has one child, a daughter, Bronwyn, who is just over two years old. Here is a conversation between them.

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Bronwyn: Cat! Cat! Mark: Did you see the cat? Daddy doesn't see the cat. Where is it? Bronwyn: Cat gone. All gone. Mark: Daddy doesn't see the cat. Did the cat go away? Bronwyn: See cat! Mark: Where did the cat go? Drink your juice now. Bronwyn: Juice! Mark: That's right, drink your juice. Bronwyn: Drink? Cat! Cat! Mark: Finish your juice. Bronwyn: Finish. Juice all gone. Mark: Good. You've finished your juice. Your juice is all gone.

From an educological viewpoint, the conversation between Bronwyn and Mark is typical of the educational process. The episode has all of the distinguishing characteristics of an educational event or episode. 1. Bronwyn is playing the role of student. 2. Mark is playing the role of teacher. 3. The content which Bronwyn is studying under guidance and Mark is teaching is the syntax (order), semantics (meaning) and grammar (inflections) of the English language. 4. The setting is the physical milieu of the home, the social milieu of the single parent family, and the cultural milieu of urban America. 5. The teaching methods which Mark uses include modeling, asking questions and giving directives. Bronwyn's sentences are much shorter than Mark's one, two or three words. Mark extends the sentences and puts in all of the words required for correct grammatical, syntactical and semantic use of the language. This provides a model for Bronwyn to imitate, reduce, reconstruct and transform into new sentences. 6. Bronwyn's study methods include imitation, practice, reduction, reconstruction and transformation. 7. Mark's teaching style is fatherly, caring and supportive. 8. Bronwyn's study style is natural, unselfconscious and spontaneous. The activities of teaching. Mark does his teaching as a matter of course, without being selfconscious of his teaching. Educologically, this is significant because it illustrates that it is possible to act intentionally without being fully selfconscious the whole time of the intentionality. This occurs especially when the intentional action has become integrated into a [49] person's patterns of conduct and thought in the form of habits. The activities of studying. The same is true of Bronwyn's studying under guidance. Intentional, unselfconscious performances are what Bronwyn and Mark are undertaking with each other in the studying and teaching of language. Methods and intentions in teaching. It is part of Mark's set of habits to expand what Bronwyn says into full, syntactically, grammatically and semantically correct sentences. His intention is to help Bronwyn to develop her ability to make such sentences, even though he may not be selfconscious of his intentionality because it has become habit. Methods and intentions in studying. In turn, Bronwyn accepts his guidance and uses it, sometimes unselfconsciously and sometimes consciously, to signify meaning with her words. All of the elements for an educational transaction are present: teacher, student, content and setting, including physical, social and cultural. Unofficial vs. official education. Mark and Bronwyn are engaged in unofficial (vs. official) education. There is no written lesson plan, instructional program, syllabus, curriculum, assessment or certification of achievement. There are no licensed teachers, principals or superintendents. The conversation is an unofficial educational episode involving a parent and child.

Table 1: Example of educational discourse and educological discourse

Study, education, and educology

From an educological perspective, the process of education is a process of teaching and studying some content within some setting with the intention that something worthwhile and valuable will be learned. Again, from an educological perspective, studying is the set of activities one undertakes to learn something.[50] Study can be done independently, outside of the educational process, without the guidance of a teacher. And it can be undertaken under the guidance of a teacher, within the educational process. Education is a process about which one can conduct inquiry and research. Educology is the fund of knowledge which is produced from well disciplined and successful inquiry and research about the process.[51] Educology is not the study of education because educology is not an activity. Study is. One can study educology, i.e. undertake activities to learn knowledge about education.[52] But the activity of studying about education is not the

Educology fund of knowledge about education. The study of education (i.e. undertaking study about the educational process), if conducted as serious, well disciplined inquiry and research, can produce educology. The study of educology (i.e. undertaking study about the fund of knowledge about education), conducted independently or conducted under the guidance of a teacher, can lead a student to learn about education and develop an understanding of education.[53]

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Disciplines requisite for producing educology

Educology is a fund of knowledge, not a discipline. But educologists use a set of disciplines to produce educology. The set of disciplines requisite for producing educology includes the sets of techniques and rules which are necessary for conducting at least three categories of inquiry and research:[] 1. analytic inquiry and research, which requires the use of the principle of necessity reasoning, 2. normative inquiry and research, which requires the use of the principle of normative or evaluative reasoning,[] and 3. empirical inquiry and research (including experimental and non-experimental research), which requires the use of the principle of observation (including extrospection and introspection). Educologists use the term process of inquiry to mean the same as the process of asking questions, formulating answers to those questions and presenting necessary and sufficient evidence to warrant that the answers which are formulated are necessarily true, in the case of analytic educological facts, or very highly probably true, in the case of empirical educological facts, or are valid, sound and fruitful, in the case of educological explanatory theories and educological justificatory arguments.[]

The educological perspective

The educological perspective is inclusive of the following perspectives in discourse about the educational process or about aspects of the educational process: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. the scientific perspective (characterizing what is); the praxiological perspective (characterizing what is effective); the historical perspective (characterizing what has been); the jurisprudential perspective (characterizing what is legally allowed, prohibited and required); the analytic philosophical perspective (characterizing meanings of terms and sentences); the normative philosophical perspective (characterizing what is good, desirable, ethical and sound).

Educologists use one, or a selection and sometimes all of these perspectives in their inquiry. For example, in conducting inquiry about secondary education, educologists typically address the questions of: 1. What is secondary education? (an analytic philosophical educological question) 2. What is good secondary education? (a normative philosophical educological question) 3. What are current and prevailing practices and states of affairs in secondary education? (a scientific educological question) 4. What are effective practices which achieve desired results in secondary education? (a praxiological educological question) 5. What have been past practices and states of affairs in secondary education? (a historical educological question) 6. What laws, rules and regulations govern secondary education? (a jurisprudential educological question) Well founded and warranted answers to these questions are all part of the educology of secondary education.[54]

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Education as the dependent variable

In contrast to other viewpoints (in the sense of arrangements of discourse, e.g. sociology, anthropology, psychology), the educological perspective treats the educational process as the dependent variable, and it is used to conduct research and inquiry about the effects of other factors, such as social settings, economic activity and political attitudes, upon the educational process.[] Of course, regardless of how a field of phenomena is described or characterized, that field remains unchanged. Spoken or written discourse about the way a plant uses sunlight, water and soil to grow does not affect the plant in its use of those things. We can use spoken or written discourse, however, to take effective action in relation to a plant to influence its growth. And so it is with the different arrangements of discourse (or viewpoints) about the educational process. None of the arrangements (sociology, anthropology, psychology, educology, etc.) changes the form and function of the educational process. All can be used to take some kind of action in relation to the educational process to achieve some intended outcome or desired goal, aim, objective or state of affairs.[]

The domain of educology

The domain or territory of educology is the set of all phenomena within the educational process. Inquiry and research from an educological perspective is undertaken about this set of phenomena with the intention of producing warranted assertions, or knowledge, about education. Part of the domain or territory of educology is represented in the following table.[55]
Educational process Levels of the educational process 1. Early childhood 2. Primary 3. Secondary 4. Adult, further, tertiary Basic components of education 1. 2. 3. 4. Teacher Student Content Milieu Derivative components of education 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Intentions Strategies Methods Styles Resources Language Curriculum Intentions Strategies Methods Styles Resources Language Curriculum Basic processes in education 1. Teaching 2. Studying 3. Learning Processes closely related to education 1. Human development 2. Socialization 3. Enculturation 4. Counseling

Official education: Conducted in schools, academies, colleges, institutes & universities with written lesson plans, instructional programs, syllabii, curricula, assessments or certifications of achievement, licensed teachers, enrolled students, principals, superintendents, boards of trustees or governors Unofficial education: Conducted outside of schools, academies, colleges, institutes & universities and without written lesson plans, instructional programs, syllabii, curricula, assessments or certifications of achievement, licensed teachers, enrolled students, principals, superintendents, boards of trustees or governors

1. Early childhood 2. Middle childhood 3. Adolescence 4. Early adulthood 5. Middle adulthood 6. Senescence

1. 2. 3. 4.

Teacher Student Content Milieu

1. Teaching 2. Studying 3. Learning

1. Human development 2. Socialization 3. Enculturation 4. Counseling

Table 2: Categories of phenomena within the educational process for educological inquiry

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Logic, techniques and products of educological inquiry

The relationship between educological inquiry and educology is the relationship between a process and its product. Educological inquiry uses a logic of inquiry and a set of techniques of inquiry to produce a set of products of inquiry.[2] Logic of inquiry. The set of disciplines which is used in the verification of statements (i.e. the warranting of assertions) is the logic of an inquiry. At least three principles of verification are used in educological inquiry. 1. Principle of necessity reasoning. There is the principle of necessity reasoning, in which the logic requires that a statement be judged true (i.e. warranted) when it is necessarily implied by a set of premises (i.e. a set of preceding statements). The principle of necessity reasoning is the same as the principle of deduction. 2. Principle of evaluative reasoning. There is the principle of evaluative reasoning, in which the logic requires that a statement be judged true when it is necessarily implied by a set of criteria (i.e. standards or rules or both). In addition, those criteria must be consistent with a set of values or norms to which all persons can reasonably adhere if they were in the same set of circumstances. The principle of evaluative reasoning is the same as the principle of evaluation or the principle of normative reasoning.[] 3. Principle of observation. In addition to deduction and evaluation, there is the principle of observation, in which the logic requires that a statement be judged true (i.e. an assertion be affirmed as warranted) if it is consistent with observable evidence (i.e. evidence which can be adduced by extrospection and/or introspection). Techniques of inquiry. The actual behaviors performed and the procedures followed in adducing evidence to verify a statement (warrant an assertion) are the techniques of an inquiry. Examples include conducting surveys, experimentation, drawing analogies, running simulations, locating documents, taking notes, classifying objects, defining terms, clarifying concepts, etc. Products of inquiry. The product of successful inquiry about the educational process is educology. Educology is the set of warranted assertions (i.e. statements which are judged to be true) about some aspect of the process of teaching, studying and guided intentional learning. The set can be classified into at least three categories, viz. analytic, normative and empirical knowledge. Discipline for forming educology. The logic and techniques for conducting inquiry about the educational process constitute the discipline requisite for conducting sound and productive educological research and inquiry, including retro-search, re-search and neo-search.[] The product of sound, well disciplined and fruitful educological inquiry is educology.[2] (See Table 3.)
Kind of inquiry Analytic educological inquiry Logic of inquiry Principle of deduction (necessity reasoning) Product of inquiry Warranted analytic assertions (analytic educology) Techniques of inquiry Conceptual analysis, propositional analysis, definition, explication, illustration, model case, contrary case, borderline case, invented case, related concept, unrelated concept, practical consequences, term substitutions, subscripts, invented terms, statistical analyses (analysis of variance, correlation, etc.) Value clarification, value validation, value vindication, rational value choice

Normative educological inquiry

Principle of evaluation (evaluative reasoning)

Warranted normative assertions (normative educology) Warranted empirical assertions (empirical educology)

Empirical educological inquiry

Principle of observation (extrospection and introspection)

Survey, experimentation, quasi-experimentation, analogy, unobtrusive measures, case studies, participant observation, systematic observation, simulations, ethnographies, naturalistic studies

Table 3: The discipline requisite for producing educology

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Critical categories for arrangement of educology into subfunds

From an educological point of view, three categories which are critical for the arrangement of the product of educological inquiry and research are: (1) the phenomena about which inquiry is conducted; (2) the purpose of the inquiry and (3) subfunds of educology.[2] Phenomena of inquiry. The something which is investigated in the act of research (including retro-search, re-search and neo-search)[] is the set of phenomena being inquired about, or the phenomena of inquiry, or the object of knowledge. Phenomena in the educational process can be classified into many categories. Seven of the critical categories are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. implications of educational discourse (discourse within education), worthwhile policies, practices, goals and states of affairs for and within education, education in past times and ages, existing educational phenomena, effective educational practices, effective administration, leadership and governance practices for education legal language which guides and regulates education.

Purpose of inquiry. The intended outcome of an inquiry is its purpose. At least five purposes of inquiry can be distinguished: (1) description, (2) explanation, (3) prediction, (4) prescription and (5) justification. Description is a set of statements which elucidates and characterizes a state of affairs as it exists. Explanation is a set of statements which provides reasons for why a state of affairs is as it is. Prediction is a set of statements which tells how a state of affairs will be. Prescription is a set of statements which tells what, how and when to do something in order to achieve a desired state of affairs. Justification is a set of statements which presents a coherent argument about why a state of affairs is good or bad, better or worse, ethical or inethical, valuable or worthless. Subfunds of educology. An arrangement of educological assertions in relation to a nominated set of purposes and a specified set of features within the educational process constitutes a subfund of educology. At least seven major subfunds of educology can be distinguished. They include 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. analytic philosophical educology normative philosophical educology historical educology scientific educology praxiological educology political praxiological educology jurisprudential educology

Other arrangements, of course, are possible. Examples include the 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. educology of gender equity educology of moral judgment educology of motivation educology of play educology of social class educology of social justice educology of women

These other arrangements typically include (1) analytic philosophical, (2) normative philosophical, (3) historical, (4) scientific, (5) praxiological, (6) political praxiological and (7) jurisprudential educology within them. For example, the educology of women implies all seven subfunds. (See Table 4.)

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Subfund of educology

Phenomena of inquiry (phenomena inquired about or object of inquiry) All discourse within education

Purpose of inquiry

Analytic philosophical educology

Description, explanation, prediction, prescription, justification of discourse within education, Description, explanation, prediction, prescription, justification of intrinsically and extrinsically good states of affairs for and within education Description, explanation, justification of education in past times and ages Description, explanation, prescription and justification of legal discourse which guides and regulates education Description, explanation, prediction of educational phenomena Description, explanation, prediction, prescription, justification of effective educational practices Description, explanation, prediction, prescription, justification of effective administration, leadership and governance practices for education

Normative Intrinsically and extrinsically good and bad philosophical educology states of affairs for and within education

Historical educology

Education of past times and ages

Jurisprudential educology Scientific educology

Legal discourse which guides and regulates education Extant educational phenomena

Praxiological educology Effective educational practices

Political praxiological educology

Effective administration, leadership and governance practices for education

Table 4: Critical categories for arranging educology into subfunds of educology

Four meanings of the term philosophy of education

At least four meanings of the term philosophy of education can be distinguished: 1. analytic philosophy of education, or the fund of knowledge about meanings of concepts and propositions in educational discourse, or discourse within the educational process (this subfund of educology is analytic philosophical educology); 2. normative philosophy of education, or the fund of knowledge about worthwhile states of affairs in the educational process (this subfund of educology is normative philosophical educology); 3. analytic philosophy of educology, or the fund of knowledge about the meanings of concepts and propositions in educological language, or language about education; 4. normative philosophy of educology, or the fund of knowledge about worthwhile states of affairs in educology (in discourse about education). The first two are subfunds of educology. The third and fourth are knowledge about educology, not about education. Therefore, they are meta-educology, or knowledge about knowledge about education.[56] Analytic philosophy of education (or analytic philosophical educology) is an arrangement of warranted assertions which describes and characterizes the necessary implications of concepts and propositions used in discourse within the process of education. The theorizing of James Gribble, George F. Kneller, John B. Magee, Gilbert Ryle, Israel Scheffler and B. Othanel Smith, for example, exemplifies analytic philosophy of education, or analytic philosophical educology.[57] Relevant to the explication of philosophy of education is the concept of language of education. The term functions ambiguously. It can mean (1) language or discourse which occurs within the process of teaching and studying, and it can also mean (2) language or discourse which is about the process of teaching and studying. In its first sense, language of education means language in education. In its second sense, it means language about education. These two senses can be distinguished by subscripts: 1. [language of education]1 is language in education; 2. [language of education]2 is language about education.

Educology What people say while engaged in the role of teaching or in the role of studying under guidance are examples of [language of education]1 or language in education. Educology is [language of education]2 or language about education. Educology is only that language or discourse about education which is warranted with evidence. Obviously not all discourse (or assertions) about education is warranted with evidence.[] Normative philosophical educology is the same as normative knowledge about education or normative philosophy of education. This arrangement of educology again requires the use of the three disciplines (analytic, normative, empirical). Questions of what is desirable and undesirable for and in the educational process (normative questions) lead on to questions of meaning (analytic questions) and questions of the actual consequences of actions or practices (empirical questions). To settle normative questions competently, one must also be able to settle questions of meaning and questions of actual consequences. Normative philosophical educology addresses questions such as, 1. Is an inquiry approach to the teaching of natural sciences an intrinsically better one than an expository approach? 2. Should corporal punishment be banished from schools? Normative philosophy of education (or normative philosophical educology) describes and characterizes that which has worth in education. The theorizing of Ernest Bayles, John Dewey and John Butler, for example, exemplifies normative philosophy of education, or normative philosophical educology.[58] Normative philosophical educology is part of educology. It is a subfund of educology. Its focus is upon desirable and undesirable or relatively desirable and undesirable states of affairs, relationships, entities, practices, situations and the like within the educational process (and for the educational process). Normative philosophical educology is closely related to philosophy of education, but it is not identical with it. Often the term philosophy of education is used without distinguishing between normative and analytic philosophy. This usage conflates different arrangements of knowledge.[] Philosophy of educology. Given the distinction between two senses of language of education, a third meaning of philosophy of education is possible to distinguish. Language about education can be an object of inquiry, or something about which inquiry can be conducted. It can be analyzed, and true statements about it can be produced. This set of true statements, or warranted assertions, constitutes a fund of knowledge. That fund includes the logic, epistemology, ethics and praxiology of making warranted assertions about the educational process. The fund includes that which is named by the term research methods or research methodologies, because research methodologies about the educational process are included in the praxiology of educology (vs. the praxiology of education).[2][59] In common usage discourse about education, the logic and epistemology of forming warranted assertions about the educational process is called philosophy of education, because in common usage, the term education names (1) the teaching and studying process and (2) knowledge about that process. But a name which more adequately characterizes the fund is the term philosophy of educology. The substitution of the term educology for the term education in the name philosophy of education (making it philosophy of educology) clarifies the point that the object of knowledge (i.e. that which the knowledge describes, characterizes and explains) is language (discourse) about education. Philosophy of educology includes analytic philosophy of educology and normative philosophy of educology.[]

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Educology

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Educology and meta-educology

In addition to educological inquiry and subfunds of educology, there is meta-educological inquiry and meta-educology. There is language (or discourse) within the educational process (what teachers say to students and vice versa) and language (or discourse) about the educational process (what is said about teachers and students). There can be warranted assertions about the educational process, i.e. verified statements about teachers and students. There can also be warranted assertions about what is said about teachers and students, i.e. verified statements about statements about the educational process. Warranted assertions about the educational process are educology. Warranted assertions about statements about the educational process are meta-educology.[2] The statement, Compulsory schooling is a requirement which all contemporary nations have stipulated in law is an example of educology. In contrast, the statement, The statement, "Compulsory school is a requirement which all contemporary nations have stipulated in law," requires verification by examining the statutes of every nation is an example of meta-educology. It is a warranted assertion about a statement about education. Meta-educological inquiry. Meta-educological inquiry includes asking and answering questions (with the necessary and sufficient evidence) about (1) the necessary implications, (2) the value and worth and (3) the attribution and provenance of discourse about the educational process. Thus, at least three categories of meta-educological inquiry can be distinguished: (1) analytic, (2) normative and (3) empirical.[] Analytic meta-educological inquiry requires the use of the principle of deduction (necessity reasoning) as its logic of inquiry. It produces warranted analytic meta-statements as its product of inquiry. Its techniques of inquiry include concept isolation, propositional isolation, concept analysis, propositional analysis, definition (including classificatory, synonymy, equivalent expression definition), identification of definition functions (including reportive, stipulative, programmatic functions), explication, model case, contrary case, borderline case, invented case, related concept, unrelated concept, term substitution, subscripts, invented terms, social context technique, result in language technique, practical results technique.[] Its phenomena of inquiry (phenomena about which inquiry is conducted) are all of the sets of discourse about the educational process. Its purpose of inquiry is description and explanation of the implications of all discourse about the educational process.[] The statement, The statement, "Individualization is instruction that is adapted to individual needs . . .," is an analytic statement verifiable by the principle of necessity reasoning. is an example of an analytic meta-educological statement. Normative meta-educological inquiry requires the use of the principle of evaluation (evaluative reasoning) as its logic of inquiry. It produces warranted normative meta-statements as its product of inquiry. Its techniques of inquiry include value clarification, value validation, value vindication and rational value choice.[60] Its phenomena of inquiry (phenomena about which inquiry is conducted) are intrinsically and extrinsically good and bad states of affairs for and within discourse about the educational process. Its purpose of inquiry is description, explanation, prediction, prescription and justification of intrinsically and extrinsically good states of affairs for and within discourse about the educational process.[] The statement, The statement, "Individualization is instruction that is adapted to individual needs . . .," is a good statement for beginning inquiry about individualization of instruction in the educational process. is an example of a normative meta-educological statement. Empirical meta-educological inquiry requires the use of the principle of observation (extrospection) as its logic of inquiry. It produces warranted empirical meta-statements as its product of inquiry. Its techniques of inquiry include location of recorded texts, authentication of recorded texts and citation of recorded texts. Its phenomena of inquiry (phenomena about which inquiry is conducted) is extant recorded statements (i.e. texts in articles, journals, papers, books, etc.) about the educational process. Its purpose of inquiry is description, attribution and provenance of extant

Educology discourse about the educational process. The statement, The statement, "Individualization is instruction that is adapted to individual needs . . .," is found on p. 272 of The Teacher's Handbook (Dwight W. Allen & Eli Seifman, Eds., 1971). is an example of an empirical meta-educological statement. Not a subfund of educology. Meta-educology does not constitute a subfund of educology. Educology is its phenomena of inquiry, just as education is the phenomena of inquiry for educology. Educology is the set of phenomena about which meta-educological research inquires. Education is the set of phenomena about which educological research inquires. See Table 5.
Critical category Category details for analytic meta-educology Category details for normative meta-educology Normative meta-educological inquiry Principle of evaluation (evaluative reasoning) Warranted normative meta-assertions (verified normative meta-statements or normative meta-educology) Value clarification, value validation, value vindication, rational value choice Category details for empirical meta-educology Empirical meta-educological inquiry Principle of observation (extrospection) Warranted empirical meta-assertions (verified empirical meta-statements or empirical meta-educology) Location, authentication & citation of recorded texts consisting of educological statements

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Kind of inquiry

Analytic meta-educological inquiry

Logic of inquiry

Principle of deduction (necessity reasoning)

Product of inquiry Warranted analytic meta-assertions (verified analytic meta-statements or analytic meta-educology)

Techniques of inquiry

Concept isolation, propositional isolation, definition (classificatory, synonymy, equivalent expression), definitional function (reportive, stipulative, programmatic), explication, model case, contrary case, borderline case, invented case, related concept, unrelated concept, term substitution, subscripts, invented terms, social context technique, results in language technique, practical results technique All discourse about the educational process

Phenomena of inquiry (phenomena inquired about or object of inquiry) Purpose of inquiry

Intrinsically and extrinsically good and bad states of affairs for and within discourse about the educational process

Recorded text containing statements about the educational process

Description and explanation of the necessary implications of discourse about the educational process and justification for the use of terms and categories in discourse about the educational process

Description, explanation, prediction, prescription, justification of intrinsically and extrinsically good states of affairs for and within discourse about the educational process Normative meta-educology None (not a part of educology): normative meta-educology is a fund of knowledge at a second level of discourse, above and outside of educology

Description, attribution and provenance of recorded statements about the educational process

Product of inquiry Analytic meta-educology Subfund of educology None (not a part of educology): analytic meta-educology is a fund of knowledge at a second level of discourse, above and outside of educology

Empirical meta-educology None (not a part of educology): empirical meta-educology is a fund of knowledge at a second level of discourse, above and outside of educology

Table 5: Critical categories for forming analytic and normative meta-educology

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Responsibilities of educological researchers

It is the responsibility of educological researchers to be expert in both educological inquiry and meta-educological inquiry.[] Both activities are required in the task of competently making warranted assertions about the educational process. It is the educological researcher's responsibility to identify significant problems about the educational process and to solve those problems. It is also the educological researcher's obligation to clarify: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What kind of problem is being posed to solve, i.e. what logic of inquiry does the problem require? What product of inquiry does the problem imply? What techniques of inquiry does it indicate? Which phenomena of inquiry demand its focus? What purpose of inquiry does the problem serve?

To ask and answer these five questions is to undertake meta-educological research. If the educological researcher omits these questions, the researcher risks derailment at the very beginning of the inquiry. Much work can be wasted and invalid results perpetrated if an analytic question is mistaken for an empirical one, or an empirical one, for a normative one. Each kind of question implies its appropriate logic, product, techniques, phenomena and purpose of inquiry. Analytic questions must be treated as analytic questions for the results to be valid, and so it is for normative and empirical questions. This is why educological researchers, in order to do their job properly and correctly, must be able to undertake expert meta-inquiry at the second level of discourse, i.e. at the level of warranted assertions about statements about the educational process. See Table 6.
Level of discourse Level 2 discourse (discourse about educology) Level 1 discourse (discourse about education) Level 0 (no discourse) Distinguishing characteristics of the level Fund of knowledge: meta-educology (warranted assertions about statements about the educational process)

Fund of knowledge: educology (warranted assertions about the educational process)

Phenomena: education (the phenomena of teaching, studying and learning under guidance some content in some physical, social and cultural milieu)

Table 6: Education, educology and meta-educology and corresponding levels of discourse

Knowledge about education vs. knowing about education

Educologists distinguish between knowledge about education and knowing about education.[2] Knowledge is warranted assertions. Knowing is the learned ability to perform adequately in relation to some purpose and some state of affairs. Educological knowledge. Educology is an example of knowledge. It is a fund of recorded warranted assertions about the educational process. It is located in the discourse of books or any other medium suitable for recording statements, e.g. magnetic tape, microfilm, microfiche, computer memory, CDs, DVDs. Recorded propositional knowledge about the educational process is related to knowing about the educational process, but it is quite distinct from it as well.[2] Educological knowing. From an educological viewpoint, knowing is an ability which is realized (vs. potential). It is learned (vs. being inherited or being instinctual). It is an ability to perform with some intention (i.e. it is a purposeful performance). It is done in relation to some state of affairs. And the ability takes some form, or is manifested in some way (at least six forms of knowing can be distinguished). An example of knowing is that of knowing about education. Knowing about education is educological knowing. It is the learned ability to perform adequately with intention or purpose in relation to the educational process. Knowing is located within the function of people. It is their cognitive function in relation to the educational process. As students, people can study the recorded propositions in educology in order to extend their educological knowing. In doing so, they extend their cognitive

Educology function in relation to the educational process. Through their study, they might improve their function with respect to their conduct as teachers, students, counselors, coaches, trainers, mentors, curriculum developers, educational administrators and managers, or educological researchers (including retro-researchers, re-searchers and neo-searchers).[2] Extension of knowing from studying educology. As students, through their study of educology, people can extend their ability to speak purposefully and adequately about education or to speak purposefully and adequately while engaging within the process of education as a teacher, student, counselor, curriculum developer, administrator or manager. They might extend their ability to think to themselves, silently, about education, to write soundly about education, or to draw supportable and warranted inferences about education. Studying educology, under guidance or independently, is a means by which one can extend one's ability to recall educational states of affairs, anticipate educational moments, create educational occasions, or discern educational transactions.[2] Transience of knowing vs. permanence of knowledge. It is the nature of human beings that we are mortal. We all die, and our knowing dies with us. But educology does not die. While a person's cognitive function ceases with that person, recorded propositions about education remain in the recorded media. Each person who comes anew as a student to the fund of educology has the opportunity to extend her or his educological knowing. In addition, new generations, through successful educological research (retro-search, re-search, neo-search) have the opportunity to contribute to the revision and extension of the fund of warranted assertions which constitutes educology.[2]

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The range of educological knowing

Educologists distinguish at least three kinds of educological knowing. Each of the kinds may be manifested in at least six forms and at three levels. The three kinds are qualitative, quantitative and procedural knowing.[61] The six forms are linguistic, physical, physiological, imaginal, emotional and conative. The three levels are preconventional, conventional and postconventional.[62] The three kinds of knowing are distinguishable with respect to the object or states of affairs in relation to which the knowing is performed. The six forms of knowing are distinguishable with respect to the manner in which the knowing is manifested. The three levels of knowing are distinguishable with respect to the degree of expertise with which the knowing is performed. Range of knowing. The combination of kinds, forms and levels of knowing constitutes a range of knowing. A range of knowing may vary from narrowly restricted to widely extended. It is possible for a person to develop qualitative knowing without procedural or quantitative knowing. It is possible for a person to develop, for example, procedural knowing at a conventional level in a linguistic form, but not in a physical form. A wide or extensive range of knowing constitutes understanding.
Levels of knowing Kinds of knowing Forms of knowing (ways in which knowing is manifested)

Third level: postconventional knowing 1. Qualitative knowing 1. Linguistic 2. Quantitative knowing 2. Emotional 3. Performative knowing 3. Imaginal 4. Physical 5. Physiological 6. Conative Second level: conventional knowing 1. Qualitative knowing 1. Linguistic 2. Quantitative knowing 2. Emotional 3. Performative knowing 3. Imaginal 4. Physical 5. Physiological 6. Conative

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First level: preconventional knowing 1. Qualitative knowing 1. Linguistic 2. Quantitative knowing 2. Emotional 3. Performative knowing 3. Imaginal 4. Physical 5. Physiological 6. Conative

Table 7: Range of knowing as combinations of levels, kinds and forms of knowing Qualitative knowing. Qualitative knowing about education is the ability to perform adequately in relation to unique states of affairs within education. A teacher recognizes, is acquainted with and appreciates Michael's moods, motivations, aspirations and capabilities, not as an adolescent or a middle class child or a student in his 9th year of school, but as Michael, in all of his uniqueness. This is an example of a teacher's qualitative knowing. The teacher might be able to manifest this qualitative knowing of Michael in talking with Michael (linguistic knowing), in anticipating Michael's behavior (imaginal knowing), in making gestures to which Michael will respond positively (physical knowing), in having a certain set of purposes in mind for Michael (conative knowing). Qualitative knowing of education gives the knower (e.g. teacher, student, counselor, administrator, manager, curriculum developer, researcher) sensitivity for the educational process and for features within the process so that significant and important aspects of the process can be discerned and appreciated by the knower. Quantitative knowing. Quantitative knowing about education is the ability to perform adequately in relation to states of affairs within education as members of categories. A teacher can, for example, classify Michael's behavior as typical of 15 year olds. The teacher can categorize Michael's capabilities as characteristic of middle level achievers and relate his aspirations and motivations to what one might expect of middle class adolescents. The teacher might manifest this quantitative knowing in writing a report (linquistic knowing), in having a feeling of familiarity and towards Michael's behavior as typical of boys of his age (an emotional knowing), in imagining how Michael will resemble his mates in a year's time (imaginal knowing), in making gestures and managing body language towards boys of Michael's kind (physical knowing) and in forming intentions and purposes for instruction appropriate to Michael as a member of the category of male adolescents (conative knowing). Quantitative knowing gives the knower adequacy and power with respect to theory (i.e. quantitative knowing gives theoretical adequacy). The knower with quantitative knowing about education can describe and explain (i.e. theorize) about the educational process in terms of categories and classifications of features or aspects of the educational process. The knower can do this, if she or he has quantitative knowing, with necessary and sufficient evidence and sound inferences. Procedural knowing. Procedural knowing is the ability to use a set of procedures to achieve an intended result. A teacher, for example, starts class by having the children line up outside the classroom, enter the classroom in single file and take their seats as assigned seats. The teacher has learned that this set of procedures achieves an orderly entry into the room and focuses the attention of pupils upon what is to happen next in the lesson. In this example, this teacher is manifesting procedural knowing. When the teacher is giving directions, the procedural knowing is being manifested as linguistic procedural knowing. It can be manifested in gestures and body language (physical knowing), in feelings (emotional knowing), in anticipation (imaginal knowing) and in purposes and intentions (conative knowing). Procedural knowing is the basis for effective action within the educational process. Other possibilities of knowing. While the examples just given of qualitative, quantitative and procedural knowing were ones in which a teacher manifested the three kinds and six forms of knowing, other players in the educational process are capable of learning these kinds and forms of knowing about education. These include students, counselors, coaches, mentors, administrators, managers, curriculum specialists and any one interested in knowing about education from a professional viewpoint or from the viewpoint of extending one's liberal education. One can develop educological knowing as a liberal study as well as a professionial study. Levels of knowing. At least three levels of knowing are possible (preconventional, conventional and postconventional). The three levels relate to the distinctions of beginner, intermediate, expert and expert innovator.

Educology One who has preconventional knowing is just at the beginning of learning some kind and form of knowing about education. The person has not yet achieved the conventions for a set of knowing. At the conventional level, the person has learned the conventions, and the level includes both intermediate and expert performances. The postconventional level is being manifested when the knower is creating innovations which have not yet beome conventions. Innovative expert performers within the educational process and researchers who are engaged in neo-search about the educational process, if successful, are performing at the postconventional level of knowing. They are setting new standards or conventions of knowing about education.

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Educological understanding
From an educological viewpoint, understanding is the realized ability to perform intelligently and in a well informed way to resolve challenges, solve problems and achieve desired results within some state of affairs.[63] Educological understanding is an understanding of states of affairs within the educational process. More specifically, educological understanding is the realized ability to perform intelligently and in a well informed way to resolve challenges, solve problems and achieve desired results for and within the educational process. Educological understanding relates to educological knowing in that educological understanding is the achievement of some range of educological knowing at the conventional and post-conventional levels. A wide or extensive range of educological knowing at the conventional and post-conventional levels constitutes educological understanding.

The way to rational constructive action in education

Within matters educational, experience is highly prized. While it is true that experience within the educational process is important for developing educological understanding, educologists maintain that experience alone is insufficient.[2] All of us experience disease, but this does not qualify us as medical practitioners. We occupy space and exist in time, but this experience does not transform us into physicists. So it is with educological knowing. In order to develop educological understanding, one must engage in experiences with an educological perspective so that the significant and important features of the experience may be discerned, reflected upon, evaluated and appreciated educologically. In order to develop a range of knowing about education, one must, as a student, study educology in addition to having experience within the educational process. Rational constructive action within the educational process requires educological understanding. Without understanding, naive uninformed action can be taken, but not rational, well informed action. If naive uninformed action is constructive, it will be by accident, not by educological knowing. The way to rational constructive action within the educational process is through coming to know as much as one can about education from an educological perspective. Educological knowing requires study of educology, i.e. the reading and comprehension, reflection upon and intelligent action in relation to warranted assertions about the educational process. It is educology which provides concepts, propositions, facts and theory about education and cognitive structure for reasoning about education and for taking rational constructive action in and for education.

Uses of educology
Liberal and professional education. Educologists argue that educology has uses in the curriculum of liberal education as well as professional education. Liberal education is undertaken to extend one's ability to function as a free person with free will within a free and democratic society. Professional education is undertaken to function as an effective, ethical and accountable practitioner, e.g. a teacher, counsellor or mentor, within the educational process.[] Sound educological understanding provides the basis for undertaking rational, constructive action within the educational process and for engaging in sound, well informed discourse about the educational process. Through studying educology, one can develop educological understanding towards several ends, e.g. towards 1. heightened sensitivity for, to and within educational situations,

Educology 2. effective participation within educational situations (as teacher, student, counsellor, coach, manager, etc.), 3. articulation of sound theory and justificatory arguments about educational situations and 4. resolution of problems connected with educational situations. The liberal and professional uses of educology are described, explained and illustrated in a number of educological works.[2] Naming professional organizations. Another important use of educology is the naming of professional organizations whose purposes are to conduct research, produce knowledge and disseminate knowledge about the educational process. For example, the conflation of (1) object of inquiry with (2) product of inquiry is removed by making the change of name from: 1. 2. 3. 4. the American Educational Research Association to the American Educological Research Association, the Australian Association for Research in Education to the Australian Association for Research in Educology, the Comparative Education Society to Comparative Educology Society and the Society of Professors of Education to the Society of Professors of Educology.[64]

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Naming organizational units. Likewise, educology has an important use for naming organizational units whose purpose it is to teach and extend knowledge about the educational process. The use of educology in the naming of organizational units within academies, institutes, colleges and universities dispels conflation of concepts and confusion in discourse about education. For example, the name change from: 1. 2. 3. 4. college of education to college of educology, school of education to school of educology, faculty of education to faculty of educology and department of education to department of educology

removes the conflation of (1) object of inquiry with (2) product of inquiry and makes clear that the purpose of the units is to teach and study knowledge about educational phenomena and extend knowledge about the educational process.[64] Structuring programs, curricula and courses. Within organizational units of educology (university faculties, colleges, schools, departments) the six critical categories of 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. kind of inquiry logic of inquiry techniques of inquiry phenomena inquired about purpose of inquiry products of inquiry

have important applications for making decisions about 1. course titles and descriptions, 2. curriculum arrangements and 3. organization of academic staff. Use of these categories reduces the likelihood of category mistakes, nonsensical contradictions and wasteful duplication in educological programs, curricula, courses and organization of staff. The application of the six categories also increases the probability of arrangements of academic staff and curricula which have coherency, clarity and flexibility, without ambiguity or equivocation. The benefits of using the six critical categories include the likelihood of producing an organization which (1) makes sense to those whom it arranges and (2) contributes to cooperative effort towards the worthwhile goal of extending knowledge about education.[64]

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References
[2] See: [3] Lowry Harding published four works in educology. They have a light hearted tone, but there is a serious underlying message about the necessity to clarify the distinction between the educational process and knowledge about that process: [4] Elizabeth Steiner Maccia published under the names of Elizabeth Steiner and Elizabeth Steiner Maccia: [5] George Maccia made a number of important contributions to the development of educology, including: [6] Prof. John B. Biggs of Newcastle University (Australia) coined the term educology in 1975 in a paper ("Professional Development or Practice") presented to the Annual Conference of the South Pacific Association for Teacher Education (Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia) (cited in ) and used the term again in: [7] Rachel Elder coined the term educology in the late 1960s and used it in an unpublished paper written for Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development (San Francisco) "Three Educologies" (mimeographed, 1971). She used the term in the sense of ideologies about education in order to stimulate students at the University of California, Berkeley, in the activitist days of the late 1960s to clarify their own ideologies as a basis for action in the task of teaching. Elder's work is cited in [8] James Christensen's contributions included: [9] James E. Fisher's contributions to the development of educology included: [13] James F. Perry focused on praxiological educology and argued that it is one of the subfunds of educology: [17] Catherine O. Ameh has published under the names of C.O. Ameh and her married name, C.O. Anegbe: [18] Laurie Brady's contributions to the development of educology included: [21] For others who have contributed to the development of educology, see , in which more than 100 articles in educology have been published to date. [22] See [24] Of Wolfgang Brezinka's many publications, two of the most important ones in English are: [30] See [31] For example the College of Education of the University of Illinois at Chicago commenced a newsletter named Educology in 2009; see http:/ / education. uic. edu/ newsletter/ 20090401/ [32] The School of Education of Indiana University (Bloomington) maintains an educology website that lists a selection of educological reports, articles, monographs and books. See http:/ / educology. indiana. edu/ [33] See "Slovakia Cultural Profile" at http:/ / www. slovakia. culturalprofiles. net/ ?id=4116 [34] See the course catalogues of these universities. [35] For examples of not-for-profit and for-profit websites that use the term educology, see Educology at http:/ / www. era-usa. net/ and Educology Partners at https:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ educologypartners/ home/ slj2012 [36] The first publications in English to make explicit the distinction between education, the process, and educology, the knowledge about the process, were: [39] A good example of this argument is the work of John Biggs: [40] Tadeusz Kortabinski has provided a general definition and explanation of praxiology in [41] For the argument that andragogy is an appropriate name for knowledge about education, see Malcolm Knowles and K. Patricia Cross: [42] See John Stuart Mill (1846), A System of Logic, Book VI, Chapter III, Paragraph 4, for the argument for ethology. [44] The argument for the term educology as an appropriate name for knowledge about education was originally developed by Elizabeth Steiner Maccia: [45] Part of the history of the use of the term educology is recounted in [46] An exhaustive historical analysis of the concept underlying the term educology is presented in [47] The argument for the term educology over the term pedagogy is cogently stated in , and it is iterated in [48] See , pp. 50-51, for the full argument for the use of the term educology over ethology. [51] One of the best sources for a clear explication of this distinction is in [54] These distinctions are defined, explicated and illustrated in: [55] See [56] Elizabeth Steiner coined the term meta-educology and explicated its meaning in [57] See [58] See for example [61] See [62] The concepts of forms of knowing and levels of knowing are treated in more detail in [63] See [64] For detailed explanation and exemplification, see:

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Horace Mann
Horace Mann

Horace Mann Born May 4, 1796 Franklin, Massachusetts August 2, 1859 (aged63) Yellow Springs, Ohio, U.S.

Died

Resting place North Burial Ground, Providence, Rhode Island, U.S. Education Alma mater Occupation Spouse(s) Litchfield Law School Brown University College president, educator, politician Charlotte Messer Mann (d. 1832) Mary Peabody Mann Horace Jr. George Combe Benjamin Pickman Thomas Mann Rebecca Stanley Mann Stephen Mann (Brother) Louise Mann (Sister)

Children

Parents

Relatives Signature

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An article in the History of Dedham series 16351792 17931999 2000present TV and film Topics Fisher Ames Louis D. Brandeis Samuel Dexter Fairbanks House Jonathan Fairbanks Jason Fairbanks Horace Mann Mother Brook Old Avery Oak Tree Sacco and Vanzetti Horse Thief Society

Horace Mann (May 4, 1796 August 2, 1859) was an American education reformer. As a politician he served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1827 to 1833. He served in the Massachusetts Senate from 1834 to 1837. In 1848, after serving as Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education since its creation, he was elected to the US House of Representatives. Mann was a brother-in-law to author Nathaniel Hawthorne. Arguing that universal public education was the best way to turn the nation's unruly children into disciplined, judicious republican citizens, Mann won widespread approval from modernizers, especially in his Whig Party, for building public schools. Most states adopted one version or another of the system he established in Massachusetts, especially the program for "normal schools" to train professional teachers.[1] Mann has been credited by educational historians as the "Father of the Common School Movement".[2]

Early life
Education
Horace Mann was born on May 4, 1796, in Franklin, Massachusetts. His father was a Yankee farmer without much money. The son's frugal upbringing taught him habits of self-reliance and independence. From ten years of age to twenty he had no more than six weeks' schooling during any year.[] He made use of the town library. At the age of 20 he enrolled at Brown University, and graduated after three years[3] as valedictorian of his class in 1819. The theme of his oration was The Progressive Character of the Human Race.[] He then studied law for a short time at Wrentham, Massachusetts; was a tutor of Latin and Greek (18201822) and a librarian (18211823) at Brown University. He also studied during 18211823 at Litchfield Law School (the law school conducted by Judge Tapping Reeve in Litchfield, Connecticut), and in 1823, was admitted to the bar in Norfolk, Massachusetts.

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Massachusetts legislature
Mann was elected to the legislature in 1827, and in that body was active in the interests of education, public charities, and laws for the suppression of intemperance and lotteries. He established through his personal exertions the state lunatic asylum at Worcester, and in 1833 was chairman of its board of trustees. He continued to be returned to the legislature as representative from Dedham until his removal to Boston in 1833. While in the legislature he was a member and part of the time chairman of the committee for the revision of the state statutes, and a large number of salutary provisions were incorporated into the code at his suggestion. After their enactment he was appointed one of the editors of the work, and prepared its marginal notes and its references to judicial decisions. He was elected to the Massachusetts State Senate from Boston in 1833, and was its president in 18361837. As a member of the Senate, he spent time as the majority leader, and aimed his focus at infrastructure, funding the construction of railroads and canals.[4]

Marriages
In 1830, Mann married Charlotte Messer, though she died only two years later on August 1, 1832; His grief over her death never fully subsided.[5] He later married Mary Tyler Peabody.

Education reform
It was not until he was appointed secretary in 1837 of the newly created board of education of Massachusetts (the first such position in the United States) that he began the work which was to place him in the foremost rank of American educationists. Previously, he had shown no special interest in education. He was encouraged to take the job only because it was a paid office position established by the legislature. He began as secretary of the board. On entering on his duties, he withdrew from all other professional or business engagements and from politics. This led him to become the most prominent national spokesman for that position. He held this position, and worked with a remarkable intensity, holding teachers' conventions, delivering numerous lectures and addresses, carrying on an extensive correspondence, and introducing numerous reforms. Mann traveled to every school in the state so he could physically examine each school ground. He planned and inaugurated the Massachusetts normal school system in Lexington (which shortly thereafter moved to Framingham), Barre (which shortly thereafter moved to Westfield) and Bridgewater, and began preparing a series of annual reports, which had a wide circulation and were considered as being "among the best expositions, if, indeed, they are not the very best ones, of the practical benefits of a common school education both to the individual and to the state".[6] By his advocacy of the disuse of corporal punishment in school discipline, he was involved in a controversy with some of the Boston teachers that resulted in the adoption of his views. In 1838, he founded and edited The Common School Journal. In this journal, Mann targeted the public school and its problems. His six main principles were: (1) the public should no longer remain ignorant; (2) that such education should be paid for, controlled, and sustained by an interested public; (3) that this education will be best provided in schools that embrace children from a variety of backgrounds; (4) that this education must be non-sectarian; (5) that this education must be taught by the spirit, methods, and discipline of a free society; and (6) that education should be provided by well-trained, professional teachers. Mann worked for more and better equipped school houses, longer school years (until 16 years old), higher pay for teachers, and a wider curriculum. Under the auspices of the board, but at his own expense, he went to Europe in 1843 to visit schools, especially in Prussia, and his seventh annual report, published after his return, embodied the results of his tour. Many editions of this report were printed, not only in Massachusetts, but in other states, in some cases by private individuals and in others by legislatures; several editions were issued in England. In 1852, he supported the decision to adopt the Prussian education system in Massachusetts. Shortly after Massachusetts adopted the Prussian system, the Governor of New York set up the same method in twelve different New York schools on a trial basis.

Horace Mann Mann hoped that by bringing all children of all classes together, they could have a common learning experience. This would also give an opportunity to the less fortunate to advance in the social scale and education would "equalize the conditions of men." Moreover, it was viewed also as a road to social advancement by the early labor movement and as a goal of having common schools. Mann also suggested that by having schools it would help those students who did not have appropriate discipline in the home. Building a person's character was just as important as reading, writing and arithmetic. By instilling values such as obedience to authority, promptness in attendance, and organizing the time according to bell ringing helped students prepare for future employment. Mann faced some resistance from parents who did not want to give up the moral education to teachers and bureaucrats. The normal schools trained mostly women, giving them new career opportunities as teachers.[7] The practical result of Mann's work was a revolution in the approach used in the common school system of Massachusetts, which in turn influenced the direction of other states. In carrying out his work, Mann met with bitter opposition by some Boston schoolmasters who strongly disapproved of his innovative pedagogical ideas,[8] and by various religious sectarians, who contended against the exclusion of all sectarian instruction from the schools. Mann is often called "the father of American public education."[9]

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Secular nature
As the Old Deluder Satan Act and other Massachusetts School Laws attest, early education even under state control in Massachusetts had a clear religious intent. However, by the time of Mann's leadership in education, various developments (including a vibrant populist Protestant faith and increased religious diversity) fostered a secular school system with a religiously passive stance.[10] While Mann affirmed that "our Public Schools are not Theological Seminaries" and that they were "debarred by law from inculcating the peculiar and distinctive doctrines of any one religious denomination amongst us... or all that is essential to religion or to salvation," he assured those who objected to this secular nature that "our system earnestly inculcates all Christian morals; it founds its morals on the basis of religion; it welcomes the religion of the Bible; and, in receiving the Bible, it allows it to do what it is allowed to do in no other system, to speak for itself. But here it stops, not because it claims to have compassed all truth; but because it disclaims to act as an umpire between hostile religious opinions." Mann stated that this position resulted in a near-universal use of the Bible in the schools of Massachusetts and that this served as an argument against the assertion by some that Christianity was excluded from his schools, or that they were anti-Christian.[11] Mann also once stated that "it may not be easy theoretically, to draw the line between those views of religious truth and of Christian faith which is common to all, and may, therefore, with propriety be inculcated in schools, and those which, being peculiar to individual sects, are therefore by law excluded; still it is believed that no practical difficulty occurs in the conduct of our schools in this regard." Rather than sanctioning a particular church as was often the norm in many states, the Legislature proscribed books "calculated to favor the tenets of any particular set of Christians.[12]

U.S. Congress
In the spring of 1848 he was elected to the United States Congress as a Whig, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of John Quincy Adams. His first speech in that body was in advocacy of its right and duty to exclude slavery from the territories, and in a letter in December of that year he said: I think the country is to experience serious times. Interference with slavery will excite civil commotion in the South. But it is best to interfere. Now is the time to see whether the Union is a rope of sand or a band of steel. Again he said: I consider no evil as great as slavery, and I would pass the Wilmot Proviso whether the South rebel or not. During the first session, he volunteered as counsel for Drayton and Sayres, who were indicted for stealing 76 slaves in the District of Columbia, and at the trial was

Horace Mann engaged for 21 successive days in their defense. In 1850, he was engaged in a controversy with Daniel Webster in regard to the extension of slavery and the Fugitive Slave Law. Mann was defeated by a single vote at the ensuing nominating convention by Webster's supporters; but, on appealing to the people as an independent anti-slavery candidate, he was re-elected, serving from April 1848 until March 1853.

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Leadership of Antioch College and last years

In September 1852, he was nominated for governor of Massachusetts by the Free Soil Party, and the same day was chosen president of the newly established Antioch College at Yellow Springs, Ohio. Failing in the election for governor, he accepted the presidency of the college, in which he continued until his death. There he taught economics, philosophy, and theology; he was popular with students and with lay audiences across the Midwest who attended his lectures promoting public schools. Mann also employed the first woman faculty member to be paid on an equal basis with her male colleagues, Rebecca Pennell, his niece. His commencement message to the class of 1859 to "be ashamed to die until you have won some victory for humanity" is repeated to the graduating class at each commencement.[13] Antioch College was founded by the Christian Connexion which later withdrew its financial support causing the college to struggle for many years with meager financial resources due to sectarian infighting. Mann himself was charged with nonadherence to sectarianism because, previously a Congregationalist by upbringing, he joined the Unitarian Church.

Original daguerreotype of Rep. Mann (Mass.) from Mathew Brady's studio, c. 1849.

He collapsed shortly after the 1859 commencement and died that summer. Antioch historian Robert Straker wrote that Mann had been crucified by crusading sectarians. Ralph Waldo Emerson lamented what seems the fatal waste of labor and life at Antioch. Manns wife, who wrote in anguish that "the blood of martyrdom waters the spot," later disinterred his body from Yellow Springs.[14] He is buried in the North Burial Ground in Providence, Rhode Island,[15] next to his first wife, Charlotte Messer Mann. (Charlotte Messer Mann was the daughter of Asa Messer, an early president of Brown University.)

Legacy
Most historians treat Mann as the most important and beneficial leader of education reform in the antebellum period.[1][16][17][18] However, in his book, "Horace Mann's Troubling Legacy: The Education of Democratic Citizens," Bob Pepperman Taylor argues that Mann's view of civic education marginalized the role of schools in training the intellect, and links him to anti-intellectualism in American education.[19] Taylor argues, that we should view Mann's contributions to public education as something with both great strengths and inherent weaknesses.

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Horace Mann's statue stands in front of the Massachusetts State House along with that of Daniel Webster. A building of Teachers College, Columbia University is named for him. At Antioch College a monument carries his quote (now the college motto): "Be Ashamed to Die Until You Have Won Some Victory for Humanity." There are a number of schools in the United States named for Mann. Additionally, the University of Northern Colorado named the gates to their campus in his dedication, a gift of the Class of 1910.[20] The Springfield, Illinois-based Illinois Education Association Mutual Insurance Company, was renamed in honor of Mann in 1950 as the Horace Mann Educators Corporation [21].

In Maryville, Missouri; Northwest Missouri State University named their education building in honor of Horace Mann. (www.nwmissouri.edu) He has many places around the world honouring him even some schools (www.google.com/search)

~ Horace Mann ~Postage stamps and postal history of the United States#Famous Americans Series of 1940Issue of 1940

Emulation of the Prussian education system in the United States

American educators were fascinated by German educational trends. In 1818, John Griscom gave a favorable report of Prussian education. Beginning in 1830, English translations were made of French philosopher Victor Cousin's work, "Report on the State of Public Education in Prussia." Calvin E. Stowe, Henry Barnard, Horace Mann, George Bancroft and Joseph Cogswell all had a vigorous interest in German education. In 1843, Mann traveled to Germany to investigate how the educational process worked. Upon his return to the United States, he lobbied heavily to have the "Prussian model" adopted. Mann persuaded his fellow modernizers, especially those in the Whig Party, to legislate tax-supported elementary public education in their states. Indeed, most northern states adopted one version or another of the system he established in Massachusetts, especially the program for "normal schools" to train professional teachers.[22] In 1852, Mann was instrumental in the decision to adopt the Prussian education system in Massachusetts. Soon New York state set up the same method in 12 different schools on a trial basis.

Works by Mann
A Few Thoughts for a Young Man (Boston, 1850) online [23] Slavery: Letters and Speeches (1851) Powers and Duties of Woman (1853) Sermons (1861) Life and Complete Works of Horace Mann (2 vols., Cambridge, 1869) Thoughts selected from the Writings of Horace Mann (1869) The Case for Public Schools Mann, Horace. The Life and Works of Horace Mann, with introduction by his second wife, Mary Peabody Mann. online edition [24]

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References
[1] Mark Groen, "The Whig Party and the Rise of Common Schools, 18371854," American Educational History Journal Spring/Summer 2008, Vol. 35 Issue 1/2, pp 251260 [2] Thomas L. Good, 21st century education: a reference handbook (2008) p 267 [3] McFarland, Philip. Hawthorne in Concord. New York: Grove Press, 2004: 72. ISBN 0-8021-1776-7 [4] Sarah Mondale, School: The Story of American Public Education. New York: Beacon, 2001. [5] McFarland, Philip. Hawthorne in Concord. New York: Grove Press, 2004. p. 73. ISBN 0-8021-1776-7 [6] Hinsdale (1898). [7] Linda Eisenmann, Historical dictionary of women's education in the United States (1988) p 259 [9] No children need apply (http:/ / www. boston. com/ business/ articles/ 2007/ 07/ 04/ no_children_need_apply/ ), Steve Baily, Boston Globe, July 4, 2007 [10] Stephen V. Monsma, J. Christopher Soper,The Challenge of Pluralism: Church and State in Five Democracies (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LqtOyWU3D54C& pg=PA265& lpg=PA265& dq=The+ Challenge+ of+ Pluralism:+ Church+ and+ State+ in+ Five+ Democracies+ + Stephen+ V. + Monsma,+ J. + Christopher+ Soper& source=bl& ots=wnidCL4W8Z& sig=aLyLtIKKoKpOR_WKkpimlO4dc7M& hl=en& sa=X& ei=EzJ6ULjLLqqG0QGc1YDIBA& ved=0CEwQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=historical background& f=false), The United States, cp. 2, pp. 18-22 [11] Mann, Twelfth Annual Report for 1848 of the Secretary of the Board of Education of Massachusetts (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eURNAAAAcAAJ& pg=PA117& lpg=PA117& dq=inculcates+ all+ Christian+ morals;+ it+ founds+ its+ morals+ on+ the+ basis+ of+ religion& source=bl& ots=RbIlZX4EBn& sig=sumcVkUUoTY2NmrbpdTFp4YkyTw& hl=en& sa=X& ei=oQd6UOiRGNCP0QGeloD4Bg& ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=inculcates all Christian morals; it founds its morals on the basis of religion& f=false), pp. 116,177,121,122 [12] Massachusetts. Board of Education, Annual report of the Board of Education (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9S4XAAAAYAAJ& pg=RA1-PA14& lpg=RA1-PA14& dq=may+ not+ be+ easy+ theoretically,+ to+ draw+ the+ line+ between+ those+ views+ of+ religious+ truth+ and+ of+ Christian+ faith+ which+ is+ common+ to+ all,+ and+ may,+ therefore,+ with+ propriety+ be+ inculcated+ in+ schools,+ and+ those+ which,+ being+ peculiar+ to+ individual+ sects,+ are+ therefore+ by+ law+ excluded;+ still+ it+ is+ believed+ that+ no+ practical+ difficulty+ occurs+ in+ the+ conduct+ of+ our+ schools+ in+ this+ regard& source=bl& ots=Rofuw4Cyto& sig=kNWG9IT2aBmKII6Wdi0SpzjER78& hl=en& sa=X& ei=lRJ6UO_0Mcu-0QHir4GIDg& ved=0CEIQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=which are calculated to favor the tenets of any& f=false), Covering the yer 1837, pp. 14,15 [13] Antioch College (http:/ / antiochcollege. org) [14] Clark, Burton R., The Distinctive College, Adline Publishing Co., 1970, p. 16 [16] Barbara Finkelstein, "Perfecting Childhood: Horace Mann and the Origins of Public Education in the United States," Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly, Winter 1990, Vol. 13#1 pp 620 [17] Thomas C. Hunt, Moral Education in America's Schools, 2005) pp 3148 [18] R. B. Downs, Horace Mann: Champion of the Public Schools (1974) [19] Bob Pepperman Taylor, Horace Mann's Troubling Legacy (2010) [20] University of Northern Colorado official web site (http:/ / www. unco. edu/ library/ archives/ arc_photohist_BldgsandGrounds_Central_Campus. htm) [21] http:/ / www. horacemann. com [22] Mark Groen, "The Whig Party and the Rise of Common Schools, 18371854," American Educational History Journal Spring/Summer 2008, Vol. 35 Issue 1/2, pp. 251260 [23] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=yRAAAAAAYAAJ [24] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4AqdAAAAMAAJ

Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mann, Horace". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

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Further reading
Cremin, Lawrence A. American Education: The National Experience (1982). Downs, R. B. Horace Mann: Champion of the Public Schools (1974) Finkelstein, Barbara. "Perfecting Childhood: Horace Mann and the Origins of Public Education in the United States," Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly, Winter 1990, Vol. 13#1 pp 620 Hinsdale, Burke A. Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States (New York, 1898), in the Great Educators series online (http://books.google.com/books?id=KE8zI-NGCo4C&pg=PA281) Hubbell, George A. Life of Horace Mann, Educator, Patriot and Reformer (Philadelphia, 1910) Messerli, Jonathan. Horace Mann; a biography (1972) Taylor, Bob Pepperman. Horace Mann's Troubling Legacy: The Education of Democratic Citizens (University Press of Kansas; 2010). Willis, George, Robert V. Bullough, and John T. Holton, eds. The American Curriculum: A Documentary History. (Greenwood Press, 1992). 4344. Winship, Albert E. Horace Mann, the Educator (1896)

External links
Horace Mann Center at Westfield State College (http://www.wsc.ma.edu) Mann on education and national welfare (http://www.tncrimlaw.com/civil_bible/horace_mann.htm) Mann's contribution's to education (http://www25.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articles/horacemann.html) The Louise Hall Tharp papers, 19491953 (http://www.library.neu.edu/archives/collect/findaids/m37find. htm) are located in the Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department, Boston, MA.
United States House of Representatives Precededby MemberoftheU.S.HouseofRepresentatives Succeededby John Quincy Adams from Massachusetts's 8th congressional Tappan Wentworth district April 3, 1848March 3, 1853

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United States
Education in the United States
Education in the United States of America National education budget (2007) Budget $972 billion (public and private, all levels) General details Primary languages System type English Federal, state, private Literacy Male Female 99% 99%

[1]

[2] [2]

Enrollment Total Primary Secondary Post secondary 81.5 million 37.9 million1 26.1 million (20062007) 17.5 million 2 Attainment Secondary diploma Post-secondary diploma
1 2

85% 30%

[3]

Includes kindergarten Includes graduate school

Education in the United States is mainly provided by the public sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: local, state, and federal, in that order. Child education is compulsory, and there are also a large number and wide variety of higher education institutions throughout the country that one can choose to attend, both publicly and privately administered. Public education is universally available. School curricula, funding, teaching, employment, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards with jurisdiction over school districts with many directives from state legislatures. School districts are usually separate from other local jurisdictions, with independent officials and budgets. Educational standards and standardized testing decisions are usually made by state governments. The ages for compulsory education vary by state. It begins from ages five to eight and ends from ages fourteen to eighteen.[4] Compulsory education requirements can generally be satisfied by educating children in public schools, state-certified private schools, or an approved home school program. In most public and private schools, education is divided into three levels: elementary school, middle school (sometimes called junior high school), and high school (sometimes referred to as secondary education).

Education in the United States In almost all schools at these levels, children are divided by age groups into grades, ranging from kindergarten (followed by first grade) for the youngest children in elementary school, up to twelfth grade, the final year of high school. The exact age range of students in these grade levels varies slightly from area to area. Post-secondary education, better known as "college" in the United States, is generally governed separately from the elementary and high school system, and is described in a separate section below.

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History
Formal education in the United States dates from 1635, when the Boston Latin School was founded in colonial New England. Grammar schools were established in the larger cities of each colony throughout the rest of the 18th century, as well as several religious colleges. Formal education for women started with the American Revolution, and for black children with the American Civil War. However, Homeschooling remained predominant, especially in the south, until the mid-19th century (the 1840 census revealed that about 55 percent of children attended some form of primary school[5]). Government supported, free public schools for all started being established after the revolution, and expanded in the 19th century, as the results of efforts of men like Horace Mann and Booker T. Washington. By 1870, all states had free elementary schools,[6] albeit only in urban centers. As the 20th century drew nearer, states started passing laws to make schooling compulsory, and by 1910, 72 percent of children attended school. Private schools continued to spread during this time, as well as colleges andin the rural centersland grant colleges. The year of 1910 also saw the first true high schools. During the rest of the 20th century, educational efforts centered on reducing the inequality of the schooling system. The landmark Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education made the desegregation of elementary and high schools a national priority, while the Pell Grant program helped poor minorities gain access to college. Special education was made into federal law in 1975. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 made standardized testing a requirement, and in 1983, a commission was established to evaluate their results and propose a course of action. The resulting No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 was controversial and its goals proved to be unrealistic. A commission established in 2006 evaluated higher education, but its recommendations have yet to be fully implemented.

Statistics
In the year 2000, there were 76.6 million students enrolled in schools from kindergarten through graduate schools. Of these, 72 percent aged 12 to 17 were judged academically "on track" for their age (enrolled in school at or above grade level). Of those enrolled in compulsory education, 5.2 million (10.4 percent) were attending private schools. Among the country's adult population, over 85 percent have completed high school and 27 percent have received a bachelor's degree or higher. The average salary for college or university graduates is greater than $51,000, exceeding the national average of those without a high school diploma by more than $23,000, according to a 2005 study by the U.S. Census Bureau.[7] The 2010 unemployment rate for high school graduates was 10.8%; the rate for college graduates was 4.9%.[] The country has a reading literacy rate at 99% of the population over age 15,[8] while ranking below average in science and mathematics understanding compared to other developed countries.[9] In 2008, there was a 77% graduation rate from high school, below that of most developed countries.[10] The poor performance has pushed public and private efforts such as the No Child Left Behind Act. In addition, the ratio of college-educated adults entering the workforce to general population (33%) is slightly below the mean of other developed countries (35%)[11] and rate of participation of the labor force in continuing education is high.[12] A 2000s (decade) study by Jon Miller of Michigan State University concluded that "A slightly higher proportion of American adults qualify as scientifically literate than European or Japanese adults".[13]

Education in the United States

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School grades
Most children enter the public education system around ages five or six. The American school year traditionally begins at the end of August or the day after Labor Day in September, after the traditional summer recess. Children are assigned into year groups known as grades, beginning with preschool, followed by kindergarten and culminating in twelfth grade. Children customarily advance together from one grade to the next as a single cohort or "class" upon reaching the end of each school year in late May or early June. The American educational system comprises 12 grades of study over 12 calendar years of primary and secondary education before graduating, and often becoming eligible for admission to higher education.[] After pre-kindergarten and kindergarten, there are five years in primary school (normally known as elementary school). After completing five or six grades, the student will enter junior high or middle school and then senior high or high school to get the high school diploma.[] The U.S. uses ordinal numbers (e.g., first grade) for identifying grades. Typical ages and grade groupings in public and private schools may be found through the U.S. Department of Education. Generally, elementary school (K-5), middle school (6-8), and high school (9-12). However there are a rising number of variations the most popular being elementary (K-6), junior high (7-9), and senior high school (10-12).[14]Wikipedia:Link rot Many different variations exist across the country.

Education in the United States

Education in the United States

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Preschool Pre-kindergarten Pre-kindergarten Elementary school Kindergarden 1st Grade 2nd Grade 3rd Grade 4th Grade 5th Grade Middle school 6th Grade 7th Grade 8th Grade High school 9th Grade (Freshman) 10th Grade (Sophomore) 11th Grade (Junior) 12th Grade (Senior) Post-secondary education Tertiary education (College or University) Ages vary, but often 1822 (Freshman, Sophomore, Junior and Senior years) Vocational education Graduate education Adult education Ages vary Ages vary Ages vary 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 11-12 12-13 13-14 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 3-4 4-5

Students completing high school may choose to attend a college or university. Undergraduate degrees may be either associate's degrees or bachelor's degrees (baccalaureate) Community college typically offer two-year associate's degrees, although some community colleges offer a limited number of bachelor's degrees. Some community college students choose to transfer to a four-year institution to pursue a bachelor's degree. Community colleges are generally publicly funded and offer career certifications and part-time programs. Four-year institutions may be public or private colleges or universities. Most public institutions are state universities, which are sponsored by state governments and typically receive funding through some combination of taxpayer funds, tuition, private donations, federal grants, and proceeds from endowments. State universities are organized in a wide variety of ways, and many are part of a state university system. However, not all public institutions are state universities. The five service academies, one for each branch of the armed forces, are completely funded by the federal government; the academies train students (cadets or midshipmen) to be commissioned officers in exchange for a mandatory term of military service. Additionally, some local governments (counties and cities) have four-year institutions of their own - one example is the City University of New York.

Education in the United States Private institutions are privately funded and there is wide variety in size, focus, and operation. Some private institutions are large research universities, while others are small liberal arts colleges that concentrate on undergraduate education. Some private universities are nonsectarian while others are religiously affiliated. While most private institutions are non-profit, a number are for profit. Curriculum varies widely depending on the institution. Typically, an undergraduate student will be able to select an academic major or concentration, which comprises the main or special subjects, and students may change their major one or more times. Some students, typically those with a bachelor's degree, may chose to continue on to graduate or professional school. Graduate degrees may be either master's degrees (e.g., M.S., M.B.A., M.S.W.) or doctorates (e.g., Ph.D., J.D., M.D.). Academia-focused graduate school typically includes some combination of coursework and research (often requiring a thesis or dissertation), while professional school (e.g., medical, law, business) grants a first professional degree and aims to prepare students to enter a learned profession.

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Preschool
In large cities, sometimes there are private preschools catering to the children of the wealthy. Because some wealthy families see these schools as the first step toward an elite college education, there are even counselors who specialize in assisting parents and their toddlers through the preschool admissions process.[15] Increasingly, a growing body of preschools are adopting international standards such as the International Preschool Curriculum[16]

Student health
According to the National Association of School Nurses, 17% of students are considered obese and 32% are overweight.[]

Elementary and secondary education

Schooling is compulsory for all children in the United States, but the age range for which school attendance is required varies from state to state. Most children begin elementary education with kindergarten (usually five to six years old) and finish secondary education with twelfth grade (usually eighteen years old). In some cases, pupils may be promoted beyond the next regular grade. Some states allow students to leave school between 1417 with parental permission, before finishing high school; other states require students to stay in school until age 18[17]

Educational attainment in the United States, Age 25 and Over (2009)[18]

Education High school graduate Some college Associates and/or Bachelor's degree Bachelor's degree Master's degree Doctorate or professional degree Percentage 86.68% 55.60% 38.54% 29.0% 7.62% 2.94%

Most parents send their children to either a public or private institution. According to government data, one-tenth of students are enrolled in private schools. Approximately 85% of students enter the public schools,[19] largely because they are tax-subsidized [20] (tax burdens by school districts vary from area to area). There are more than 14,000 school districts in the country.[]

Education in the United States More than $500 billion is spent each year on public primary and secondary education.[] Most states require that their school districts within the state teach for 180 days a year.[21] Parents may also choose to educate their own children at home; 1.7% of children are educated in this manner.[19] Nearly 6.2 million students between the ages of 16 and 24 in 2007 dropped out of high school, including nearly three of 10 Hispanics.[22] The issue of high-school drop-outs is considered important to address as the incarceration rate for African-American male high school dropouts is about 50 (fifty) times the national average.[23] In 1971, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that forced busing of students may be ordered to achieve racial desegregation.[24] This ruling resulted in a white flight from the inner cities which largely diluted the intent of the order. This flight had other, non-educational ramifications as well. Integration took place in most schools though de facto segregation often determined the composition of the student body. By the 1990s, most areas of the country have been released from [[Desegregation busing in the United Statesmandatory busing. In 2010, there were 3,823,142 teachers in public, charter, private, and Catholic elementary and secondary schools. They taught a total of 55,203,000 students, who attended one of 132,656 schools.[25] States do not require proper reporting from their school districts to allow analysis of efficiency of return on investment. The Center for American Progress, called a "left-leaning think tank", commends Florida and Texas as the only two states that provide annual school-level productivity evaluations which report to the public how well school funds are being spent at the local level. This allows for comparison of school districts within a state.[26][27] In 2010, American students rank 17th in the world. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development says that this is due to focusing on the low end of performers. All of the recent gains have been made, deliberately, at the low end of the socioeconomic scale and among the lowest achievers. The country has been outrun, the study says, by other nations because the US has not done enough to encourage the highest achievers.[28] About half of the states encourage schools to recite the Pledge of Allegiance to the flag.[29] Teachers worked from about 35 to 46 hours a week, in a survey taken in 1993.[30] In 2011, American teachers worked 1,097 hours in the classroom, the most for any industrialized nation measured by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. They spend 1,913 hours a year on their work, just below the national average of 1,932 hours for all workers.[31] In 2011, the average annual salary of a preK-12 teacher was $55,040.[32] Transporting students to and from school is a major concern for most school districts. School buses provide the largest mass transit program in the country, 8.8 billion trips per year. Non-school transit buses give 5.2 billion trips annually. 440,000 yellow school buses carry over 24 million students to and from schools.[33] School start times are computed with busing in mind. There are often three start times: for elementary, for middle/junior high, and for high school. One school district computed its cost per bus (without the driver) at $20,575 annually. It assumed a model where the average driver drove 80 miles per day. A driver was presumed to cost $.62 per mile (1.6km). Elementary schools started at 7:30, middle schools/junior high school started at 8:15 and senior high schools at 9:00. While elementary school started earlier, they also finish earlier, at 2:25, middle schools at 3:10 and senior high schools at 3:55.[34] All school districts establish their own times and means of transportation within guidelines set by their own state.

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Education in the United States

49

Elementary school
Historically, in the United States, local public control (and private alternatives) have allowed for some variation in the organization of schools. Elementary school includes kindergarten through fifth grade (or sometimes, to fourth grade, sixth grade or eighth grade). Basic subjects are taught in elementary school, and students often remain in one classroom throughout the school day, except for physical education, library, music, and art classes. There are (as of 2001) about 3.6 million children in each grade in the United States.[35] Typically, the curriculum in public elementary A teacher and her students in an elementary school classroom education is determined by individual school districts. The school district selects curriculum guides and textbooks that reflect a state's learning standards and benchmarks for a given grade level.[] Learning Standards are the goals by which states and school districts must meet adequate yearly progress (AYP) as mandated by No Child Left Behind (NCLB). This description of school governance is simplistic at best, however, and school systems vary widely not only in the way curricular decisions are made but also in how teaching and learning take place. Some states and/or school districts impose more top-down mandates than others. In others, teachers play a significant role in curriculum design and there are few top-down mandates. Curricular decisions within private schools are made differently than they are in public schools, and in most cases without consideration of NCLB. Public Elementary School teachers typically instruct between twenty and thirty students of diverse learning needs. A typical classroom will include children with a range of learning needs or abilities, from those identified as having special needs of the kinds listed in the Individuals with Disabilities Act IDEA to those that are cognitively, athletically or artistically gifted. At times, an individual school district identifies areas of need within the curriculum. Teachers and advisory administrators form committees to develop supplemental materials to support learning for diverse learners and to identify enrichment for textbooks. Many school districts post information about the curriculum and supplemental materials on websites for public access.[36] In general, a student learns basic arithmetic and sometimes rudimentary algebra in mathematics, English proficiency (such as basic grammar, spelling, and vocabulary), and fundamentals of other subjects. Learning standards are identified for all areas of a curriculum by individual States, including those for mathematics, social studies, science, physical development, the fine arts, and reading.[] While the concept of State Learning standards has been around for some time, No Child Left Behind has mandated that standards exist at the State level. Elementary School teachers are trained with emphases on human cognitive and psychological development and the principles of curriculum development and instruction. Teachers typically earn either a Bachelors or Masters Degree in Early Childhood and Elementary Education. The teaching of social studies and science are often underdeveloped in elementary school programs. Some attribute this to the fact that elementary school teachers are trained as generalists; however, teachers attribute this to the priority placed on developing reading, writing and math proficiency in the elementary grades and to the large amount of time needed to do so. Reading, writing and math proficiency greatly affect performance in social studies, science and other content areas. Certification standards for teachers are determined by individual states, with individual colleges and universities determining the rigor of the college education provided for future teachers. Some states require content area tests, as well as instructional skills tests for teacher certification in that state.[37]

Education in the United States The broad topic of Social Studies may include key events, documents, understandings, and concepts in American history, and geography, and in some programs, state or local history and geography. Topics included under the broader term "science" vary from the physical sciences such as physics and chemistry, through the biological sciences such as biology, ecology, and physiology. Most States have predetermined the number of minutes that will be taught within a given content area. Because No Child Left Behind focuses on reading and math as primary targets for improvement, other instructional areas have received less attention.[38] There is much discussion within educational circles about the justification and impact of having curricula that place greater emphasis on those topics (reading, writing and math) that are specifically tested for improvement.[39]

50

Secondary education
As part of education in the United States, secondary education usually covers grades 6 through 9 or 10 through 12. Junior and senior high school Middle school and Junior high school include the grade levels intermediate between elementary school and senior high school. "Middle school" usually includes sixth, seventh and eighth grade; "Junior high" typically includes seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. The range defined by either is often based on demographic factors, such as an increase or decrease in the relative numbers of younger or older students, with the aim of maintaining stable school populations.[40] At this time, students are given more independence, moving to different classrooms for different subjects, and being allowed to choose some of their class subjects (electives). Usually, starting in ninth grade, grades become part of a student's official transcript.

A high school classroom in Georgia

Senior high school is a school attended after junior high school. High school is often used instead of senior high school and distinguished from junior high school. High school usually runs either from 9th through 12th, or 10th through 12th grade. The students in these grades are commonly referred to as freshmen (grade 9), sophomores (grade 10), juniors (grade 11) and seniors (grade 12). Basic curricular structure Generally, at the high school level, students take a broad variety of classes without special emphasis in any particular subject. Students are required to take a certain minimum number of mandatory subjects, but may choose additional subjects ("electives") to fill out their required hours of learning. The following minimum courses of study in mandatory subjects are required in nearly all U.S. high schools: Science (usually three years minimum, normally biology, chemistry and physics) Mathematics (usually four years minimum, normally including algebra, geometry, pre-calculus, statistics, and even calculus) English (usually four years minimum, including literature, humanities, composition, oral languages, etc.) Social sciences (usually three years minimum, including various history, government/economics courses)[] Physical education (at least two years)

Education in the United States Many states require a "health" course in which students learn about anatomy, nutrition, first aid, sexuality, drug awareness and birth control. Anti-drug use programs are also usually part of health courses. In many cases, however, options are provided for students to "test out" of this requirement or complete independent study to meet it. Foreign language and some form of art education are also a mandatory part of the curriculum in some schools. Electives Common types of electives include: Computers (word processing, programming, graphic design) Athletics (cross country, football, baseball, basketball, track and field, swimming, tennis, gymnastics, water polo, soccer, softball, wrestling, cheerleading, volleyball, lacrosse, ice hockey, field hockey, crew, boxing, skiing/snowboarding, golf, mountain biking, marching band) Career and Technical Education (Agriculture/Agriscience, Business/Marketing, Family and Consumer Science, Health Occupations, and Technology Education, including Publishing (journalism/student newspaper, yearbook/annual, literary magazine)) Performing Arts/Visual Arts, (choir, band, orchestra, drama, art, ceramics, photography, and dance) Foreign languages (Spanish and French are common; Chinese, Latin, Ancient Greek, German, Italian, Arabic, and Japanese are less common)[41] Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps Advanced courses Many high schools provide Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) courses. These are special forms of honors classes where the curriculum is more challenging and lessons more aggressively paced than standard courses. AP or IB courses are usually taken during the 11th or 12th grade of high school, but may be taken as early as 9th grade. Most post-secondary institutions take AP or IB exam results into consideration in the admissions process. Because AP and IB courses are intended to be the equivalent of the first year of college courses, post-secondary institutions may grant unit credit, which enables students to graduate earlier. Other institutions use examinations for placement purposes only: students are exempted from introductory course work but may not receive credit towards a concentration, degree, or core requirement. Institutions vary in the selection of examinations they accept and the scores they require to grant credit or placement, with more elite institutions tending to accept fewer examinations and requiring higher scoring. The lack of AP, IB, and other advanced courses in impoverished inner-city high schools is often seen as a major cause of the greatly differing levels of post-secondary education these graduates go on to receive, compared with both public and private schools in wealthier neighborhoods. Also, in states with well-developed community college systems, there are often mechanisms by which gifted students may seek permission from their school district to attend community college courses full-time during the summer, and part-time during the school year. The units earned this way can often be transferred to one's university, and can facilitate early graduation. Early college entrance programs are a step further, with students enrolling as freshmen at a younger-than-traditional age.

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52

Home schooling
In 2007, approximately 1.5 million children were homeschooled, up 74% from 1999 when the U.S. Department of Education first started keeping statistics. This was 2.9% of all children.[] Many select moral or religious reasons for homeschooling their children. The second main category is "unschooling," those who prefer a non-standard approach to education.[] Most homeschooling advocates are wary of the established educational institutions for various reasons. Some are religious conservatives who see nonreligious education as contrary to their moral or religious systems, or who wish to add religious instruction to the educational curriculum (and who may be unable to afford a church-operated private school or where the only available school may teach views contrary to those of the parents). Others feel that they can more effectively tailor a curriculum to suit an individual student's academic strengths and weaknesses, especially those with singular needs or disabilities. Still others feel that the negative social pressures of schools (such as bullying, drugs, crime, sex, and other school-related problems) are detrimental to a child's proper development. Parents often form groups to help each other in the homeschooling process, and may even assign classes to different parents, similar to public and private schools. Opposition to homeschooling comes from varied sources, including teachers' organizations and school districts. The National Education Association, the largest labor union in the United States, has been particularly vocal in the past.[42] Opponents' stated concerns fall into several broad categories, including fears of poor academic quality, and lack of socialization with others. At this time, over half of states have oversight into monitoring or measuring the academic progress of home schooled students, with all but ten requiring some form of notification to the state.[43]

Grading scale
In schools in the United States children are constantly assessed throughout the school year by their teachers, and report cards are issued to parents at varying intervals. Generally the scores for individual assignments and tests are recorded for each student in a grade book, along with the maximum number of points for each assignment. At any time, the total number of points for a student when divided by the total number of possible points produces a percent grade, which can be translated to a letter grade. Letter grades are often but not always used on report cards at the end of a marking period, although the current grade may be available at other times (particularly when an electronic grade book connected to an online service is in use). Although grading scales usually differ from school to school, the most common grade scale is letter grades"A" through "F"derived from a scale of 0100 or a percentile. In some areas, Texas or Virginia for example, the "D" grade (or that between 7060) is considered a failing grade. In other jurisdictions, such as Hawaii, a "D" grade is considered passing in certain classes, and failing in others.[citation needed]

Example Grading Scale

A + + B + C + D F or E

10097 9693 9290 8987 8683 8280 7977 7673 7270 6967 6663 6260 Below 60 Percent

Standardized testing
Under the No Child Left Behind Act, all American states must test students in public schools statewide to ensure that they are achieving the desired level of minimum education,[44] such as on the Regents Examinations in New York, or the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT), and the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS); students being educated at home or in private schools are not included. The act also requires that students and schools show "adequate yearly progress." This means they must show some improvement each year. When a

Education in the United States student fails to make adequate yearly progress, No Child Left Behind mandates that remediation through summer school and/or tutoring be made available to a student in need of extra help. Academic performance impacts the perception of a school's educational program. Rural schools fare better than their urban counterparts in two key areas: test scores and drop-out rate. First, students in small schools performed equal to or better than their larger school counterparts.[45] In addition, on the 2005 National Assessment of Education Progress, 4th and 8th grade students scored as well or better in reading, science, and mathematics.[46] During high school, students (usually in 11th grade) may take one or more standardized tests depending on their post-secondary education preferences and their local graduation requirements. In theory, these tests evaluate the overall level of knowledge and learning aptitude of the students. The SAT and ACT are the most common standardized tests that students take when applying to college. A student may take the SAT, ACT, or both depending upon the post-secondary institutions the student plans to apply to for admission. Most competitive schools also require two or three SAT Subject Tests (formerly known as SAT IIs), which are shorter exams that focus strictly on a particular subject matter. However, all these tests serve little to no purpose for students who do not move on to post-secondary education, so they can usually be skipped without affecting one's ability to graduate.[citation needed]

53

Extracurricular activities
A major characteristic of American schools is the high priority given to sports, clubs and activities by the community, the parents, the schools and the students themselves. Extracurricular activities are educational activities not falling within the scope of the regular curriculum but under the supervision of the school. These activities can extend to large amounts of time outside the normal school day; home-schooled students, however, are not normally allowed to participate. Student participation in sports programs, drill teams, bands, and spirit groups can amount to hours of practices and performances. Most states have organizations that develop rules for competition between groups. These organizations are usually forced to implement time limits on hours practiced as a prerequisite for participation. Many schools also have non-varsity sports teams; however, these are usually afforded less resources and attention. Sports programs and their related games, especially football and/or basketball, are major events for American students and for larger schools can be a major source of funds for school districts. High school athletic competitions often generate intense interest in the community. In addition to sports, numerous non-athletic extracurricular activities are available in American schools, both public and private. Activities include Quizbowl, musical groups, marching bands, student government, school newspapers, science fairs, debate teams, and clubs focused on an academic area (such as the Spanish Club) or community service interests (such as Key Club).[citation needed]

Education of students with special needs

Commonly known as special classes, are taught by teachers with training in adapting curricula to meet the needs of students with special needs. According to the National Association of School Nurses, 5% of students in 2009 have a seizure disorder, another 5% have ADHD and 10% have mental or emotional problems.[] On January 25, 2013, the Office for Civil Rights of the US Department of Education issued guidance, clarifying school districts' existing legal obligations to give disabled students an equal chance to compete in extracurricular sports alongside their able-bodied classmates.[47]

Education in the United States Educating children with disabilities The federal law, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires states to ensure that all government-run schools provide services to meet the individual needs of students with special needs, as defined by the law.[48] All students with special needs are entitled to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE). Schools meet with the parents or guardians to develop an Individualized Education Program that determines best placement for the child. Students must be placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE) that is appropriate for the student's needs. Public schools that fail to provide an appropriate placement for students with special needs can be taken to due process wherein parents may formally submit their grievances and demand appropriate services for the child.[citation needed] Criticism At-risk students (those with educational needs that aren't associated with a disability) are often placed in classes with students with minor emotional and social disabilities.[49] Critics assert that placing at-risk students in the same classes as these disabled students may impede the educational progress of both the at-risk and the disabled students.[citation needed] Some research has refuted this claim, and has suggested this approach increases the academic and behavioral skills of the entire student population.[50]

54

Public and private schools

In the United States, state and local government have primary responsibility for education. The Federal Department of Education plays a role in standards setting and education finance, and some primary and secondary schools, for the children of military employees, are run by the Department of Defense.[51] K-12 students in most areas have a choice between free tax-funded public schools, or privately funded private schools.[citation needed] Public school systems are supported by a combination of local, state, and federal government funding. Because a large portion of school revenues come from local property taxes, public schools vary widely in the resources they have available per student. Class size also varies from one district to another. Curriculum decisions in public schools are made largely at the local and state levels; the federal government has limited influence. In most districts, a locally elected school board runs schools. The school board appoints an official called the superintendent of schools to manage the schools in the district. The largest public school system in the United States is in New York City, where more than one million students are taught in 1,200 separate public schools. Because of its immense size there are more students in the system than residents in the eight smallest US states the New York City public school system is nationally influential in determining standards and materials, such as textbooks.[citation needed] Admission to individual public schools is usually based on residency. To compensate for differences in school quality based on geography, school systems serving large cities and portions of large cities often have "magnet schools" that provide enrollment to a specified number of non-resident students in addition to serving all resident students. This special enrollment is usually decided by lottery with equal numbers of males and females chosen. Some magnet schools cater to gifted students or to students with special interests, such as the sciences or performing arts.[52] Private schools in the United States include parochial schools (affiliated with religious denominations), non-profit independent schools, and for-profit private schools. Private schools charge varying rates depending on geographic location, the school's expenses, and the availability of funding from sources, other than tuition. For example, some churches partially subsidize private schools for their members. Some people have argued that when their child attends a private school, they should be able to take the funds that the public school no longer needs and apply that money towards private school tuition in the form of vouchers. This is the basis of the school choice movement.[citation needed]

Education in the United States 5,072,451 students attended 33,740 private elementary and secondary schools in 2007. 74.5% of these were Caucasian, non-Hispanic, 9.8% were African American, 9.6% were Hispanic. 5.4% were Asian or Pacific Islander, and .6% were American Indian. Average school size was 150.3 students. There were 456,266 teachers. The number of students per teacher was about 11. 65% of seniors in private schools in 2006-7 went on to attend a 4-year college.[53] Private schools have various missions: some cater to college-bound students seeking a competitive edge in the college admissions process; others are for gifted students, students with learning disabilities or other special needs, or students with specific religious affiliations. Some cater to families seeking a small school, with a nurturing, supportive environment. Unlike public school systems, private schools have no legal obligation to accept any interested student. Admission to some private schools is often highly selective. Private schools also have the ability to permanently expel persistently unruly students, a disciplinary option not legally available to public school systems. Private schools offer the advantages of smaller classes, under twenty students in a typical elementary classroom, for example; a higher teacher/student ratio across the school day, greater individualized attention and in the more competitive schools, expert college placement services. Unless specifically designed to do so, private schools usually cannot offer the services required by students with serious or multiple learning, emotional, or behavioral issues. Although reputed to pay lower salaries than public school systems, private schools often attract teachers by offering high-quality professional development opportunities, including tuition grants for advanced degrees. According to elite private schools themselves, this investment in faculty development helps maintain the high quality program that they offer.[citation needed] An August 17, 2000 article by the Chicago Sun-Times refers to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago Office of Catholic Schools as the largest private school system in the United States.[54]

55

College and university

Post-secondary education in the United States is known as college or university and commonly consists of four years of study at an institution of higher learning. There are 4,495 colleges, universities, and junior colleges in the country.[55] In 2008, 36% of enrolled students graduated from college in four years. 57% completed their undergraduate requirements in six years, at the same college they first enrolled in.[] The U.S. ranks 10th among industrial countries for percentage of adults with college degrees.[]

Alumni Hall at Saint Anselm College

Like high school, the four undergraduate grades are commonly called freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (alternatively called first year, second year, etc.). Students traditionally apply for admission into colleges. Schools differ in their competitiveness and reputation; generally, the most prestigious schools are private, rather than public. Admissions criteria involve the rigor and grades earned in high school courses taken, the students' GPA, class ranking, and standardized test scores (Such as the SAT or the ACT tests). Most colleges also consider more subjective factors such as a Suzzallo Library at University of commitment to extracurricular activities, a personal essay, and an interview. Washington While colleges will rarely list that they require a certain standardized test score, class ranking, or GPA for admission, each college usually has a rough threshold below which admission is unlikely.[citation needed]

Education in the United States

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Once admitted, students engage in undergraduate study, which consists of satisfying university and class requirements to achieve a bachelor's degree in a field of concentration known as a major. (Some students enroll in double majors or "minor" in another field of study.) The most common method consists of four years of study leading to a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), a Bachelor of Science (B.S.), or sometimes another bachelor's degree such as Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.), Bachelor of Social Work (B.S.W.), Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.,) or Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.) Five-Year Professional Architecture programs offer the Bachelor of Architecture Degree (B.Arch.)

Engineering Hall at The University of Illinois

Professional degrees such as law, medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry, are offered as graduate study after earning at least three years of undergraduate schooling or after earning a bachelor's degree depending on the program. These professional fields do not require a specific undergraduate major, though medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry have set prerequisite courses that must be taken before enrollment.[citation needed] Some students choose to attend a community college for two years prior to further study at another college or university. In most states, community colleges are operated either by a division of the state university or by local special districts subject to guidance from a state agency. Community colleges may award Associate of Arts (AA) or Associate of Science (AS) degree after two years. Those seeking to continue their education may transfer to a four-year college or university (after applying through a similar admissions process as those applying directly to the four-year institution, see Alexander Hall at Princeton University articulation). Some community colleges have automatic enrollment agreements with a local four-year college, where the community college provides the first two years of study and the university provides the remaining years of study, sometimes all on one campus. The community college awards the associate's degree, and the university awards the bachelor's and master's degrees.[citation needed] Graduate study, conducted after obtaining an initial degree and sometimes after several years of professional work, leads to a more advanced degree such as a master's degree, which could be a Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MS), Master of Business Administration (MBA), or other less common master's degrees such as Master of Education (MEd), and Master of Fine Arts (MFA). Some students pursue a graduate degree that is in between a master's degree and a doctoral degree called a Specialist in Education (Ed.S.).
Homer statue at the University of After additional years of study and sometimes in conjunction with the Virginia completion of a master's degree and/or Ed.S. degree, students may earn a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) or other doctoral degree, such as Doctor of Arts, Doctor of Education, Doctor of Theology, Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Pharmacy, Doctor of Physical Therapy, Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine, Doctor of Podiatry Medicine, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, Doctor of Psychology, or Juris Doctor. Some programs, such as medicine and psychology, have formal apprenticeship procedures post-graduation, such as residencies and internships, which must be completed after graduation and before one is considered fully trained. Other professional programs like law and business have no formal apprenticeship requirements after graduation (although law school graduates must take the bar exam to legally practice law in nearly all states).

Entrance into graduate programs usually depends upon a student's undergraduate academic performance or professional experience as well as their score on a standardized entrance exam like the Graduate Record Examination

Education in the United States (GRE-graduate schools in general), the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), or the Law School Admission Test (LSAT). Many graduate and law schools do not require experience after earning a bachelor's degree to enter their programs; however, business school candidates are usually required to gain a few years of professional work experience before applying. 8.9 percent of students receive postgraduate degrees. Most, after obtaining their bachelor's degree, proceed directly into the workforce.[56]

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Cost
A few charity institutions cover all of the students' tuition, although scholarships (both merit-based and need-based) are widely available. Generally, private universities charge much higher tuition than their public counterparts, which rely on state funds to make up the difference. Because each state supports its own university system with state taxes, most public universities charge much higher rates for out-of-state students.[citation needed] Annual undergraduate tuition varies widely from state to state, and many Study comparing college revenue per student by tuition and state funding in 2008 [57] additional fees apply. In 2009, average dollars. annual tuition at a public university (for residents of the state) was $7,020.[] Tuition for public school students from outside the state is generally comparable to private school prices, although students can often qualify for state residency after their first year. Private schools are typically much higher, although prices vary widely from "no-frills" private schools to highly specialized technical institutes. Depending upon the type of school and program, annual graduate program tuition can vary from $15,000 to as high as $50,000. Note that these prices do not include living expenses (rent, room/board, etc.) or additional fees that schools add on such as "activities fees" or health insurance. These fees, especially room and board, can range from $6,000 to $12,000 per academic year (assuming a single student without children).[58] The mean annual Total Cost (including all costs associated with a full-time post-secondary schooling, such as tuition and fees, books and supplies, room and board), as reported by collegeboard.com for 2010:[58] Public University (4 years): $27,967 (per year) Private University (4 years): $40,476 (per year) Total, four-year schooling: Public University: $111,868 Private University: $161,904 College costs are rising at the same time that state appropriations for aid are shrinking. This has led to debate over funding at both the state and local levels. From 2002 to 2004 alone, tuition rates at public schools increased over 14 percent, largely due to dwindling state funding. An increase of 6 percent occurred over the same period for private schools.[58] Between 1982 and 2007, college tuition and fees rose three times as fast as median family income, in constant dollars.[]

Education in the United States

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From the US Census Bureau, the median salary of an individual who has only a high school diploma is $27,967; The median salary of an individual who has a bachelor's degree is $47,345.[] Certain degrees, such as in engineering, typically result in salaries far exceeding high school graduates, whereas degrees in teaching and social work fall below.[citation needed] The debt of the average college graduate for student loans in 2010 was $23,200.[59] A 2010 study indicates that the "return on investment" for graduating from the top 1000 colleges exceeds 4% over a high school degree.[60]

Cost of US college education relative to the consumer price index (inflation).

According to Uni in the USA, "One of the reasons American universities have thrived is due to their remarkable management of financial resources."[61] To combat costs colleges have hired adjunct professors to teach. In 2008 these teachers cost about $1,800 per 3-credit class as opposed to $8,000 per class for a tenured professor. Two-thirds of college instructors were adjuncts. There are differences of opinion whether these adjuncts teach better or worse than regular professors. There is a suspicion that student evaluation of adjuncts, along with their subsequent continued employment, can lead to grade inflation.[62]

The status ladder

American college and university faculty, staff, alumni, students, and applicants monitor rankings produced by magazines such as U.S. News and World Report, Academic Ranking of World Universities, test preparation services such as The Princeton Review or another university itself such as the Top American Research Universities by the University of Florida's The Center.[] These rankings are based on factors like brand recognition, selectivity in admissions, generosity of alumni donors, and volume of faculty research. In global university rankings, the US dominates more than half the top 50 places (27) and has a total of 72 institutions in the top 200 table under the Times Higher Education World University Rankings.[63] It has more than twice as many universities represented in the top 200 as its nearest rival, the United Kingdom, which has 29. A small percentage of students who apply to these schools gain admission.[64] Included among the top 20 institutions identified by ARWU in 2009 are six of the eight schools in the Ivy League; 4 of the 10 schools in the University of California system; the private Universities of Stanford, Chicago, and Johns Hopkins; the public Universities of Washington and Wisconsin; and the Massachusetts and California Institutes of Technology.[65] Also renowned within the United States are the so-called "Little Ivies" and a number of prestigious liberal arts colleges. Certain public universities (sometimes referred to as "Public Ivies") are also recognized for their outstanding record in scholarship. Some of these institutions currently place among the elite in certain measurements of graduate education and research, especially among engineering and medical schools.[66][67] Each state in the United States maintains its own public university system, which is always non-profit. The State University of New York and the California State University are the largest public higher education systems in the United States; SUNY is the largest system that includes community colleges, while CSU is the largest without. Most

Education in the United States areas also have private institutions, which may be for-profit or non-profit. Unlike many other nations, there are no public universities at the national level outside of the military service academies. Prospective students applying to attend four of the five military academies require, with limited exceptions, nomination by a member of Congress. Like acceptance to "top tier" universities, competition for these limited nominations is intense and must be accompanied by superior scholastic achievement and evidence of "leadership potential." Aside from these aforementioned schools, academic reputations vary widely among the 'middle-tier' of American schools, (and even among academic departments within each of these schools.) Most public and private institutions fall into this 'middle' range. Some institutions feature honors colleges or other rigorous programs that challenge academically exceptional students, who might otherwise attend a 'top-tier' college.[68][69] Aware of the status attached to the perception of the college that they attend, students often apply to a range of schools. Some apply to a relatively prestigious school with a low acceptance rate, gambling on the chance of acceptance, and also apply to a "safety school",[70] to which they will (almost) certainly gain admission. Lower status institutions include community colleges. These are primarily two-year public institutions, which individual states usually require to accept all local residents who seek admission, and offer associate's degrees or vocational certificate programs. Many community colleges have relationships with four-year state universities and colleges or even private universities that enable their students to transfer to these universities for a four-year degree after completing a two-year program at the community college.[citation needed] Regardless of perceived prestige, many institutions feature at least one distinguished academic department, and most post-secondary American students attend one of the 2,400 four-year colleges and universities or 1,700 two-year colleges not included among the twenty-five or so 'top-tier' institutions.[71]

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Criticism
A college economics professor has blamed "credential inflation" for the admission of so many unqualified students into college. He reports that the number of new jobs requiring college degrees is less than the number of college graduates.[] The same professor reports that the more money that a state spends on higher education, the slower the economy grows, the opposite of long held notions.[]

Funding
Funding for K12 schools
According to a 2005 report from the OECD, the United States is tied for first place with Switzerland when it comes to annual spending per student on its public schools, with each of those two countries spending more than $11,000.[72] However, the United States is ranked 37th in the world in education spending as a percentage of gross domestic product. All but seven of the leading countries are in developing countries; ranked high because of a low GDP.[73] U.S. public schools lag behind the schools of other developed countries in the areas of reading, math, and science.[74] The federal government contributes money to certain individual school districts as part of Federal Impact Aid. The original idea was that the federal government paid no local real estate taxes on their property to support local schools. Children of government employees might move in and impact an area which required expenditure for education at the local level. This aid was a way of equalizing the unexpected impact. According to a 2006 study by the conservative Goldwater Institute, Arizona's public schools spend 50% more per student than Arizona's private schools. The study also says that while teachers constitute 72% of the employees at private schools, they make up less than half of the staff at public schools.[75]

Education in the United States According to a 1999 article by William J. Bennett, former U.S. Secretary of Education, increased levels of spending on public education have not made the schools better. Among many other things, the article cites the following statistics:[76] Between 1960 and 1995, U.S. public school spending per student, adjusted for inflation, increased by 212%. In 1994, less than half of all U.S. public school employees were teachers. Out of 21 industrialized countries, U.S. 12th graders ranked 19th in math, 16th in science, and last in advanced physics. Wikipedia:Please clarify Funding for schools in the United States is complex. One current controversy stems much from the No Child Left Behind Act. The Act gives the Department of Education the right to withhold funding if it believes a school, district, or even a state is not complying with federal plans and is making no effort to comply. However, federal funding accounts for little of the overall funding schools receive. The vast majority comes from the state government and in some cases from local property taxes.[citation needed] Property taxes as a primary source of funding for public education have become highly controversial, for a number of reasons. First, if a state's population and land values escalate rapidly, many longtime residents may find themselves paying property taxes much higher than anticipated. In response to this phenomenon, California's citizens passed Proposition 13 in 1978, which severely restricted the ability of the Legislature to expand the state's educational system to keep up with growth. Some states, such as Michigan, have investigated or implemented alternate schemes for funding education that may sidestep the problems of funding based mainly on property taxes by providing funding based on sales or income tax. These schemes also have failings, negatively impacting funding in a slow economy.[77] One of the biggest debates in funding public schools is funding by local taxes or state taxes. The federal government supplies around 8.5% of the public school system funds, according to a 2005 report by the National Center for Education Statistics.[citation needed] The remaining split between state and local governments averages 48.7 percent from states and 42.8 percent from local sources.[citation needed] However, the division varies widely. In Hawaii local funds make up 1.7 percent, while state sources account for nearly 90.1 percent.[78] Rural schools struggle with funding concerns. State funding sources often favor wealthier districts. The state establishes a minimum flat amount deemed "adequate" to educate a child based on equalized assessed value of property taxes. This favors wealthier districts with a much larger tax base. This, combined with the history of slow payment in the state, leaves rural districts searching for funds. Lack of funding leads to limited resources for teachers. Resources that directly relate to funding include access to high-speed internet, online learning programs and advanced course offerings.[46] These resources can enhance a student's learning opportunities, but may not be available to everyone if a district cannot afford to offer specific programs. Judicial intervention The reliance on local funding sources has led to a long history of court challenges about how states fund their schools. These challenges have relied on interpretations of state constitutions after a U.S. Supreme Court ruling that school funding was not a matter of the U.S. Constitution (San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973)). The state court cases, beginning with the California case of Serrano v. Priest, 5 Cal.3d 584 (1971), were initially concerned with equity in funding, which was defined in terms of variations in spending across local school districts. More recently, state court cases have begun to consider what has been called 'adequacy.' These cases have questioned whether the total amount of spending was sufficient to meet state constitutional requirements. Perhaps the most famous adequacy case is Abbott v. Burke, 100 N.J. 269, 495 A.2d 376 (1985), which has involved state court supervision over several decades and has led to some of the highest spending of any U.S. districts in the so-called Abbott districts. The background and results of these cases are analyzed in a book by Eric Hanushek and Alfred Lindseth.[79] That analysis concludes that funding differences are not closely related to student outcomes and thus that the outcomes of the court cases have not led to improved policies.

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Education in the United States Funding for college At the college and university level student loan funding is split in half; half is managed by the Department of Education directly, called the Federal Direct Student Loan Program (FDSLP). The other half is managed by commercial entities such as banks, credit unions, and financial services firms such as Sallie Mae, under the Federal Family Education Loan Program (FFELP). Some schools accept only FFELP loans; others accept only FDSLP. Still others accept both, and a few schools will not accept either, in which case students must seek out private alternatives for student loans.[80] Grant funding is provided by the federal Pell Grant program.

61

Reading and writing habits

Libraries have been considered important to educational goals.[81] Library books are more readily available to Americans than to people in Germany, Britain, France, the Netherlands, Austria and all the Mediterranean nations. The average American borrowed more library books in 2001 than his or her peers in Germany, Austria, Norway, Ireland, Luxembourg, France and throughout the Mediterranean.[] Americans buy more books than people in Europe.[]

Education issues
Wikipedia:Please clarify Major educational issues in the United States center on curriculum and control. Of critical importance, because of its enormous implications on education and funding, is the No Child Left Behind Act.[44]

Tracking
Tracking is the practice of dividing students at the primary or secondary school level into separate classes, depending if the student is high, average, or low achievers. It also offers different curriculum paths for students headed for college and for those who are bound directly for the workplace or technical schools.[citation needed]

Curriculum issues
Curricula in the United States vary widely from district to district. Not only do schools offer a range of topics and quality, but private schools may include religious classes as mandatory for attendance. This raises the question of government funding vouchers in states with anti-Catholic Blaine Amendments in their constitution. This has produced camps of argument over the standardization of curricula and to what degree. These same groups often are advocates of standardized testing, which is mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act.

President George W. Bush signing the No Child Left Behind Act

There is debate over which subjects should receive the most focus, with astronomy and geography among those cited as not being taught enough in schools.[82][83][84] English in the classroom

Education in the United States An issue facing curricula today is the use of the English language in teaching. English is spoken by over 95% of the nation, and there is a strong national tradition of upholding English as the de facto official language.[citation needed] Some 9.7 million children aged 5 to 17 primarily speak a language other than English at home. Of those, about 1.3 million children do not speak English well or at all.[85] Attainment Forty-four percent of college faculty believe that incoming students aren't ready for writing at the college level. Ninety percent of high school teachers believe exiting students are well-prepared.[86][87][88][89] Boys have underperformed girls for a number of years. On average, girls stand higher in their classes and perform well in all subjects. This is a turnaround from the early 20th century when boys usually outperformed girls. Parents and educators are concerned about how to motivate boys to become better students.[90] Drop out rates are a concern in American four-year colleges. In New York, 54 percent of students entering four-year colleges in 1997 had a degree six years later and even fewer Hispanics and blacks did.[91] 33 percent of the freshmen who enter the University of Massachusetts Boston graduate within six years. Less than 41 percent graduate from the University of Montana, and 44 percent from the University of New Mexico.[92] Since the 1980s the number of educated Americans has continued to grow, but at a slower rate. Some have attributed this to an increase in the foreign born portion of the workforce. However, the decreasing growth of the educational workforce has instead been primarily due to slowing down in educational attainment of people schooled in the United States.[93] Racial achievement gap The Racial achievement gap in the United States refers to the educational disparities between minority students and Asian and Caucasian students.[94] This disparity manifests itself in a variety of ways: African-American and Hispanic students are more likely to receive lower grades, score lower on standardized tests, drop out of high school, and are less likely to enter and complete college.[95] The racial achievement gap remains because not all groups of students are advancing at the same rates.[citation needed] Controversial professor Lino Graglia has suggested that blacks and Hispanics are falling behind in education because they are increasingly raised in single-parent families.[96][97] On the other hand, the late UC Berkeley professor Arthur Jensen, in a controversial paper published in 1969, argued that the achievement gap was the result of IQ differences between blacks and whites. Evolution in Kansas In 1999 the School Board of the state of Kansas caused controversy when it decided to eliminate teaching of evolution in its state assessment tests.[98] Scientists from around the country demurred.[99] Many religious and family values groups, on the other hand, claimed that evolution is simply a theory in the colloquial sense,[100] and as such creationist ideas should therefore be taught alongside it as an alternative viewpoint.[101] A majority supported teaching intelligent design and/or creationism in public schools.[102] Violence and drug use Violence is a problem in high schools, depending on the size and level of the school. Between 1996 and September 2003, at least 46 students and teachers were killed in 27 incidents involving the use of firearms. Information from the National Center for Education Statistics shows that, in 2001, students between the ages of 12 and 18 were the victims of 2 million crimes in US schools. 62% of the crimes were thefts. Between July 1999 and June 2000, 24 murders and 8 suicides took place in American schools. Also in 2001, 47% of American high school students drank alcohol at least once; 5% drank right on school territory. 24% of high school students smoked marijuana, 5% smoking right at school. 29% of students who smoke marijuana

62

Education in the United States obtain the drug at school.[103] Sex education Almost all students in the U.S. receive some form of sex education at least once between grades 7 and 12; many schools begin addressing some topics as early as grades 4 or 5.[104] However, what students learn varies widely, because curriculum decisions are so decentralized. Many states have laws governing what is taught in sex education classes or allowing parents to opt out. Some state laws leave curriculum decisions to individual school districts.[] For example, a 1999 study by the Guttmacher Institute found that most U.S. sex education courses in grades 7 through 12 cover puberty, HIV, STDs, abstinence, implications of teenage pregnancy, and how to resist peer pressure. Other studied topics, such as methods of birth control and infection prevention, sexual orientation, sexual abuse, and factual and ethical information about abortion, varied more widely.[105] However, according to a 2004 survey, a majority of the 1001 parent groups polled wants complete sex education in the schools. The American people are heavily divided over the issue. Over 80% of polled parents agreed with the statement "Sex education in school makes it easier for me to talk to my child about sexual issues," while under 17% agreed with the statement that their children were being exposed to "subjects I don't think my child should be discussing." 10 percent believed that their children's sexual education class forced them to discuss sexual issues "too early." On the other hand, 49 percent of the respondents (the largest group) were "somewhat confident" that the values taught in their children's sex ed classes were similar to those taught at home, and 23 percent were less confident still. (The margin of error was plus or minus 4.7 percent.)[106] Textbook review and adoption In many localities in the United States, the curriculum taught in public schools is influenced by the textbooks used by the teachers. In some states, textbooks are selected for all students at the state level. Since states such as California and Texas represent a considerable market for textbook publishers, these states can exert influence over the content of the books.[107] In 2010, the Texas Board of Education adopted new Social Studies standards that could potentially impact the content of textbooks purchased in other parts of the country. The deliberations that resulted in the new standards were partisan in nature and are said to reflect a conservative leaning in the view of United States history.[108] As of January 2009, the four largest college textbook publishers in the United States were: Pearson Education (including such imprints as Addison-Wesley and Prentice Hall) Cengage Learning (formerly Thomson Learning) McGraw-Hill Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

63

Other US textbook publishers include: John Wiley & Sons Jones and Bartlett Publishers F. A. Davis Company W. W. Norton & Company SAGE Publications Flat World Knowledge

Education in the United States

64

Cheating
From 50% to 95% of American students admit to have cheated in high school or college at one time or another. These poll results cast some doubt on measured academic attainment tests.[109]

Charter schools
The charter-school movement was born in 1990. Charter schools have spread rapidly in the United States, members, parents, teachers, and students" to allow for the "expression of diverse teaching philosophies and cultural and social life styles." [110]

Affirmative action
In 2003 a Supreme Court decision concerning affirmative action in universities allowed educational institutions to consider race as a factor in admitting students, but ruled that strict point systems are unconstitutional.[111] Opponents of racial affirmative action argue that the program actually benefits middle- and upper-class people of color at the expense of lower class European Americans and Asian Americans.[112] Prominent African American academics Henry Louis Gates and Lani Guinier, while favoring affirmative action, have argued that in practice, it has led to recent black immigrants and their children being greatly overrepresented at elite institutions, at the expense of the historic African American community made up of descendants of slaves.[113] In 2006, Jian Li, a Chinese undergraduate at Yale University, filed a civil rights complaint with the Office for Civil Rights against Princeton University, claiming that his race played a role in their decision to reject his application for admission.[114]

Control
There is some debate about where control for education actually lies. Education is not mentioned in the constitution of the United States. In the current situation, the state and national governments have a power-sharing arrangement, with the states exercising most of the control. Like other arrangements between the two, the federal government uses the threat of decreased funding to enforce laws pertaining to education.[51] Furthermore, within each state there are different types of control. Some states have a statewide school system, while others delegate power to county, city or township-level school boards. However, under the Bush administration, initiatives such as the No Child Left Behind Act have attempted to assert more central control in a heavily decentralized system. Many cities have their own school boards everywhere in the United States. With the exception of cities, outside the northeast U.S. school boards are generally constituted at the county level. The U.S. federal government exercises its control through the U.S. Department of Education. Educational accreditation decisions are made by voluntary regional associations. Schools in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands, teach in English, while schools in the commonwealth of Puerto Rico teach in Spanish. Nonprofit private schools are widespread, are largely independent of the government, and include secular as well as parochial schools.

International comparison
In the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment 2003, which emphasizes problem solving, American 15 year olds ranked 24th of 38 in mathematics, 19th of 38 in science, 12th of 38 in reading, and 26th of 38 in problem solving.[115] In the 2006 assessment, the U.S. ranked 35th out of 57 in mathematics and 29th out of 57 in science. Reading scores could not be reported due to printing errors in the instructions of the U.S. test booklets. U.S. scores were behind those of most other developed nations.[116] However, the picture changes when low achievers, Blacks and Hispanics, in the U.S. are broken out by race. White and Asian students in the United States are generally among the best-performing pupils in the world; black and Hispanic students in the U.S. have very high rates of low achievement. Black and Hispanic students in the US do out

Education in the United States perform their counterparts in all African and Hispanic countries.[][117] US fourth and eighth graders tested above average on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study tests, which emphasizes traditional learning.[118]

65

Educational attainment
The rise of the high school movement in the beginning of the 20th century was unique in the United States, such that, high schools were implemented with property-tax funded tuition, openness, non-exclusivity, and were decentralized. The academic curriculum was designed to provide the students with a terminal degree. The students obtained general knowledge (such as mathematics, chemistry, English composition, etc.) applicable to the high geographic and social mobility in the United States. The provision of the [] high schools accelerated with the rise Educational attainment since 1940. of the second industrial revolution. The increase in white collar and skilled blue-collar work in manufacturing was reflected in the demand for high school education. In the 21st century, the educational attainment of the US population is similar to that of many other industrialized countries with the vast majority of the population having completed secondary education and a rising number of college graduates that outnumber high school dropouts. As a whole, the population of the United States is becoming increasingly more educated.[] Post-secondary education is valued very highly by American society and is one of the main determinants of class and status.[citation needed] As with income, however, there are significant discrepancies in terms of race, age, household configuration and geography.[] Overall the households and demographics featuring the highest educational attainment in the United States are also among those with the highest household income and wealth. Thus, while the population of the US is becoming increasingly educated on all levels, a direct link between income and educational attainment remains.[] In 2007, Americans stood second only to Canada in the percentage of 35 to 64 year olds holding at least two-year degrees. Among 25 to 34 year olds, the country stands tenth. The nation stands 15 out of 29 rated nations for college completion rates, slightly above Mexico and Turkey.[] The U.S. Department of Education's 2003 statistics suggest that 14% of the population or 32 million adults have very low literacy skills.[119] A five-year, $14 million study of U.S. adult literacy involving lengthy interviews of U.S. adults, the most comprehensive study of literacy ever commissioned by the U.S. government,[] was released in September 1993. It involved lengthy interviews of over 26,700 adults statistically balanced for age, gender, ethnicity, education level, and location (urban, suburban, or rural) in 12 states across the U.S. and was designed to represent the U.S. population as a whole. This government study showed that 21% to 23% of adult Americans were not "able to locate information in text", could not "make low-level inferences using printed materials", and were unable to "integrate easily identifiable pieces of information."[]

Education in the United States According to a 2003 study by the US government, around 23% of Americans in California lack basic prose literacy skills.[120]

66

Health and safety

Many schools have nurses either full-time or part-time to administer to students and to ensure that medication is taken as directed by their physician.[121] For some high school grades and many elementary schools as well, a police officer, titled a "resource officer", or SRO (Security Resource Officer), is on site to screen students for firearms and to help avoid disruptions.[122][123][citation needed]

References
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Education in the United States

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[59] walletpop.com (http:/ / www. walletpop. com/ blog/ 2010/ 09/ 21/ free-things-people-pay-for-too-often/ ?icid=main|htmlws-main-n|dl6|sec1_lnk3|171948) [60] payscale.com (http:/ / www. payscale. com/ education/ compare-college-costs-and-ROI) [61] Uni in the USA (http:/ / www. uniintheusa. com/ how-why/ paying-for-us-uni/ 609/ can-i-afford-it) [63] timeshighereducation.co.uk (http:/ / www. timeshighereducation. co. uk/ world-university-rankings/ 2010-2011/ analysis-usa-top-universities. html/ ) [64] Ivy League College Admissions Facts and Statistics (http:/ / www. admissionsconsultants. com/ college/ ivy_league_table. asp). Admissions Consultants. Retrieved February 18, 2005. [65] arwu.org (http:/ / www. arwu. org/ ARWU2009. jsp) [66] the Top American Research Universities by University of Florida TheCenter (http:/ / thecenter. ufl. edu/ research. html) [70] More than a 'safety school' (http:/ / www. dailytargum. com/ media/ paper168/ news/ 2006/ 01/ 19/ PageOne/ More-Than. A. safety. School-1477734. shtml?norewrite& sourcedomain=www. dailytargum. com). The Daily Targum. Retrieved February 16, 2005. [72] OECD calls for broader access to post-school education and training (http:/ / www. oecd. org/ document/ 34/ 0,2340,en_2649_201185_35341645_1_1_1_1,00. html), OECD, September 13, 2005 [75] Private Schools Now 33% Off! (http:/ / www. cato-at-liberty. org/ 2006/ 10/ 18/ private-schools-now-33-off/ ), Cato Institute, October 18, 2006 [76] 20 Troubling Facts about American Education (http:/ / www. heartland. org/ Article. cfm?artId=11200), William J. Bennett, October 1999 [77] mlive.com (http:/ / www. mlive. com/ flintjournal/ voices/ index. ssf/ 2008/ 05/ a_tax_increase_for_michigan_sc. html), Flint Journal article (2008). Retrieved June 12, 2008. [78] Revenues and Expenditures for Public Elementary and Secondary Education, Table 1 (http:/ / nces. ed. gov/ ccd/ pubs/ npefs03/ tables. asp). National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved February 15, 2006. [79] Eric A. Hanushek and Alfred A. Lindseth, Schoolhouses, Courthouses, and Statehouses: Solving the funding-achievement puzzle in America's public schools (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010) [85] Summary Tables on Language Use and English Ability: 2000 (http:/ / www. census. gov/ population/ www/ cen2000/ phc-t20. html). United States Census (2000). Retrieved February 6, 2006. [86] indianapoliswoman.com (http:/ / www. indianapoliswoman. com/ archive. asp?r=\2006\oct\special-sections\education\ed9. txt) [87] neumont.edu (http:/ / www. neumont. edu/ cmsdocuments/ Spellings_Report. pdf) page 14 [88] ed.gov (http:/ / www2. ed. gov/ about/ bdscomm/ list/ hiedfuture/ reports/ 0809-draft. pdf); page 10 [89] scribd.com (http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 2964561/ Commission-on-Higher-Education-Report-2006) page 25 [91] "U.S. college drop-out rate sparks concern" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 10053859/ ), MSNBC, November 15, 2005 [92] David Leonhardt. "Colleges Are Failing in Graduation Rates" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 09/ 09/ business/ economy/ 09leonhardt. html), The New York Times, September 8, 2009

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[93] Goldin, C., Katz, L.F. The Race between Education and Technology. The Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA: 2008. [94] NEA (http:/ / www. nea. org/ home/ 20380. htm) [95] http:/ / www. edweek. org/ ew/ issues/ achievement-gap/ [97] (http:/ / www. huffingtonpost. com/ 2012/ 12/ 11/ lino-graglia-affirmative-action_n_2278180. html) [98] Kansas school board's evolution ruling angers science community (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ US/ 9908/ 12/ kansas. evolution. flap/ ). CNN.com (1999). Retrieved August 12, 2005. [99] Statements from Scientific and Scholarly Organizations. (http:/ / www. ncseweb. org/ resources/ articles/ 8408_statements_from_scientific_and_12_19_2002. asp) National Center for Science Education. Retrieved on 04-01-2008. [100] Myers, P.Z. "Nicholas Wade flails at the philosophy of science" (http:/ / scienceblogs. com/ pharyngula/ 2009/ 10/ nicholas_wade_flails_at_the_ph. php), Pharyngula, October 9, 2009 [101] Shermer, Michael. Why People Believe Weird Things, Second Edition (2002), Henry Holt, Page 142 [102] Poll: Creationism Trumps Evolution (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2004/ 11/ 22/ opinion/ polls/ main657083. shtml). CBS News Polls (2004). Retrieved June 20, 2005. [103] "Problems with the U.S. Education System" (http:/ / www. washprofile. org/ en/ node/ 1894) Washington Profile, October 1, 2009 [105] See especially Table 3. [106] Sex Education in America General Public/Parents Survey (http:/ / www. npr. org/ programs/ morning/ features/ 2004/ jan/ kaiserpoll/ publicfinal. pdf). NPR/Kaiser/Harvard survey (2004). Retrieved June 17, 2005. [107] Revisionaries: How a group of Texas conservatives is rewriting your kids' textbooks (http:/ / www. washingtonmonthly. com/ features/ 2010/ 1001. blake. html). Washington Monthly, January/February 2010. Retrieved April 7, 2010. [108] Texas Conservatives win Curriculum Change (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 03/ 13/ education/ 13texas. html). New York Times article. Retrieved April 7, 2010. [109] Reader's Digest, pp.1237, March 2006; Cheating: "but everybody is doing it". [110] Herbst, Juergen. School Choice and School Governance: A Historical Study of the United States and Germany page 107 2006. ISBN 1-4039-7302-4 [112] Hurst, C. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. Sixth Edition. 2007. 374377. [114] " Amid charge of bias, Rapelye stands firm (http:/ / www. dailyprincetonian. com/ archives/ 2006/ 11/ 30/ news/ 16798. shtml)". The Daily Princetonian. November 30, 2006. [115] International Outcomes of Learning in Mathematics Literacy and Problem Solving (http:/ / nces. ed. gov/ pubs2005/ 2005003. pdf). National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved February 18, 2005. [119] " Literacy study: 1 in 7 U.S. adults are unable to read this story (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ education/ 2009-01-08-adult-literacy_N. htm)". USATODAY.com. January 8, 2009. [120] nces.ed.gov (http:/ / nces. ed. gov/ naal/ estimates/ StateEstimates. aspx) [122] schoolsecurity.org (http:/ / www. schoolsecurity. org/ resources/ nasro_survey_2004. html)

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Further reading
Bibliography
Berliner, David C.

History
for more detailed bibliography see History of Education in the United States: Bibliography James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 18601935 (University of North Carolina Press, 1988). Axtell, J. The school upon a hill: Education and society in colonial New England. Yale University Press. (1974). Maurice R. Berube; American School Reform: Progressive, Equity, and Excellence Movements, 18831993. 1994. online version (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=23149656) Brint, S., & Karabel, J. The Diverted Dream: Community colleges and the promise of educational opportunity in America, 19001985. Oxford University Press. (1989). Button, H. Warren and Provenzo, Eugene F., Jr. History of Education and Culture in America. Prentice-Hall, 1983. 379 pp. Cremin, Lawrence A. The transformation of the school: Progressivism in American education, 18761957. (1961).

Education in the United States Cremin, Lawrence A. American Education: The Colonial Experience, 16071783. (1970); American Education: The National Experience, 17831876. (1980); American Education: The Metropolitan Experience, 18761980 (1990); standard 3 vol detailed scholarly history Curti, M. E. The social ideas of American educators, with new chapter on the last twenty-five years. (1959). Dorn, Sherman. Creating the Dropout: An Institutional and Social History of School Failure. Praeger, 1996. 167 pp. Gatto, John Taylor. The Underground History of American Education: An Intimate Investigation into the Prison of Modern Schooling. Oxford Village Press, 2001, 412 pp. online version (http://www.johntaylorgatto.com/ chapters/index.htm) Herbst, Juergen. The once and future school: Three hundred and fifty years of American secondary education. (1996). Herbst, Juergen. School Choice and School Governance: A Historical Study of the United States and Germany 2006. ISBN 1-4039-7302-4. Kemp, Roger L. "Town & Gown Relations: A Handbook of Best Practices," McFarland and Company, Inc., Publisher, Jefferson, North Carolina, USA, and London, England (UK)(2013). (ISBN 978-0-7864-6388-2 ). Krug, Edward A. The shaping of the American high school, 18801920. (1964); The American high school, 19201940. (1972). standard 2 vol scholarly history Lucas, C. J. American higher education: A history. (1994). pp.; reprinted essays from History of Education Quarterly Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann. Transitions in American Education: A Social History of Teaching. Routledge, 2001. 242 pp. Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann. The Emergence of the Common School in the U.S. Countryside. Edwin Mellen, 1998. 192 pp. Peterson, Paul E. The politics of school reform, 18701940. (1985). Ravitch, Diane. Left Back: A Century of Failed School Reforms. Simon & Schuster, 2000. 555 pp. John L. Rury; Education and Social Change: Themes in the History of American Schooling.'; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2002. online version (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104343399) Sanders, James W The education of an urban minority: Catholics in Chicago, 18331965. (1977). Solomon, Barbara M. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education in America. (1985). Theobald, Paul. Call School: Rural Education in the Midwest to 1918. Southern Illinois U. Pr., 1995. 246 pp. David B. Tyack. The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (1974), Tyack, David and Cuban, Larry. Tinkering toward Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform. Harvard U. Pr., 1995. 184 pp. Tyack, David B., & Hansot, E. Managers of virtue: Public school leadership in America, 18201980. (1982). Veysey Lawrence R. The emergence of the American university. (1965).

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External links
EducationUSA: Your Guide to US Higher Education (http://www.educationusa.state.gov) U.S. Department of Education (http://www.ed.gov/index.jhtml) National Center for Education Statistics (http://nces.ed.gov/) National Assessment of Educational Progress (http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/) Essay about public education paradigms (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDZFcDGpL4U& feature=player_embedded)

An essay on the Financial Value of An Education (http://cryptm.org/~josh/366/Project/ Financial_Value_Of_An_Education.htm)

Education in the United States Recent calculations for particular majors and the projected NPW at retirement (age 65) (http://cryptm.org/ ~josh/366/Project/Economics_Project_Data.htm) Information on studying in the US (http://www.uniintheusa.com/)

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Education reform
Educations reform is the name given to a political process with the goal of improving public education. Small improvements in education theoretically have large social returns, in health, wealth and well-being. Historically, reforms have taken different forms because the motivations of reformers have differed. A stated motivation has been to reduce cost to students and society. From the ancient times until the 1800s, one goal was to reduce the expense of a classical education. Ideally, classical education is undertaken with a highly educated full-time (extremely expensive) personal tutor. Historically, this was available only to the most wealthy. Encyclopedias, public libraries and grammar schools are examples of innovations intended to lower the cost of a classical education. Related reforms attempted to develop similar classical results by concentrating on "why", and "which" questions neglected by classical education. Abstract, introspective answers to these questions can theoretically compress large amounts of facts into relatively few principles. This path was taken by some Transcendentalist educators, such as Amos Bronson Alcott. In the early modern age, Victorian schools were reformed to teach commercially useful topics, such as modern languages and mathematics, rather than classical subjects, such as Latin and Greek. Many reformers focused on reforming society by reforming education on more scientific, humanistic, pragmatic or democratic principles. John Dewey, and Anton Makarenko are prominent examples of such reformers. Some reformers incorporated several motivations, e.g. Maria Montessori, who both "educated for peace" (a social goal), and to "meet the needs of the child," (A humanistic goal.) In historic Prussia, an important motivation for the invention of Kindergarten was to foster national unity by teaching a national language while children were young enough that learning a language was easy. The reform has taken many forms and directions. Throughout history and the present day, the meaning and methods of education have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Changes may be implemented by individual educators and/or by broad-based school organization and/or by curriculum changes with performance evaluations.

Early history
Classical times
Plato believed that children would never learn unless they wanted to learn. In The Republic (7.536e), he said, " . . compulsory learning never sticks in the mind." An educational debate in the time of the Roman Empire arose after Christianity had achieved broad acceptance. The question concerned the educational value of pre-Christian classical thought: "Given that the body of knowledge of the pre-Christian Romans was heathen in origin, was it safe to teach it to Christian children?" [citation needed]

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Modern reforms
Though educational reform occurred on a local level at various points throughout history, the modern notion of education reform is tied with the spread of Compulsory education - education reforms did not become widespread until after organized schooling was sufficiently systematized to be 'reformed.' In the modern world, economic growth and the spread of democracy have raised the value of education and increased the importance of ensuring that all children and adults have access to high quality and effective education. Modern education reforms are increasingly driven by a growing understanding of what works in education and how to go about successfully improving teaching and learning in schools.[1]

Reforms of classical education

Western classical education as taught from the 18th to the 19th century has missing features that inspired reformers. Classical education is most concerned with answering the who, what, where, and when? questions that concern a majority of students. Unless carefully taught, group instruction naturally neglects the theoretical "why" and "which" questions that strongly concern less students. Classical education in this period also did not teach local (vernacular) languages and cultures. Instead it taught high-status ancient languages (Greek and Latin) and their cultures. This produced odd social effects in which an intellectual class might be more loyal to ancient cultures and institutions than to their native vernacular languages and their actual governing authorities.[2]

Educational economies in the 19th century

Before there were government-funded public schools, education of the lower classes was by the charity school, pioneered in the 19th century by Protestant organizations and adapted by the Roman Catholic Church and governments. Because these schools operated on very small budgets and attempted to serve as many needy children as possible, they were designed to be inexpensive. The basic program was to develop "grammar" schools. These taught only grammar and bookkeeping. This program permitted people to start businesses to make money, and gave them the skills to continue their education inexpensively from books. "Grammar" was the first third of the then-prevalent system of Classical Education. The ultimate development of the grammar school was by Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell who developed the monitorial system. Lancaster started as a poor Quaker in early 19th century London. Bell started the Madras School of India. The monitorial system uses slightly more-advanced students to teach less-advanced students, achieving student-teacher ratios as small as 2, while educating more than a thousand students per adult. Lancaster promoted his system in a piece called Improvements in Education [3] that spread widely throughout the English-speaking world. Discipline and labor in a Lancaster school were provided by an economic system. Scrip, a form of money meaningless outside the school, was created at a fixed exchange rate from a student's tuition. Every job of the school was bid-for by students in scrip, with the largest bid winning. However, any student tutor could auction positions in his or her classes. Besides tutoring, students could use scrip to buy food, school supplies, books, and childish luxuries in a school store. The adult supervisors were paid from the bids on jobs. With fully developed internal economies, Lancaster schools provided a grammar-school education for a cost per student near $40 per year in 1999 U.S. dollars. The students were very clever at reducing their costs, and once invented, improvements were widely adopted in a school. For example, Lancaster students, motivated to save scrip, ultimately rented individual pages of textbooks from the school library, and read them in groups around music stands to reduce textbook costs. Students commonly exchanged tutoring, and paid for items and services with receipts from "down tutoring." Lancaster schools usually lacked sufficient adult supervision. As a result, the older children acting as disciplinary monitors tended to become brutal task masters. Also, the schools did not teach submission to orthodox Christian

Education reform beliefs or government authorities. As a result, most English-speaking countries developed mandatory publicly paid education explicitly to keep public education in "responsible" hands. These elites said that Lancaster schools might become dishonest, provide poor education and were not accountable to established authorities. Lancaster's supporters responded that any schoolchild could avoid cheats, given the opportunity, and that the government was not paying for the education, and thus deserved no say in their composition. Lancaster, though motivated by charity, claimed in his pamphlets to be surprised to find that he lived well on the income of his school, even while the low costs made it available to the poorest street-children. Ironically, Lancaster lived on the charity of friends in his later life.[4]

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Progressive reforms in Europe and the United States

The term progressive in education has been used somewhat indiscriminately; there are a number of kinds of educational progressivism, most of the historically significant kinds peaking in the period between the late 19th and the middle of the 20th centuries.

Child-study
Jean-Jacques Rousseau has been called the father of the child-study movement. It has been said that Rousseau "discovered" the child (as an object of study). Rousseau's principal work on education is Emile: Or, On Education, in which he lays out an educational program for a hypothetical newborn's education to adulthood. Rousseau provided a dual critique of both the vision of education set forth in Plato's Republic and also of the society of his contemporary Europe and the educational methods he regarded as contributing to it; he held that a person can either be a man or a citizen, and that while Plato's plan could have brought the latter at the expense of the former, contemporary education failed at both tasks. He advocated a radical withdrawal of the child from society and an educational process that utilized the natural potential of the child and its curiosity, teaching it by confronting it with simulated real-life obstacles and conditioning it by experience rather than teaching it intellectually. His ideas were rarely implemented directly, but were influential on later thinkers, particularly Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Friedrich Wilhelm August Frbel, the inventor of the kindergarten.

Transcendentalist education
H. D. Thoreau's Walden and reform essays in the mid-19th century were influential also (see the anthology Uncommon Learning: Henry David Thoreau on Education, Boston, 1999). For a look at transcendentalist life, read Louisa May Alcott's Little Women. Her father, A. Bronson Alcott, a close friend of Thoreau's, pioneered progressive education for young people as early as the 1830s. The transcendental education movement failed, because only the most gifted students ever equaled the skills of their classically educated teachers. These students would, of course, succeed in any educational regime. Accounts seem to indicate that the students were happy, but often pursued classical education later in life.

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National identity
Education is often seen in Europe and Asia as an important system to maintain national, cultural and linguistic unity. Prussia instituted primary school reforms expressly to teach a unified version of the national language, "Hochdeutsch". One significant reform was kindergarten, whose purpose was to have the children spend time in supervised activities in the national language, when the children were young enough that they could easily learn new language skills. Since most modern schools copy the Prussian models, children start school at an age when their language skills remain plastic, and they find it easy to learn the national language. This was an intentional design on the part of the Prussians. In the U.S. over the last twenty years, more than 70% of non-English-speaking school-age immigrants have arrived in the U.S. before they were 6 years old. At this age, they could have been taught English in school, and achieved a proficiency indistinguishable from a native speaker. In other countries, such as the Soviet Union, France, Spain, and Germany this approach has dramatically improved reading and math test scores for linguistic minorities.

Dewey
John Dewey, a philosopher and educator, was heavily influential in American and international education, especially during the first four decades of the 20th century. An important member of the American Pragmatist movement, he carried the subordination of knowledge to action into the educational world by arguing for experiential education that would enable children to learn theory and practice simultaneously; a well-known example is the practice of teaching elementary physics and biology to students while preparing a meal. He was a harsh critic of "dead" knowledge disconnected from practical human life, foreshadowing Paulo Freire's attack on the "banking" view of education. Dewey criticized the rigidity and volume of humanistic education, and the emotional idealizations of education based on the child-study movement that had been inspired by Bill Joel and those who followed him. He presented his educational theories as a synthesis of the two views. His slogan was that schools should encourage children to "Learn by doing."[citation needed] He wanted people to realize that children are naturally active and curious. Dewey's understanding of logic is best presented in his "Logic, the Theory of Inquiry" (1938). His educational theories were presented in "My Pedagogic Creed", The School and Society, The Child and Curriculum, and Democracy and Education (1916). The question of the history of Deweyan educational practice is a difficult one. He was a widely known and influential thinker, but his views and suggestions were often misunderstood by those who sought to apply them, leading some historians to suggest that there was never an actual implementation on any considerable scale of Deweyan progressive education.[citation needed] The schools with which Dewey himself was most closely associated (though the most famous, the "Laboratory School", was really run by his wife) had considerable ups and downs, and Dewey left the University of Chicago in 1904 over issues relating to the Dewey School.[citation needed] Dewey's influence began to decline in the time after the Second World War and particularly in the Cold War era, as more conservative educational policies came to the fore.

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The administrative progressives

The form of educational progressivism which was most successful in having its policies implemented has been dubbed "administrative progressivism" by historians. This began to be implemented in the early 20th century. While influenced particularly in its rhetoric by Dewey and even more by his popularizers, administrative progressivism was in its practice much more influenced by the industrial revolution and the concept economies of scale. The administrative progressives are responsible for many features of modern American education, especially American high schools: counseling programs, the move from many small local high schools to large centralized high schools, curricular differentiation in the form of electives and tracking, curricular, professional, and other forms of standardization, and an increase in state and federal regulation and bureaucracy, with a corresponding reduction of local control at the school board level. (Cf. "State, federal, and local control of education in the United States", below) (Tyack and Cuban, pp.1726) These reforms have since become heavily entrenched, and many today who identify themselves as progressives are opposed to many of them, while conservative education reform during the Cold War embraced them as a framework for strengthening traditional curriculum and standards. In more recent times, groups such as the think tank Reform's education division, and S.E.R. have attempted to pressure the government of the U.K. into more modernist educational reform, though this has met with limited success.

Critiques of progressive and classical reforms

Many progressive reforms failed to transfer learned skills. Evidence suggests that higher-order thinking skills are unused by many people (cf. Jean Piaget, Isabel Myers, and Katharine Cook Briggs). Some authorities say that this refutes key assumptions of progressive thinkers such as Dewey. Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who studied people's developmental stages. He showed by widely reproduced experiments that most young children do not analyze or synthesize as Dewey expected. Some authorities therefore say that Dewey's reforms do not apply to the primary education of young children. Katherine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Myers developed a psychological test that reproducibly identifies sixteen distinct human temperaments, building on work by Jung. A wide class of temperaments ("Sensors", half by category, 60% of the general population) prefer to use concrete information such as facts and procedures. They prefer not to use abstract theories or logic. In terms of education, some authorities interpret this to mean that 60% of the general population only use, and therefore would prefer to learn answers to concrete "Who, what, when, where", and "how" questions, rather than answers to the theoretical "which" and "why" questions advocated by progressives. This information was confirmed (on another research track) by Jean Piaget, who discovered that nearly 60% of adults never habitually use what he called "formal operational reasoning", a term for the development and use of theories and explicit logic. If this criticism is true, then schools that teach only principles would fail to educate 60% of the general population. The data from Piaget, Myers and Briggs can also be used to criticize classical teaching styles that never teach theory or principle. In particular, a wide class of temperaments ("Intuitives", half by category, 40% of the general population) prefer to reason from trusted first principles, and then apply that theory to predict concrete facts. In terms of education, some authorities interpret this to mean that 40% of the general population prefer to use, and therefore want to learn, answers to theoretical "Which and "Why" questions, rather than answers to the concrete "Who, what, when, where" and "How" questions. The synthesis resulting from this two-part critique is a "neoclassical" learning theory similar to that practiced by Marva Collins, in which both learning styles are accommodated. The classroom is filled with facts, that are organized with theories, providing a rich environment to feed children's natural preferences. To reduce the limitations of depending only on natural preferences, all children are required to learn both important facts, and

Education reform important forms of reasoning. Diane Ravitch argues that "progressive" reformers have replaced a challenging liberal arts curriculum with ever-lower standards and indoctrination, particularly in inner-city schools, thereby preventing vast numbers of students from achieving their full potential.

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Education reform in the United States since the mid-20th century

Reforms arising from the civil rights era
From the 1950s to the 1970s, many of the proposed and implemented reforms in U.S. education stemmed from the Civil Rights Movement and related trends; examples include ending racial segregation, and busing for the purpose of desegregation, affirmative action, and banning of school prayer.[5]

Reform efforts in the 1980s

In the 1980s, some of the momentum of education reform moved from the left to the right, with the release of A Nation at Risk, Ronald Reagan's efforts to reduce or eliminate the United States Department of Education. In the latter half of the decade, E.D.Hirsch put forth an influential attack on one or more versions of progressive education, advocating an emphasis on "cultural literacy"the facts, phrases, and texts that Hirsch asserted every American had once known and that now only some knew, but was still essential for decoding basic texts and maintaining communication. Hirsch's ideas remain significant through the 1990s and into the 21st century, and are incorporated into classroom practice through textbooks and curricula published under his own imprint.

Reform efforts in the 1990s and 2000s

Most states and districts in the 1990s adopted Outcome-Based Education (OBE) in some form or another. A state would create a committee to adopt standards, and choose a quantitative instrument to assess whether the students knew the required content or could perform the required tasks. The standards-based National Education Goals (Goals 2000) were set by the U.S. Congress in the 1990s. Many of these goals were based on the principles of outcomes-based education, and not all of the goals were attained by the year 2000 as was intended. The standards-based reform movement culminated in the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, which as of 2009 is still an active nation-wide mandate in the United States. OBE reforms usually had other disputed methods, such as constructivist mathematics and whole language, added onto them.Wikipedia:Disputed statement Some proponentsWikipedia:Avoid weasel words advocated replacing the traditional high school diploma with a Certificate of Initial Mastery. Other reform movements were school-to-work, which would require all students except those in a university track to spend substantial class time on a job site. See also Uncommon Schools.

Contemporary issues
In the first decade of the 21st century, several issues are salient in debates over further education reform:[6] Longer school day or school year After-school tutoring Charter schools, school choice, or school vouchers Smaller class sizes[7] Improved teacher quality Improved training Higher credential standards Generally higher pay to attract more qualified applicants

Education reform Performance bonuses ("merit pay") Firing low-performing teachers Internet and computer access in schools Track and reduce drop-out rate Track and reduce absenteeism English-only vs. bilingual education Mainstreaming special education students Content of curriculum standards and textbooks Funding, neglected infrastructure, and adequacy of educational supplies

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Funding levels
According to a 2005 report from the OECD, the United States is tied for first place with Switzerland when it comes to annual spending per student on its public schools, with each of those two countries spending more than $11,000 (in U.S.currency).[8] Despite this high level of funding, U.S.public schools lag behind the schools of other rich countries in the areas of reading, math, and science.[9] A further analysis of developed countries shows no correlation between per student spending and student performance, suggesting that there are other factors influencing education. Top performers include Singapore, Finland and Korea, all with relatively low spending on education, while high spenders including Norway and Luxembourg have relatively low performance.[10] One possible factor, is the distribution of the funding. In the US, schools in wealthy areas tend to be over-funded while schools in poorer areas tend to be underfunded.[11] These differences in spending between schools or districts may accentuate inequalities, if they result in the best teachers moving to teach in the most wealthy areas.[12] It has also been shown that the socioeconomic situation of the students family has the most influence in determining success; suggesting that even if increased funds in a low income area increase performance, they may still perform worse than their peers from wealthier districts. Starting in the early 1980s, a series of analyses by Eric Hanushek indicated that the amount spent on schools bore little relationship to student learning.[13] This controversial argument, which focused attention on how money was spent instead of how much was spent, led to lengthy scholarly exchanges.[14] In part the arguments fed into the class size debates and other discussions of "input policies."[15] It also moved reform efforts towards issues of school accountability (including No Child Left Behind) and the use of merit pay and other incentives. There have been studies that show smaller class sizes[16] and newer buildings [17] (both of which require higher funding to implement) lead to academic improvements. It should also be noted that many of the reform ideas that stray from the traditional format require greater funding. It has been shown that some school districts do not use their funds in the most productive way. For example, according to a 2007 article in the Washington Post, the Washington, D.C. public school district spends $12,979 per student per year. This is the third highest level of funding per student out of the 100 biggest school districts in the United States. Despite this high level of funding, the school district provides outcomes that are lower than the national average. In reading and math, the district's students score the lowest among 11 major school districtseven when poor children are compared only with other poor children. 33% of poor fourth graders in the United States lack basic skills in math, but in Washington, D.C., it's 62%.[18] According to a 2006 study by the Goldwater Institute, Arizona's public schools spend 50% more per student than Arizona's private schools. The study also says that while teachers constitute 72% of the employees at private schools, they make up less than half of the staff at public schools. According to the study, if Arizona's public schools wanted to be like private schools, they would have to hire approximately 25,000 more teachers, and eliminate 21,210 administration employees. The study also said that public school teachers are paid about 50% more than private school teachers.[19] In 1985 in Kansas City, Missouri, a judge ordered the school district to raise taxes and spend more money on public education. Spending was increased so much, that the school district was spending more money per student than any

Education reform of the country's other 280 largest school districts. Although this very high level of spending continued for more than a decade, there was no improvement in the school district's academic performance.[20][21] According to a 1999 article, William J. Bennett, former U.S.Secretary of Education, argued that increased levels of spending on public education have not made the schools better, citing the following statistics:[22] Between 1960 and 1995, U.S. public school spending per student, adjusted for inflation, increased by 212%. In 1994, less than half of all U.S. public school employees were teachers. Out of 21 industrialized countries, U.S. 12th graders ranked 19th in math, 16th in science, and last in advanced physics.

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Alternatives to public education

In the United States, Private schools (independent schools) have long been an alternative to public education for those with the ability to pay tuition. These include religious schools, preparatory and boarding schools, and schools based on alternative philosophies such as Montessori education. Over 4million students, about one in twelve children attend religious schools in the United States, most of them Christian.[23] Montessori pre- and primary school programs employ alternative theories of guided exploration which seek to embrace children's natural curiosity rather than, for instance, scolding them for falling out of rank. Home education is favored by a growing number of parents who take direct responsibility for their children's education rather than enrolling them in local public schools seen as not meeting expectations.

School choice
Economists such as Nobel laureate Milton Friedman advocate school choice to promote excellence in education through competition and choice. A competitive "market" for schools eliminates the need to otherwise attempt a workable method of accountability for results. Public education vouchers permit guardians to select and pay any school, public or private, with public funds currently allocated to local public schools. The theory is that children's guardians will naturally shop for the best schools, much as is already done at college level. Though appealing in theory, many reforms based on school choice have led to slight to moderate improvements--which some teachers' union members see as insufficient to offset the decreased teacher pay and job security.[24] For instance, New Zealand's landmark reform in 1989, during which schools were granted substantial autonomy, funding was devolved to schools, and parents were given a free choice of which school their children would attend, led to moderate improvements in most schools. It was argued that the associated increases in inequity and greater racial stratification in schools nullified the educational gains. Others, however, argued that the original system created more inequity (due to lower income students being required to attend poorer performing inner city schools and not being allowed school choice or better educations that are available to higher income inhabitants of suburbs). Instead, it was argued that the school choice promoted social mobility and increased test scores especially in the cases of low income students. Similar results have been found in other jurisdictions. Though discouraging, the merely slight improvements of some school choice policies often seems to reflect weaknesses in the way that choice is implemented rather than a failure of the basic principle itself.[25]

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Barriers to reform
A study by the Fordham Institute found that some labor agreements with teachers' unions may restrict the ability of school systems to implement merit pay and other reforms. Contracts were more restrictive in districts with high concentrations of poor and minority students.[26] The methodology and conclusions of the study have been criticized by teachers' unions.[27] Another barrier to reform is assuming that schools are like businesseswhen in fact they are very different.[28]

Motivations
Education reform has been pursued for a variety of specific reasons, but generally most reforms aim at redressing some societal ills, such as poverty-, gender-, or class-based inequities, or perceived ineffectiveness. Reforms are usually proposed by thinkers who aim to redress societal ills or institute societal changes, most often through a change in the education of the members of a class of peoplethe preparation of a ruling class to rule or a working class to work, the social hygiene of a lower or immigrant class, the preparation of citizens in a democracy or republic, etc. The idea that all children should be provided with a high level of education is a relatively recent idea, and has arisen largely in the context of Western democracy in the 20th century. The "beliefs" of school districts are optimistic that quite literally "all students will succeed", which in the context of high school graduation examination in the United States, all students in all groups, regardess of heritage or income will pass tests that in the introduction typically fall beyond the ability of all but the top 20 to 30 percent of students. The claims clearly renounce historical research that shows that all ethnic and income groups score differently on all standardized tests and standards based assessments and that students will achieve on a bell curve. Instead, education officials across the world believe that by setting clear, achievable, higher standards, aligning the curriculum, and assessing outcomes, learning can be increased for all students, and more students can succeed than the 50 percent who are defined to be above or below grade level by norm referenced standards. States have tried to use state schools to increase state power, especially to make better soldiers and workers. This strategy was first adopted to unify related linguistic groups in Europe, including France, Germany and Italy. Exact mechanisms are unclear, but it often fails in areas where populations are culturally segregated, as when the U.S. Indian school service failed to suppress Lakota and Navaho, or when a culture has widely respected autonomous cultural institutions, as when the Spanish failed to suppress Catalan. Many students of democracy have desired to improve education in order to improve the quality of governance in democratic societies; the necessity of good public education follows logically if one believes that the quality of democratic governance depends on the ability of citizens to make informed, intelligent choices, and that education can improve these abilities. Politically motivated educational reforms of the democratic type are recorded as far back as Plato in The Republic. In the United States of America, this lineage of democratic education reform was continued by Thomas Jefferson, who advocated ambitious reforms partly along Platonic lines for public schooling in Virginia. Another motivation for reform is the desire to address socio-economic problems, which many people see as having significant roots in lack of education. Starting in the 20th century, people have attempted to argue that small improvements in education can have large returns in such areas as health, wealth and well-being. For example, in Kerala, India in the 1950s, increases in women's health were correlated with increases in female literacy rates. In Iran, increased primary education was correlated with increased farming efficiencies and income. In both cases some researchers have concluded these correlations as representing an underlying causal relationship: education causes socio-economic benefits. In the case of Iran, researchers concluded that the improvements were due to farmers gaining reliable access to national crop prices and scientific farming information.

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Digital Education
The movement to use computers more in education naturally includes many unrelated ideas, methods, and pedagogies since there are many uses for digital computers. For example, the fact that computers are naturally good at math leads to the question of the use of calculators in math education. The Internet's communication capabilities make it potentially useful for collaboration, and foreign language learning. The computer's ability to simulate physical systems makes it potentially useful in teaching science. More often, however, debate of digital education reform centers around more general applications of computers to education, such as electronic test-taking and online classes. The idea of creating artificial intelligence led some computer scientists to believe that teachers could be replaced by computers, through something like an expert system; however, attempts to accomplish this have predictably proved inflexible. The computer is now more understood to be a tool or assistant for the teacher and students. Harnessing the richness of the Internet is another goal. In some cases classrooms have been moved entirely online, while in other instances the goal is more to learn how the Internet can be more than a classroom. Web-based international educational software is under development by students at New York University, based on the belief that current educational institutions are too rigid: effective teaching is not routine, students are not passive, and questions of practice are not predictable or standardized. The software allows for courses tailored to an individual's abilities through frequent and automatic multiple intelligences assessments. Ultimate goals include assisting students to be intrinsically motivated to educate themselves, and aiding the student in self-actualization. Courses typically taught only in college are being reformatted so that they can be taught to any level of student, whereby elementary school students may learn the foundations of any topic they desire. Such a program has the potential to remove the bureaucratic inefficiencies of education in modern countries, and with the decreasing digital divide, help developing nations rapidly achieve a similar quality of education. With an open format similar to Wikipedia, any teacher may upload their courses online and a feedback system will help students choose relevant courses of the highest quality. Teachers can provide links in their digital courses to webcast videos of their lectures. Students will have personal academic profiles and a forum will allow students to pose complex questions, while simpler questions will be automatically answered by the software, which will bring you to a solution by searching through the knowledge database, which includes all available courses and topics. The 21st century ushered in the acceptance and encouragement of internet research conducted on college and university campuses, in homes, and even in gathering areas of shopping centers. Addition of cyber cafes on campuses and coffee shops, loaning of communication devices from libraries, and availability of more portable technology devices, opened up a world of educational resources. Availability of knowledge to the elite had always been obvious, yet provision of networking devices, even wireless gadget sign-outs from libraries, made availability of information an expectation of most persons. Cassandra B. Whyte researched the future of computer use on higher education campuses focusing on student affairs. Though at first seen as a data collection and outcome reporting tool, the use of computer technology in the classrooms, meeting areas, and homes continued to unfold. The sole dependence on paper resources for subject information diminished and e-books and articles, as well as on-line courses, were anticipated to become increasingly staple and affordable choices provided by higher education institutions according to Whyte in a 2002 presentation.[29][30] Digitally "flipping" classrooms is a trend in digital education that has gained significant momentum. Will Richardson <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Richardson>, author and visionary for the digital education realm, points to the not-so-distant future and the seemingly infinite possibilities for digital communication linked to improved education. Education on the whole, as a stand-alone entity, has been slow to embrace these changes. There are documented cases of specific school projects that have seen views toppling the 3 million mark. [Richardson footnote] The use of web tools such as wikis, blogs, and social networking sites is tied to increasing overall effectiveness of digital education in schools. Examples exist of teacher and student success stories where learning has transcended the classroom and has reached far out into society.[31]

Education reform Creativity is of the utmost importance when improving education. The "creative teachers" must have the confidence through training and availability of support and resources. These creative teachers are strongly encouraged to embrace a person-centered approach that develops the psychology of the educator ahead or in conjunction with the deployment of machines.[32] Creative teachers have been also been inspired through Crowd-Accelerated Innovation. Crowd-Accelerated Innovation has pushed people to transition between media types and their understanding thereof at record-breaking paces.[33] This process serves as a catalyst for creative direction and new methods of innovation. Innovation without desire and drive inevitably flat lines.[33] Mainstream media continues to be both very influential and the medium where Crowd-Accelerated Innovation gains its leverage. Media is in direct competition with formal educational institutions in shaping the minds of today and those of tomorrow. [Buchanan, Rachel footnote] The media has been instrumental in pushing formal educational institutions to become savvier in their methods. Additionally, advertising has been (and continues to be) a vital force in shaping students and parents thought patterns.[34] Technology is a dynamic entity that is constantly in flux. As time presses on, new technologies will continue to break paradigms that will reshape human thinking regarding technological innovation. This concept stresses a certain disconnect between teachers and learners and the growing chasm that started some time ago. Richardson asserts that traditional classrooms will essentially enter entropy unless teachers increase their comfort and proficiency with technology.[31] Administrators are not exempt from the technological disconnect. They must recognize the existence of a younger generation of teachers who were born during the Digital Age and are very comfortable with technology. However, when old meets new, especially in a mentoring situation, conflict seems inevitable. Ironically, the answer to the outdated mentor may be digital collaboration with worldwide mentor webs; composed of individuals with creative ideas for the classroom.[35] Another viable addition to digital education has been blended learning. In 2009, over 3 million K-12 students took an online course, compared to 2000 when 45,000 took an online course. Blended learning examples include pure online, blended, and traditional education. Research results show that the most effective learning takes place in a blended format.[36] This allows children to view the lecture ahead of time and then spend class time practicing, refining, and applying what they have previously learned.

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Notable reforms
Some of the methods and reforms have gained permanent advocates, and are widely utilized. Many educators now believe that anything that more precisely meets the needs of the child will work better. This was initiated by M. Montessori and is still utilized in Montessori schools. The teaching method must be teachable! This is a lesson from both Montessori and Dewey. This view now has very wide currency, and is used to select much of the curricula of teachers' colleges. Conservative programs are often based on classical education, which is seen by conservatives to reliably teach valuable skills in a developmentally appropriate order to the majority of Myers-Briggs temperaments, by teaching facts. New programs based on modern learning theories that test individual learning, and teach to mastery of a subject have been proved by the Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA) to be far more effective than group instruction with compromise schedules, or even class-size reduction.[37] Schools with limited resources, such as most public schools and most third-world and missionary schools, use a grammar-school approach. The evidence of Lancaster schools suggests using students as teachers. If the culture supports it, perhaps the economic discipline of the Lancaster school can reduce costs even further. However, much of the success of Lancaster's "school economy" was that the children were natives of an intensely mercantile culture.

Education reform In order to be effective, classroom instruction needs to change subjects at times near a typical student's attention span, which can be as frequently as every two minutes for young children. This is an important part of Marva Collins' method. The Myers-Briggs temperaments fall into four broad categories, each sufficiently different to justify completely different educational theories. Many developmental psychologists say that it might be socially profitable to test for and target temperaments with special curricula. Some of the Myers-Briggs temperaments are known to despise educational material that lacks theory. Therefore, effective curricula need to raise and answer "which" and "why" questions, to teach students with "intuitive" (Myers-Briggs) modalities. Philosophers identify independent, logical reasoning as a precondition to most western science, engineering, economic and political theory. Therefore, every educational program that desires to improve students' outcomes in political, health and economic behavior should include a Socratically taught set of classes to teach logic and critical thinking. Substantial resources and time can be saved by permitting students to test out of classes. This also increases motivation, directs individual study, and reduces boredom and disciplinary problems. To support inexpensive continuing adult education a community needs a free public library. It can start modestly as shelves in an attended shop or government building, with donated books. Attendants are essential to protect the books from vandalism. Adult education repays itself many times over by providing direct opportunity to adults. Free libraries are also powerful resources for schools and businesses. A notable reform of the education system of Massachusetts [38] occurred in 1993. The current student voice effort echoes past school reform initiatives focusing on parent involvement, community involvement, and other forms of participation in schools. However, it is finding a significant amount of success in schools because of the inherent differences: student voice is central to the daily schooling experience because students spend all day there. Many educators today strive for meaningful student involvement in their classrooms, while school administrators, school board members, and elected officials each lurch to hear what students have to say.

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Internationally
Taiwan
In other parts of the world, educational reform has had a number of different meanings. In Taiwan in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century a movement tried to prioritize reasoning over mere facts, reduce the emphasis on central control and standardized testing. There was consensus on the problems. Efforts were limited because there was little consensus on the goals of educational reforms, and therefore on how to fix the problems. By 2003, the push for education reform had declined.

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Further reading
Comer, J.P. (1997). Waiting for a Miracle: Why Schools Cant Solve Our Problems- and How We Can. New York: Penguin Books. Cuban, L. (2003). Why Is It So Hard to Get Good Schools? New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Darling-Hammond, Linda. (1997) The Right to Learn: A Blueprint for Creating Schools that Work. Jossey-Bass. Dewey, J. and Dewey, E. (1915). Schools of To-morrow. New York: E.P. Dutton and Company. Gatto, John Taylor (1992). Dumbing Us Down: The Hidden Curriculum of Compulsory Schooling. Canada: New Society Publishers. Glazek, S.D. and Sarason, S.B. (2007). Productive Learning: Science, Art, and Einsteins Relativity in Education Reform. New York: Sage Publications, Inc. Goodland, J.I. and Anderson, R.H. (1959 and 1987). The Nongraded Elementary School. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. James, Laurie. (1994) Outrageous Questions: Legacy of Bronson Alcott and America's One-Room Schools New York. Katz, M.B. (1971). Class, Bureaucracy, and Schools: The Illusion of Educational Change in America. New York: Praeger Publishers. Kliebard, Herbert. (1987) The Struggle for the American Curriculum. New York : Routledge & Kegan Paul. Kohn, A. (1999). The Schools Our Children Deserve: Moving Beyond Traditional Classrooms and 'Tougher Standards'. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Murphy, J.H. and Beck, L.G. (1995). School-Based Management as School Reform: Taking Stock. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Ogbu, J.U. (1978). Minority Education and Caste: The American System in Cross-Cultural Perspective. New York: Academic Press. Ravitch, D. (1988). The Great School Wars: A History of the New York City Public Schools. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Sarason, S.B. (1996). Revisiting 'The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change'. New York: Teachers College Press. Sarason, S.B. (1990). The Predictable Failure of Educational Reform: Can We Change Course Before Its Too Late? San Francisco: Josey-Bass, Inc. Sizer, T.R. (1984). Horaces Compromise: The Dilemma of the American High School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Tyack, David and Cuban, Larry. (1995) Tinkering Toward Utopia: a century of public school reform. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Zwaagstra, Michael; Clifton, Rodney; and Long, John. (2010) What's Wrong with Our Schools: and How We Can Fix Them. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 1-60709-157-7

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References
[1] Whelan, Lessons Learned (2009) [2] E.g. in Paris, on the left bank of the Seine, which served the students of the Sorbonne, even the shop keepers spoke Latin, and the people were notorious political radicals (admirers of Greek democracy or the Roman Republic rather than Monarchists), and Socratic skeptics of the predominant Catholic culture. Similar effects occurred in other European university cities, such as Heidelberg and Pisa. [3] http:/ / www. constitution. org/ lanc/ improv-1803. htm [4] Educational Economies in the 1800s - K12 Academics (http:/ / www. k12academics. com/ education-reform/ educational-economies-1800s) [5] Tyack and Cuban, p. 29 [7] Professor: Smaller Class Sizes Optimal For Kids (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=113176988). All Things Considered, National Public Radio. 24 September 2009. [8] OECD calls for broader access to post-school education and training (http:/ / www. oecd. org/ general/ oecdcallsforbroaderaccesstopost-schooleducationandtraining. htm), OECD, September 13, 2005 [9] Who's No.1? Finland, Japan, and Korea, Says OECD (http:/ / www. siteselection. com/ ssinsider/ snapshot/ sf011210. htm) [10] OECD, PISA 2006. Whelan, Lessons Learned: How Good Polices Produce Better Schools, 2009. See also Eric Hanushek and Ludger Woessmann, "The economics of international differences in educational achievement," in Eric A. Hanushek, Stephen Machin, and Ludger Woessmann (eds.), Handbook of the Economics of Education, Vol.3 (Amsterdam: North Holland, 2011): 89-200. [12] National Catholic Reporter, May 2, 1997, by John Allen (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1141/ is_n26_v33/ ai_19389741) [13] See Eric Hanushek, "Throwing money at schools", Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 1, no.1 (Fall 1981): 19-41; Eric Hanushek, "The economics of schooling: Production and efficiency in public schools," Journal of Economic Literature 24, no. 3 (September 1986): 1141-1177; Eric Hanushek, "The failure of input-based schooling policies", Economic Journal 113, no. 485 (February): F64-F98. [14] For example, see Gary Burtless (ed.), Does money matter? The effect of school resources on student achievement and adult success (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1996) or Alan B. Krueger, "Reassessing the view that American schools are broken." FRBNY Economic Policy Review, 1998 [15] Alan B. Krueger, "Experimental estimates of education production functions," Quarterly Journal of Economics 114, no. 2 (May 1999): 497-532; Eric Hanushek "The evidence on class size", in Susan E. Mayer and Paul E. Peterson(eds.), Earning and learning: How schools matter (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1999): 131-168; Lawrence Mishel and Richard Rothstein (eds.), The class size debate (Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 2002). [16] Education Week July 1, 2011 (http:/ / www. edweek. org/ ew/ issues/ class-size/ ,) [17] (http:/ / sdpl. coe. uga. edu/ researchabstracts/ age. html), University of Georgia, April 1999 [18] Can D.C. Schools Be Fixed? (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 06/ 09/ AR2007060901415. html?hpid=topnews), Washington Post, June 10, 2007 [19] Private Schools Now 33% Off! (http:/ / www. cato-at-liberty. org/ private-schools-now-33-off/ ), Cato Institute, October 18, 2006 [20] Money And School Performance: Lessons from the Kansas City Desegregation Experiment (http:/ / www. cato. org/ pubs/ pas/ pa-298. html), Cato Institute, March 16, 1998 [21] Catastrophe in Kansas City (http:/ / www. amren. com/ news/ 2008/ 05/ catastrophe_in_1/ ), December 1995 [22] 20 Troubling Facts about American Education (http:/ / news. heartland. org/ newspaper-article/ 1999/ 10/ 01/ 20-troubling-facts-about-american-education), William J. Bennett, October 1999 [23] Boston.com / News / Boston Globe / Opinion / Op-ed / Making the case for parochial schools (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ globe/ editorial_opinion/ oped/ articles/ 2004/ 05/ 09/ making_the_case_for_parochial_schools/ ) [24] Whelan, Lessons Learned: How good policies produce better schools (2009) [25] Whelan, Lessons Learned: How good policies produce better schools (2009). Fiske, Ladd, When Schools Compete (2000) [26] Frederick M. Hess and Coby Loup, "The LEADERSHIP LIMBO: Teacher Labor Agreements in Americas Fifty Largest School Districts", (http:/ / www. edexcellence. net/ publications/ the-leadership-limbo. html) Fordham Institute, February 2008 [27] Nelson Hernandez, "Some Teachers' Contracts Bind Reforms, Study Says: Agreements in D.C. Region Generally Praised," (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2008/ 02/ 24/ AR2008022402012. html?hpid=sec-education) The Washington Post, Monday, February 25, 2008; Page B04 [28] White, J., & Lowenthal, P.R. (2009, Spring). "The cyclical rhetoric of educational reform and the rationalization of a failed zeitgeist". eJournal of Education Policy. Retrieved from https:/ / www4. nau. edu/ cee/ jep/ journals. aspx?id=282 [29] Whyte, Cassandra Bolyard. (1989)."Student Affairs-The Future". Journal of College Student Development.30. (1). 86-89. [30] Whyte, Cassandra Bolyard (2002) Presentation at a Round Table Forum on Higher Education Topics.Oxford, England. [31] Richardson, Will. 2010. Blogs, Wikis, Podcasts and Other Powerful Web Tools for Classrooms 3rd ed.,155, Corwin Press [32] Song, H.-D., Wang, W.-T., & Liu, C.-Y. (2011). A Simulation Model that Decreases Faculty Concerns about Adopting Web Based Instruction. Educational Technology & Society, 14 (3), 141151. Retrieved from http:/ / www. ifets. info/ journals/ 14_3/ 12. pdf. [33] Anderson, Chris. Crowd Accelerated Innovation. Wired Magazine. January 2011. Retrieved from http:/ / www. wired. com/ magazine/ 2010/ 12/ ff_tedvideos/ [34] Buchanan, Rachel.Paradox, Promise and Public Pedagogy: Implications of the Federal Governments Digital Education Revolution.Vol. 36, Issue 2, Article 6, P. 73, March 2011.

Education reform
[35] Gibson, S. (2009). Are our pre-service teachers prepared to teach in a digital age? In T. Bastiaens et al.(Eds.),Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 200(pp. 2609-2617). [36] Horn, M., Stacker, H.The Rise of K-12 Blended Learning Innosight Institute. January 2011. Retrieved from www.innosightinstitute.org [38] http:/ / ideas. repec. org/ a/ teg/ journl/ v1y2005i1p1-36. html

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External links
Education reform (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Education/Education_Reform/) at the Open Directory Project Education reform and policy videos (http://www.globalpolicy.tv/topics/education/achievement-gap/itemlist/ tag/school reform) at the Forum for Education and Democracy Conference

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Teachers
Teacher
Teacher

Classroom at a secondary school in Pendembu, Sierra Leone. Occupation Names Activity sectors Teacher, schoolteacher Education Description Competencies Teaching abilities, pleasant disposition, patience

Education required Teaching certification

A teacher or schoolteacher is a person who provides education for pupils (children) and students (adults). The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain specified professional qualifications or credentials from a university or college. These professional qualifications may include the study of pedagogy, the science of teaching. Teachers, like other professionals, may have to continue their education after they qualify, a process known as continuing professional development. Teachers may use a lesson plan to facilitate student learning, providing a course of study which is called the curriculum. A teacher's role may vary among cultures. Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills.
Jewish children with their teacher in Samarkand, the beginning of the 20th century

A teacher who facilitates education for an individual may also be described as a personal tutor, or, largely historically, a governess. In some countries, formal education can take place through home schooling. Informal learning may be assisted by a teacher occupying a transient or ongoing role, such as a family member, or by anyone with knowledge or skills in the wider community setting. Religious and spiritual teachers, such as gurus, mullahs, rabbis, pastors/youth pastors and lamas, may teach religious texts such as the Quran, Torah or Bible.

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Professional educators
Teaching may be carried out informally, within the family, which is called home schooling (see Homeschooling), or in the wider community. Formal teaching may be carried out by paid professionals. Such professionals enjoy a status in some societies on a par with physicians, lawyers, engineers, and accountants (Chartered or CPA). A teacher's professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. Outside of the classroom teachers may accompany students on field trips, supervise study halls, help with the organization of school functions, and serve as supervisors for extracurricular activities. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline. Around the world teachers are often required to obtain specialized education, knowledge, codes of ethics and internal monitoring. There are a variety of bodies designed to instill, preserve and update the knowledge and professional standing of teachers. Around the world many governments operate teacher's colleges, which are generally established to serve and protect the public interest through certifying, governing and enforcing the standards of practice for the teaching profession.

A teacher of a Latin school and two students, 1487

The functions of the teacher's colleges may include setting out clear standards of practice, providing for the ongoing education of teachers, investigating complaints involving members, conducting hearings into allegations of professional misconduct and taking appropriate disciplinary action and accrediting teacher education programs. In many situations teachers in publicly funded schools must be members in good standing with the college, and private schools may also require their teachers to be college peoples. In other areas these roles may belong to the State Board of Education, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the State Education Agency or other governmental bodies. In still other areas Teaching Unions may be responsible for some or all of these duties.

Pedagogy and teaching

In education, teachers facilitate student learning, often in a school or academy or perhaps in another environment such as outdoors. A teacher who teaches on an individual basis may be described as a tutor.

Dutch schoolmaster and children, 1662

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A primary school teacher in northern Laos

The teacher-student-monument in Rostock, Germany, honours teachers

The objective is typically accomplished through either an informal or formal approach to learning, including a course of study and lesson plan that teaches skills, knowledge and/or thinking skills. Different ways to teach are often referred to as pedagogy. When deciding what teaching method to use teachers consider students' background knowledge, environment, and their learning goals as well as standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. Many times, teachers assist in learning outside of the classroom by accompanying students on field trips. The increasing use of technology, specifically the rise of the internet over the past decade, has begun to shape the way teachers approach their roles in the classroom.

GDR "village teacher", a teacher teaching students of all age groups in one class in 1951

The objective is typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill. A teacher may follow standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. The teacher may interact with students of different ages, from infants to adults, students with different abilities and students with learning disabilities. Teaching using pedagogy also involve assessing the educational levels of the students on particular skills. Understanding the pedagogy of the students in a classroom involves using differentiated instruction as well as supervision to meet the needs of all students in the classroom. Pedagogy can be thought of in two manners. First, teaching itself can be taught in many different ways, hence, using a pedagogy of teaching styles. Second, the pedagogy of the learners comes into play when a teacher assesses the pedagogic diversity of his/her students and differentiates for the individual students accordingly.

Teacher Perhaps the most significant difference between primary school and secondary school teaching is the relationship between teachers and children. In primary schools each class has a teacher who stays with them for most of the week and will teach them the whole curriculum. In secondary schools they will be taught by different subject specialists each session during the week and may have 10 or more different teachers. The relationship between children and their teachers tends to be closer in the primary school where they act as form tutor, specialist teacher and surrogate parent during the course of the day. This is true throughout most of the United States as well. However, alternative approaches for primary education do exist. One of these, sometimes referred to as a "platoon" system, involves placing a group of students together in one class that moves from one specialist to another for every subject. The advantage here is that students learn from teachers who specialize in one subject and who tend to be more knowledgeable in that one area than a teacher who teaches many subjects. Students still derive a strong sense of security by staying with the same group of peers for all classes. Co-teaching has also become a new trend amongst educational institutions. Co-teaching is defined as two or more teachers working harmoniously to fulfill the needs of every student in the classroom. Co-teaching focuses the student on learning by providing a social networking support that allows them to reach their full cognitive potential. Co-teachers work in sync with one another to create a climate of learning.

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Rights to enforce school discipline

Throughout the history of education the most common form of school discipline was corporal punishment. While a child was in school, a teacher was expected to act as a substitute parent, with all the normal forms of parental discipline open to them. In past times, corporal punishment (spanking or paddling or caning or strapping or birching the student in order to cause physical pain) was one of the most common forms of school discipline throughout much of the world. Most Western countries, and some others, have now banned it, but it remains lawful in the United States following a US Supreme Court decision in 1977 which held that paddling did not violate the US Constitution.[1] 30 US states have banned corporal punishment, the others (mostly in the South) have not. It is still used to a significant (though declining) degree in some public schools in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. Private schools in these and most other states may also use it. Corporal punishment in American schools is administered to the seat of the student's trousers or skirt with a specially made wooden paddle. This often used to take place in the classroom or hallway, but nowadays the punishment is usually given privately in the principal's office.

Medieval schoolboy birched on the bare buttocks

Official corporal punishment, often by caning, remains commonplace in schools in some Asian, African and Caribbean countries. For details of individual countries see School corporal punishment. Currently detention is one of the most common punishments in schools in the United States, the UK, Ireland, Singapore and other countries. It requires the pupil to remain in school at a given time in the school day (such as lunch, recess or after school); or even to attend school on a non-school day, e.g. "Saturday detention" held at some schools. During detention, students normally have to sit in a classroom and do work, write lines or a punishment essay, or sit quietly. A modern example of school discipline in North America and Western Europe relies upon the idea of an assertive teacher who is prepared to impose their will upon a class. Positive reinforcement is balanced with immediate and fair punishment for misbehavior and firm, clear boundaries define what is appropriate and inappropriate behavior.

Teacher Teachers are expected to respect their students; sarcasm and attempts to humiliate pupils are seen as falling outside of what constitutes reasonable discipline.Wikipedia:Verifiability Whilst this is the consensus viewpoint amongst the majority of academics, some teachers and parents advocate a more assertive and confrontational style of discipline.[citation needed] Such individuals claim that many problems with modern schooling stem from the weakness in school discipline and if teachers exercised firm control over the classroom they would be able to teach more efficiently. This viewpoint is supported by the educational attainment of countriesin East Asia for instancethat combine strict discipline with high standards of education.[citation needed] It's not clear, however that this stereotypical view reflects the reality of East Asian classrooms or that the educational goals in these countries are commensurable with those in Western countries. In Japan, for example, although average attainment on standardized tests may exceed those in Western countries, classroom discipline and behavior is highly problematic. Although, officially, schools have extremely rigid codes of behavior, in practice many teachers find the students unmanageable and do not enforce discipline at all. Where school class sizes are typically 40 to 50 students, maintaining order in the classroom can divert the teacher from instruction, leaving little opportunity for concentration and focus on what is being taught. In response, teachers may concentrate their attention on motivated students, ignoring attention-seeking and disruptive students. The result of this is that motivated students, facing demanding university entrance examinations, receive disproportionate resources. Given the emphasis on attainment of university places, administrators and governors may regard this policy as appropriate.

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Obligation to honor students rights

Sudbury model democratic schools claim that popularly based authority can maintain order more effectively than dictatorial authority for governments and schools alike. They also claim that in these schools the preservation of public order is easier and more efficient than anywhere else. Primarily because rules and regulations are made by the community as a whole, thence the school atmosphere is one of persuasion and negotiation, rather than confrontation since there is no one to confront. Sudbury model democratic schools' proponents argue that a school that has good, clear laws, fairly and democratically passed by the entire school community, and a good judicial system for enforcing these laws, is a school in which community discipline prevails, and in which an increasingly sophisticated concept of law and order develops, against other schools today, where rules are arbitrary, authority is absolute, punishment is capricious, and due process of law is unknown.[2][3]

Teacher enthusiasm
Since teachers can affect how students perceive the course materials, it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can affect a positive learning experience towards the course materials. On teacher/course evaluations, it was found that teachers who have a positive disposition towards the course content tend to transfer their passion to receptive students.[4] These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the course materials on a daily basis.[5] One of the difficulties in this approach is that teachers may have repeatedly covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject which in turn bores the students as well. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didn't show much enthusiasm for the course materials.[citation needed]

A teacher and young pupils at The British Museum Duveen Gallery

Teacher Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students' intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom.[6] Controlled, experimental studies exploring intrinsic motivation of college students has shown that nonverbal expressions of enthusiasm, such as demonstrative gesturing, dramatic movements which are varied, and emotional facial expressions, result in college students reporting higher levels of intrinsic motivation to learn.[citation needed] Students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation. Teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere full of energy and enthusiasm which feed student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter.[citation needed] Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to students becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teacher's enthusiasm may contribute to the student's expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning. Also, enthusiasm may act as a "motivational embellishment"; increasing a student's interest by the variety, novelty, and surprise of the enthusiastic teacher's presentation of the material. Finally, the concept of emotional contagion, may also apply. Students may become more intrinsically motivated by catching onto the enthusiasm and energy of the teacher.[citation needed] Research shows that student motivation and attitudes towards school are closely linked to student-teacher relationships. Enthusiastic teachers are particularly good at creating beneficial relations with their students. Their ability to create effective learning environments that foster student achievement depends on the kind of relationship they build with their students.[7][8][9][10] Useful teacher-to-student interactions are crucial in linking academic success with personal achievement.[11] Here, personal success is a student's internal goal of improving himself, whereas academic success includes the goals he receives from his superior. A teacher must guide his student in aligning his personal goals with his academic goals. Students who receive this positive influence show stronger self-confidence and greater personal and academic success than those without these teacher interactions.[10][12][13] Students are likely to build stronger relations with teachers who are friendly and supportive and will show more interest in courses taught by these teachers.[11][12] Teachers that spend more time interacting and working directly with students are perceived as supportive and effective teachers. Effective teachers have been shown to invite student participation and decision making, allow humor into their classroom, and demonstrate a willingness to play.[8] The way a teacher promotes the course they are teaching, the more the student will get out of the subject matter. The three most important aspects of teacher enthusiasm are enthusiasm about teaching, enthusiasm about the students, and enthusiasm about the subject matter. A teacher must enjoy teaching. If they do not enjoy what they are doing, the students will be able to tell. They also must enjoy being around their students. A teacher who cares for their students is going to help that individual succeed in their life in the future. The teacher also needs to be enthusiastic about the subject matter they are teaching. For example, a teacher talking about chemsitry needs to enjoy the art of chemistry and show that to their students. A spark in the teacher may create a spark of excitement in the student as well. An enthusiastic teacher has the ability to be very influential in the young students life.

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Misconduct
Misconduct by teachers, especially sexual misconduct, has been getting increased scrutiny from the media and the courts.[14] A study by the American Association of University Women reported that 9.6% of students in the United States claim to have received unwanted sexual attention from an adult associated with education; be they a volunteer, bus driver, teacher, administrator or other adult; sometime during their educational career.[] A study in England showed a 0.3% prevalence of sexual abuse by any professional, a group that included priests, religious leaders, and case workers as well as teachers.[15] It is important to note, however, that the British study referenced above is the only one of its kind and consisted of "a random ... probability sample of 2,869 young people between the ages of 18 and 24 in a computer-assisted study" and that the questions referred to "sexual abuse with a professional," not necessarily a teacher. It is therefore logical to conclude that information on the percentage of abuses by teachers in the United Kingdom is not explicitly available and therefore not necessarily reliable. The AAUW study, however, posed questions about fourteen types of sexual harassment and various degrees of frequency and included only abuses by teachers. "The sample was drawn from a list of 80,000 schools to create a stratified two-stage sample design of 2,065 8th to 11th grade students"Its reliability was gauged at 95% with a 4% margin of error. In the United States especially, several high-profile cases such as Debra LaFave, Pamela Rogers, and Mary Kay Latourneau have caused increased scrutiny on teacher misconduct. Chris Keates, the general secretary of National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers, said that teachers who have sex with pupils over the age of consent should not be placed on the sex offenders register and that prosecution for statutory rape "is a real anomaly in the law that we are concerned about." This has led to outrage from child protection and parental rights groups.[16]

Teaching around the world

There are many similarities and differences among teachers around the world. In almost all countries teachers are educated in a university or college. Governments may require certification by a recognized body before they can teach in a school. In many countries, elementary school education certificate is earned after completion of high school. The high school student follows an education specialty track, obtain the prerequisite "student-teaching" time, and receive a special diploma to begin teaching after graduation. International schools generally follow an English-speaking, Western curriculum and are aimed at expatriate communities.[]

Canada
Teaching in Canada requires a post-secondary degree Bachelor's Degree. In most provinces a second Bachelor's Degree such as a Bachelor of Education is required to become a qualified teacher. Salary ranges from $40,000/year to $90,000/yr. Teachers have the option to teach for a public school which is funded by the provincial government or teaching in a private school which is funded by the private sector, businesses and sponsors.

England
Salaries for Nursery, Primary and Secondary School teachers ranged from 20,133 to 41,004 in September 2007, although some salaries can go much higher depending on experience and extra responsibilities.[17] Preschool teachers may earn 20,980 annually.[citation needed] Teachers in state schools must have at least a bachelor's degree, complete an approved teacher education program, and be licensed. Many counties offer alternative licensing programs to attract people into teaching, especially for hard-to-fill positions. Excellent job opportunities are expected as retirements, especially among secondary school teachers, outweigh slowing enrollment growth; opportunities will vary by geographic area and subject taught.[citation needed]

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France
In France, teachers, or professors, are mainly civil servants, recruited by competitive examination.

Republic of Ireland
Salaries for primary teachers in the Republic of Ireland depend mainly on seniority (i.e. holding the position of principal, deputy principal or assistant principal), experience and qualifications. Extra pay is also given for teaching through the Irish language, in a Gaeltacht area or on an island. The basic pay for a starting teacher is 27,814 p.a., rising incrementally to 53,423 for a teacher with 25 years service. A principal of a large school with many years experience and several qualifications (M.A., H.Dip., etc.) could earn over 90,000.[18] Teachers are required to be registered with the Teaching Council [19]; under Section 30 of the Teaching Council Act 2001, a person employed in any capacity in a recognised teaching post - who is not registered with the Teaching Council - may not be paid from Oireachtas funds.[20][21] From 2006 Garda vetting has been introduced for new entrants to the teaching profession. These procedures apply to teaching and also to non-teaching posts and those who refuse vetting "cannot be appointed or engaged by the school in any capacity including in a voluntary role". Existing staff will be vetted on a phased basis.[22][23]

Scotland
In Scotland, anyone wishing to teach must be registered with the General Teaching Council for Scotland (GTCS). Teaching in Scotland is an all graduate profession and the normal route for graduates wishing to teach is to complete a programme of Initial Teacher Education (ITE) at one of the seven Scottish Universities who offer these courses. Once successfully completed, "Provisional Registration" is given by the GTCS which is raised to "Full Registration" status after a year if there is sufficient evidence to show that the "Standard for Full Registration" has been met.[24] For the salary year beginning April 2008, unpromoted teachers in Scotland earned from 20,427 for a Probationer, up to 32,583 after 6 years teaching, but could then go on to earn up to 39,942 as they complete the modules to earn Chartered Teacher Status (requiring at least 6 years at up to two modules per year.) Promotion to Principal Teacher positions attracts a salary of between 34,566 and 44,616; Deputy Head, and Head teachers earn from 40,290 to 78,642.[25] Teachers in Scotland can be registered members of trade unions such as ATL.

United States
In the United States, each state determines the requirements for getting a license to teach in public schools. Teaching certification generally lasts three years, but teachers can receive certificates that last as long as ten years.[26] Public school teachers are required to have a bachelor's degree and the majority must be certified by the state in which they teach. Many charter schools do not require that their teachers be certified, provided they meet the standards to be highly qualified as set by No Child Left Behind. Additionally, the requirements for substitute/temporary teachers are generally not as rigorous as those for full-time professionals. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that there are 1.4 million elementary school teachers,[27] 674,000 middle school teachers,[28] and 1 million secondary school teachers employed in the U.S.[29] In the past, teachers have been paid relatively low salaries. However, average teacher salaries have improved rapidly in recent years. US teachers are generally paid on graduated scales, with income depending on experience. Teachers with more experience and higher education earn more than those with a standard bachelor's degree and certificate. Salaries vary greatly depending on state, relative cost of living, and grade taught. Salaries also vary within states where wealthy suburban school districts generally have higher salary schedules than other districts. The median salary for all primary and secondary teachers was $46,000 in 2004, with the average entry salary for a teacher with a bachelor's degree being an estimated $32,000. Median salaries for preschool teachers, however, were less than half the national median for secondary teachers, clock in at an estimated $21,000 in 2004.[] For high school teachers,

Teacher median salaries in 2007 ranged from $35,000 in South Dakota to $71,000 in New York, with a national median of $52,000.[] Some contracts may include long-term disability insurance, life insurance, emergency/personal leave and investment options.[30] The American Federation of Teachers' teacher salary survey for the 2006-07 school year found that the average teacher salary was $51,009.[31] In a salary survey report for K-12 teachers, elementary school teachers had the lowest median salary earning $39,259. High school teachers had the highest median salary earning $41,855.[32] Many teachers take advantage of the opportunity to increase their income by supervising after-school programs and other extracurricular activities. In addition to monetary compensation, public school teachers may also enjoy greater benefits (like health insurance) compared to other occupations. Merit pay systems are on the rise for teachers, paying teachers extra money based on excellent classroom evaluations, high test scores and for high success at their overall school. Also, with the advent of the internet, many teachers are now selling their lesson plans to other teachers through the web in order to earn supplemental income, most notably on TeachersPayTeachers.com.[33]

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Wales
Education in Wales differs in certain respects from education elsewhere in the United Kingdom. For example, a significant number of students all over Wales are educated either wholly or largely through the medium of Welsh: in 2008/09, 22 per cent of classes in maintained primary schools used Welsh as the sole or main medium of instruction. Welsh medium education is available to all age groups through nurseries, schools, colleges and universities and in adult education; lessons in the language itself are compulsory for all pupils until the age of 16. Teachers in Wales can be registered members of trade unions such as ATL, NUT or NASUWT and reports in recent years suggest that the average age of teachers in Wales is falling with teachers being younger than in previous years.[34] A growing cause of concern are that attacks on teachers in Welsh schools which reached an all-time high between 2005 and 2010.[35]

Spiritual teacher
In Hinduism the spiritual teacher is known as a guru. In the Latter Day Saint movement the teacher is an office in the Aaronic priesthood, while in Tibetan Buddhism the teachers of Dharma in Tibet are most commonly called a Lama. A Lama who has through phowa and siddhi consciously determined to be reborn, often many times, in order to continue their Bodhisattva vow is called a Tulku. There are many concepts of teachers in Islam, ranging from mullahs (the teachers at madrassas) to ulemas. A Rabbi is generally regarded as the Jewish spiritual teacher.[citation needed]

Popular educators
Howard Adelman Leib Glantz Charles Wedemeyer Edith Abbott Raymond Macdonald Alden Henry James Anderson Charles William Bardeen Charles Rollin Juan Pablo Bonet Lancelot Bavin

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References
[2] The Crisis in American Education An Analysis and a Proposal, The Sudbury Valley School (http:/ / www. sudval. com/ 05_onepersononevote. html#02) (1970), Law and Order: Foundations of Discipline (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MAqxzEss8k4C& pg=PA49& dq=The+ Crisis+ in+ American+ Education+ + An+ Analysis+ and+ a+ Proposal,+ The+ Sudbury+ Valley+ School+ (1970),+ Law+ and+ Order:+ Foundations+ of+ Discipline) (pg. 49-55). Retrieved November 15, 2009. [3] Greenberg, D. (1987) The Sudbury Valley School Experience "Back to Basics - Political basics." (http:/ / www. sudval. com/ 05_underlyingideas. html#09) Retrieved January 4, 2010. [4] Teaching Patterns: a Pattern Language for Improving the Quality of Instruction in Higher Education Settings by Daren Olson. Page 96 [5] Motivated Student: Unlocking the Enthusiasm for Learning by Bob Sullo. Page 62 [6] Patrick, B.C., Hisley, J. & Kempler, T. (2000) "What's Everybody so Excited about?": The Effects of Teacher Enthusiasm on Student Intrinsic Motivation and Vitality", The Journal of Experimental Education, Vol. 68, No. 3, pp. 217-236 [7] Baker, J. A., Terry, T., Bridger, R., & Winsor, A. (1997). Schools as caring communities: A relational approach to school reform. School Psychology Review, 26, 576-588. [8] Bryant, Jennings . 1980. Relationship between college teachers' use of humor in the classroom and students' evaluations of their teachers. Journal of educational psychology. 72, 4. [9] Fraser, B. J., & Fisher, D. L. (1982). Predicting students' outcomes from their perceptions of classroom psychosocial environment. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 498- 518. [10] Hartmut, J. (1978). Supportive dimensions of teacher behavior in relationship to pupil emotional cognitive processes. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 25, 69-74. [11] Osborne, E.;. Salzberger, I.; Wittenberg, G. W.. 1999. The Emotional Experience of Learning and Teaching. Karnac Books, London. [12] Baker, J. A.Teacher-Student Interaction in Urban At-Risk Classrooms: Differential Behavior, Relationship Quality, and Student Satisfaction with School. The Elementary School Journal Volume 100, Number 1, 1999 by The University of Chicago. [13] Moos, R. H. (1979). Evaluating Educational Environments: Measures, procedures, findings, and policy implications. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. [15] Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of Existing Literature (http:/ / www. ed. gov/ rschstat/ research/ pubs/ misconductreview/ report. pdf#p28) see page 8 and page 20 [19] http:/ / www. teachingcouncil. ie/ [24] Training to be a teacher (http:/ / www. gtcs. org. uk/ Becoming_a_Teacher/ Trainingtobeateacher/ Trainingtobeateacher. asp) GTC Scotland [25] Teach in Scotland (http:/ / www. teachinginscotland. com/ tis/ 119. 29. 32. html) [30] "Make It Happen: A Student's Guide," (http:/ / www. nea. org/ student-program/ tools/ makeithappen. html) National Education Association. Retrieved 7/5/07. [31] 2007 "Survey & Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends," (http:/ / www. aft. org/ pdfs/ teachers/ salarysurvey07. pdf) American Federation of Teachers. Retrieved 8/7/10. [32] 2008 "Teacher Salary- Average Teacher Salaries" (http:/ / www. payscale. com/ research/ US/ All_K-12_Teachers/ Salary) PayScale. Retrieved 9/16/08.

External links
Media related to Teaching at Wikimedia Commons

School of education

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School of education
In the United States and Canada, a school of education (or college of education; ed school) is a division within a university that is devoted to scholarship in the field of education, which is an interdisciplinary branch of the social sciences encompassing sociology, psychology, linguistics, economics, political science, public policy, history, and others, all applied to the topic of elementary, secondary, and post-secondary education. The U.S. has 1,206 schools, colleges and departments of education and they exist in 78% of all universities and colleges.[1] According to the National Center for Education Statistics, 176,572 individuals were conferred masters degrees in education by degree-granting institutions in the United States in 2006-2007. The number of masters degrees conferred has grown immensely since the 1990s and accounts for one of the discipline areas that awards the highest number of masters degrees in the United States.[2] In the United Kingdom, following the recommendation in the 1963 Robbins Report into higher education, teacher training colleges were renamed colleges of education in the UK. For information about academic divisions devoted to this field outside of the United States and Canada, see Postgraduate Training in Education.

Types of programs
Typically, a school of education offers research-based programs leading to Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Education (M.Ed.), Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) or Educational Specialist (Ed.S.) degrees, as well as professional teacher-education programs leading to Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Education (M.Ed.), or Master of Arts in Teaching (M.A.T.) degrees. Schools of education also offer teacher certification or licensure programs to undergraduate students. Generally schools of education have graduate programs related to teacher preparation, curriculum and instruction (or curriculum and teaching), public policy and education, and educational administration. In addition, some schools of education offer programs in school counseling and counseling psychology.

Common areas of interest

Schools of education have several areas of interest in both their research and practice. The first is teacher education, curriculum, and instruction. With their historical roots in the 19th century normal school, they train the vast majority of teachers. A second area of interest is educational administration. As the main institution for the training of principals and superintendents, there is a focus on the administration of schools and school districts. A final area of interest is education policy and reform. Many graduates of schools of education become involved in education policy. As such, issues such as equity, teacher quality, and education assessment have become focuses of many schools of education. The issue of equitable access to education particularly is common, specifically focusing on low-income, minority, and immigrant communities, is central to many areas of research within the Education field.[3][4]

Notable schools of education in the United States

The annual rankings of U.S. News & World Report placed the following schools of education in the top twenty of all graduate education institutions in the United States for 2013.[5] They follow in order: 1. Vanderbilt University (Peabody College) 2. Harvard University 3. University of Texas at Austin 4. Stanford University 5. Teachers College, Columbia University 6. Johns Hopkins University

School of education 6. University of California at Los Angeles 8. University of Oregon 9. Northwestern University 9. University of Wisconsin-Madison 9. University of Pennsylvania 12. University of Michigan 13. University of California at Berkeley 13. University of Washington 15. University of Southern California 16. Michigan State University 17. Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development at New York University 18. Boston College 18. Ohio State University

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Notable scholars within schools of education

David Berliner Benjamin Bloom Jerome Bruner George Counts Linda Darling-Hammond John Dewey Paulo Freire Nicholas Gage Howard Gardner James Paul Gee Henry Giroux Gene V Glass Stephen Krashen Gloria Ladson-Billings Peter McLaren Deborah Meier Nel Noddings Diane Ravitch Lee Shulman

Criticism
Traditionalist scholars have been critical of the status quo within most schools of education. Prominent figures contributing to this school of thought include E.D. Hirsch, Jr., Diane Ravitch, Chester Finn, and Lynne Cheney.[6] Common assertions made by these critics include that the typical school of education has a Left-wing political bias, favoring Socialist philosophies such as Paulo Freire's critical pedagogy[7] and the "Teaching for Social Justice" movement, and are of lower academic standards and include "Mickey Mouse" courses.[8] They also argue that many schools of education are academically, professionally, and socially inhospitable toward students whose political views do not conform to the predominant Left-leaning ideology[9][10][11][12] and that the field's interest in educational equity sometimes crosses over the line between academic research and political activism.[13] Another criticism is that earning an advanced degree in education doesn't seem to actually make someone a better teacher, under any existing measures of teacher effectiveness.[] In 2009 U.S. Education Secretary Arne Duncan said

School of education that by almost any standard, many if not most of the nations 1,450 schools, colleges and departments of education are doing a mediocre job of preparing teachers for the realities of the 21st-century classroom. He characterized many education schools as "cash cows" for American universities.[]

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References
[1] Levine, A. (2007). Educating researchers. New York: Education Schools Project. [2] Digest of Education Statistics - National Center for Education Statistics Web Site. (http:/ / www. nces. ed. gov/ programs/ digest/ d08/ tables/ dt08_272. asp) Accessed on December 4, 2009. [5] "America's Best Education Graduate Schools 2013", (http:/ / grad-schools. usnews. rankingsandreviews. com/ best-graduate-schools/ top-education-schools/ edu-rankings) US News and World Report. Retrieved 4/15/13. [7] Sol Stern "Pedagogy of the Oppressor" City Journal, Spring 2009 http:/ / www. city-journal. org/ 2009/ 19_2_freirian-pedagogy. html [8] Finn, C. E. (2001). Getting better teachersand treating them right. In T. M. Moe (Ed.), A primer on Americas schools (pp. 127-150). Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute.

Teacher education
Teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip prospective teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school and wider community. Although ideally it should be conceived of, and organised as, a seamless continuum, teacher education is often divided into these stages: initial teacher training / education (a pre-service course before entering the classroom as a fully responsible teacher); induction (the process of providing training and support during the first few years of teaching or the first year in a particular school); teacher development or continuing professional development (CPD) (an in-service process for practicing teachers). There is a longstanding and ongoing debate about the most appropriate term to describe these activities. The term 'teacher training' (which may give the impression that the activity involves training staff to undertake relatively routine tasks) seems to be losing ground, at least in the U.S., to 'teacher education' (with its connotation of preparing staff for a professional role as a reflective practitioner).[1]

Initial teacher education

Organization
In many countries Initial Teacher Education (also known as preservice teacher training) takes place largely or exclusively in institutions of Higher Education. It may be organized according to two basic models. In the 'consecutive' model, a teacher first obtains a qualification in one or more subjects (often an undergraduate Bachelor's degree), and then studies for a further period to gain an additional qualification in teaching (this may take the form of a post-baccalaureate credential or Master's degree). In the alternative 'concurrent' model, a student simultaneously studies both one or more academic subjects, and the ways of teaching that subject, leading to a combined Bachelor's degree and teaching credential to qualify as a teacher of that subject. Other pathways are also available. In some countries, it is possible for a person to receive training as a teacher by working in a school under the responsibility of an accredited experienced practitioner.

Teacher education In the United States, approximately one-third of new teachers come through alternative routes to teacher certification, according to testimony given by Emily Feistritzer, the President of National Center for Alternative Certification and the National Center for Education Information, to a congressional subcommittee on May 17, 2007. However, many alternative pathways are affiliated with schools of education, where candidates still enroll in university-based coursework. A supplemental component of university-based coursework is community-based teacher education, where teacher candidates immerse themselves in communities that will allow them to apply teaching theory to practice. Community-based teacher education also challenges teacher candidates' assumptions about the issues of gender, race, and multicultural diversity.[2]

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Curriculum
The question of what knowledge, attitudes, behaviours and skills teachers should possess is the subject of much debate in many cultures. This is understandable, as teachers are entrusted with the transmission to learners of society's beliefs, attitudes and deontology, as well as of information, advice and wisdom, and with facilitating learners' acquisition of the key knowledge, attitudes and behaviours that they will need to be active in society and the economy. Generally, Teacher Education curricula can be broken down into four major areas: foundational knowledge in education-related aspects of philosophy of education, history of education, educational psychology, and sociology of education. skills in assessing student learning, supporting English Language learners, using technology to improve teaching and learning, and supporting students with special needs. content-area and methods knowledge and skillsoften also including ways of teaching and assessing a specific subject, in which case this area may overlap with the first ("foundational") area. There is increasing debate about this aspect; because it is no longer possible to know in advance what kinds of knowledge and skill pupils will need when they enter adult life, it becomes harder to know what kinds of knowledge and skill teachers should have. Increasingly, emphasis is placed upon 'transversal' or 'horizontal' skills (such as 'learning to learn' or 'social competences', which cut across traditional subject boundaries, and therefore call into question traditional ways of designing the Teacher Education curriculum (and traditional school curricula and ways of working in the classroom). practice at classroom teaching or at some other form of educational practiceusually supervised and supported in some way, though not always. Practice can take the form of field observations, student teaching, or (U.S.) internship (See Supervised Field Experiences below.)

Supervised field experiences

field observationsinclude observation and limited participation within a classroom under the supervision of the classroom teacher student teachingincludes a number of weeks teaching in an assigned classroom under the supervision of the classroom teacher and a supervisor (e.g. from the university) internshipteaching candidate is supervised within his or her own classroom These three areas reflect the organization of most teacher education programs in North America (though not necessarily elsewhere in the world)courses, modules, and other activities are often organized to belong to one of the three major areas of teacher education. The organization makes the programs more rational or logical in structure. The conventional organization has sometimes also been criticized, however, as artificial and unrepresentative of how teachers actually experience their work. Problems of practice frequently (perhaps usually) concern foundational issues, curriculum, and practical knowledge simultaneously, and separating them during teacher education may therefore not be helpful. However, the question of necessary training components is highly debated as continuing increases in attrition rates by new teachers and struggling learners is evident.[3] Additionally,

Teacher education with the increasing demands of the "teacher" research is beginning to suggest that teachers must not only be trained to increase learning experiences for their students, but how to also be a leader in an increasingly challenging field.[4] The debate of how best to prepare teachers for teaching in today's demanding environments will continue to be an important focus of the United States, where the education of all children successfully is priority.

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Induction of beginning teachers

Teaching involves the use of a wide body of knowledge about the subject being taught, and another set of knowledge about the most effective ways to teach that subject to different kinds of learner; it therefore requires teachers to undertake a complex set of tasks every minute. Many teachers experience their first years in the profession as stressful. The proportion of teachers who either do not enter the profession after completing initial training, or who leave the profession after their first teaching post, is high.[5] A distinction is sometimes made between inducting a teacher into a new school (explaining the school's vision, procedures etc.), and inducting a new teacher into the teaching profession (providing the support necessary to help the beginning teacher develop a professional identity, and to further develop the basic competences that were acquired in college.) A number of countries and states have put in place comprehensive systems of support to help beginning teachers during their first years in the profession. Elements of such a programme can include: mentoring: the allocation to each beginning teacher of an experienced teacher, specifically trained as a mentor; the mentor may provide emotional and professional support and guidance; in many U.S. states, induction is limited to the provision of a mentor, but research suggests that, in itself, it is not enough.[6] a peer network: for mutual support but also for peer learning. input from educational experts (e.g. to help the beginning teacher relate what she learned in college with classroom reality) support for the process of self-reflection that all teachers engage in (e.g. through the keeping of a journal). Some research[7] suggests that such programmes can: increase the retention of beginning teachers in the profession; improve teaching performance; promote the teachers' personal and professional well-being.[8]

Continuous professional development

Because the world that teachers are preparing young people to enter is changing so rapidly, and because the teaching skills required are evolving likewise, no initial course of teacher education can be sufficient to prepare a teacher for a career of 30 or 40 years. Continuous Professional Development (CPD) is the process by which teachers (like other professionals) reflect upon their competences, maintain them up to date, and develop them further. The extent to which education authorities support this process varies, as does the effectiveness of the different approaches. A growing research base suggests that to be most effective, CPD activities should: be spread over time be collaborative use active learning be delivered to groups of teachers include periods of practice, coaching, and follow-up promote reflective practice[9] encourage experimentation, and respond to teachers' needs.[10][11][12]

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Quality Assurance
Quality in education[13] relates to the quality of the work undertaken by a teacher, which has significant effects upon his or her pupils or students. Further, those who pay teachers' salaries, whether through taxes or through school fees, wish to be assured that they are receiving value for money. Ways to measure the quality of work of individual teachers, of schools, or of education systems as a whole, are therefore often sought. In most countries, teacher salary is not related to the perceived quality of his or her work. Some, however, have systems to identify the 'best-performing' teachers, and increase their remuneration accordingly. Elsewhere, assessments of teacher performance may be undertaken with a view to identifying teachers' needs for additional training or development, or, in extreme cases, to identify those teachers that should be required to leave the profession. In some countries, teachers are required to re-apply periodically for their license to teach, and in so doing, to prove that they still have the requisite skills. Feedback on the performance of teachers is integral to many state and private education procedures, but takes many different forms. The 'no fault' approach is believed by some to be satisfactory, as weaknesses are carefully identified, assessed and then addressed through the provision of in house or school based training. These can, however, be seen as benefiting the institution and not necessarily fully meeting the CPD needs of the individual as they lack educational gravitas.

Teacher education policy

The process by which teachers are educated is the subject of political discussion in many countries, reflecting both the value attached by societies and cultures to the preparation of young people for life, and the fact that education systems consume significant financial resources (of which teacher salaries is often the largest single element). However, the degree of political control over Teacher Education varies. Where TE is entirely in the hands of universities, the state may have no direct control whatever over what or how new teachers are taught; this can lead to anomalies, such as teachers being taught using teaching methods that would be deemed inappropriate if they used the same methods in schools, or teachers being taught by persons with little or no hands-on experience of teaching in real classrooms. In other systems, TE may be the subject of detailed prescription (e.g. the state may specify the skills that all teachers must possess, or it may specify the content of TE courses). In many states, the process of acquiring the relevant knowledge and skills to be a teacher (qualification) is separate from the process of acquiring the official permission to teach in public schools (registration or licensing). Policy cooperation in the European Union has led to a broad description of the kinds of attributes that teachers in EU Member States should possess: the [Common European Principle for Teacher Competences and Qualifications][14].

References
[1] see for example Cecil H. Allen, In-Service Training of Teachers in Review of Educational Research. 1940; 10: 210215. In the UK, however, the term 'teacher training' is still in general use: see for instance the UK government's information on http:/ / www. tda. gov. uk/ (http:/ / www. tda. gov. uk/ get-into-teaching/ teacher-training-options. aspx) [2] U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Education and Labor website. (http:/ / edlabor. house. gov/ testimony/ 051707EmilyFeistritzerTestimony. pdf) Accessed on December 7, 2009. [5] Richard Ingersoll, Thomas M. Smith: Do Teacher Induction and Mentoring Matter? 2004 (http:/ / repository. upenn. edu/ gse_pubs/ 134/ ) [6] Wong H; Induction programs that keep new teachers teaching and improving; NASSP Bulletin Vol. 88 No. 638 March 2004 [7] Ashby, P., Hobson, A., Tracey, L., Malderez, A., Tomlinson, P., Roper, T., Chambers, G. and Healy, J. (2008). Beginner teachers' experiences of initial teacher preparation, induction and early professional development: a review of literature. London: DCSF [8] Huling-Austin, J. A systhesis of research on teacher induction programs and practices; paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans LA, April 59, 1988 [9] Theatre of the Oppressed in Teacher Training: Centre for Community Dialogue and Change, India http:/ / www. ccdc. in/ theatre-oppressed-in-education

Teacher education
[10] see: Snow-Renner and Lauer, Professional Development Analysis (synthesis of 54 studies), McREL, 2005 [11] see Garet, Porter, Desmoine, Birman, Kwang, What makes professional development effective? American Education Research Journal 38(4) 915-946. 2001 [12] see General Teaching Council for England, 'Teachers' Professional Learning', London, 2005. [13] Anderson, Chris. What is Quality in Education? (http:/ / www. bizmanualz. com/ information/ 2009/ 07/ 15/ what-is-quality-in-education. html), Bizmanualz, July 15, 2009. [14] http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ education/ policies/ 2010/ doc/ principles_en. pdf

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Systems of formal education

Primary education
Primary education is the first stage of compulsory education. It is preceded by pre-school or nursery education and is followed by secondary education. In North America, this stage of education is usually known as elementary education and is generally followed by middle school. In most countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education although it is permissible for parents to provide it. The major goals of primary education are achieving basic literacy and numeracy amongst all pupils, as well as establishing foundations in science, mathematics, geography, history and other social sciences. The relative priority of various areas, and the methods used to teach them, are an area of considerable political debate. Typically, primary education is provided in schools, where the child will stay in steadily advancing classes until they complete it and move on to high school/secondary school. Children are usually placed in classes with one teacher who will be primarily responsible for their education and welfare for that year. This teacher may be assisted to varying degrees by specialist teachers in certain subject areas, often music or physical education. The continuity with a single teacher and the opportunity to build up a close relationship with the class is a notable feature of the primary education system. Traditionally, various forms of corporal punishment have been an integral part of early education. Recently this practice has come under scrutiny, and in many cases been outlawed, especially in Western countries.

A large elementary school in Magome, Japan

Children and teacher in a primary school classroom in Laos

Albania
Main article Education in Albania

An elementary school in California

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Australia
Main article Education in Australia In Australia, students undertake preschool then 13 years of schooling before moving to vocational or higher education.[1] Primary schooling for most children starts after they turn 5 years old. In most states, children can be enrolled earlier at the discretion of individual school principals on the basis of intellectual giftedness.[2][3][4] In Victoria, New South Wales, Northern Territory, ACT and Tasmania students then move through Kindergarten/Preparatory School/Reception and Years 1 to 6 before starting high school. In Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia students do Year 7 while still enrolled at primary school, although most governmental primary schools are moving to a K to 6 structure to line up with the other states in order to ensure that Year 7 students are able to undertake laboratory practical components of the national syllabus.[5] Pre-School/Kindergarten: 4-5 year olds Prep./Reception/Kindergarten: 5-6 year olds Grade/Year 1: 6-7 years of age Grade/Year 2: 7-8 year olds Grade/Year 3: 8-9 year olds Grade/Year 4: 9-10 year olds

Grade/Year 5: 10-11 year olds Grade/Year 6: 11-12 year olds Grade/Year 7: 12-13 year olds (WA, SA, QLD)

Brazil
Main article Education in Brazil Year 1: 6 year olds (former pre-school) Year 2: 7 year olds Year 3: 8 year olds Year 4: 9 year olds Year 5: 10 year olds Year 6: 11 year olds Year 7: 12 year olds Year 8: 13 year olds Year 9: 14 year olds Year 10: 15 year olds (optional) Year 11: 16 year olds (optional) Year 12: 17 year olds (optional)

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Burma
Main article Education in Burma

Canada
Main article Education in Canada Primary (Kindergarten) (Ages 45) students in the Prairie Provinces are not required by statute to attend kindergarten. Grade 1 (Ages 57) Grade 2 (Ages 68) Grade 3 (Ages 79) Grade 4 (Ages 810) Grade 5 (Ages 911) Grade 6 (Ages 1012) Grade 7 (Ages 12-13) * Quebec, 1e secondaire Grade 8 (Ages 13-14) * Quebec, 2e secondaire Grade 9 (Ages 14-15) * Quebec, 3e secondaire

Grade 10 (Ages 15-16)* Quebec, 4e secondaire Grade 11 (Ages 16-17)* Quebec, 5e secondaire Grade 12 (Ages 17-18) (except Quebec)* Quebec only goes up to grade 11 then students are required to go to Cegep before University*

Denmark
In Denmark, 9 years of primary school (Folkeskole) are compulsory. Kindergarten (optional): 56 years 0th grade: 5-7 years 1st grade: 68 years 2nd grade: 79 years 3rd grade: 8-10 years 4th grade: 911 years 5th grade: 1012 years 6th grade: 1113 years 7th grade: 1214 years 8th grade: 1315 years 9th grade: 1416 years

10th grade (optional): 1518 years

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Estonia
In Estonia, 9 years of primary school (Phikool or "basic school") are compulsory. First three grades of primary school are called Algkool which can be translated as "beginning school" and can be confused with primary school. In some low density population areas Algkool is the only school available and students enter primary school in bigger town. 1st grade: 78 years 2nd grade: 89 years 3rd grade: 9-10 years 4th grade: 1011 years 5th grade: 1112 years 6th grade: 1213 years 7th grade: 1314 years 8th grade: 1415 years 9th grade: 1516 years

Finland
9 years of primary school (Peruskoulu) are compulsory. Kindergarten (optional): 67 years 1st grade: 78 years 2nd grade: 89 years 3rd grade: 910 years 4th grade: 1011 years 5th grade: 1112 years 6th grade: 1213 years 7th grade: 1314 years 8th grade: 1415 years 9th grade: 1516 years 10th grade (optional): 1617 years

France
Main article Education in France Education is mandatory from 6 years old to 16 years old. Grade is determined by the age on September 1st (year ends around July 5th). Free public and free private education is offered from 3 years old (sometimes 2 years old). Home education is allowed. Occasionally classes are of a double level to make up the number of pupil per class, usually to 29. Pr-lmentaire (day care) garderie (day care) crche (0-4 years old) lmentaire cole maternelle (pre-school) trs petite section (2 years old) (rare) Cycle I petite section (3 years old) moyenne section (4 years old)

Primary education grande section (5 years old) (September - January) Cycle II grande section (5 years old) (February - July) cole primaire (primary/elementary) CP (cours prparatoire) (6 years old) (may be tried a second time (7 years old) if reading and writing are not learned the first time) CE1 (cours lmentaire 1) (7 years old) Cycle III CE2 (cours lmentaire 2) (8 years old) CM1 (cours moyen 1) (9 years old) CM2 (cours moyen 2) (10 years old) Secondary Collge (11 - 15/16 years old - junior high school) Brevet diploma Lyce (15/16 - 19 years old - senior high school) Baccalaurat diploma suprieur Premier cycle (17-... years old) - Second cycle (20-... years old) - Troisime cycle (22-... years old) Collge and Lyce are usually separate establishments, with large communes having a collge, while the Lyce are usually in the larger towns and cities.

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Germany
Main article Education in Germany The first school for German children is called Grundschule. It takes usually four years, the pupils are between six and ten years old. The education consists of learning to read, write, basic math and general knowledge. In some schools, a first foreign language is introduced, usually English. In the final year of primary school, children receive a recommendation as to which further school they can attend. Kindergarten: 36 years Grade 1: 67 years Grade 2: 78 years Grade 3: 89 years Grade 4: 910 years Grade 5: 10-11 years (Berlin and Brandenburg only) Grade 6: 11-12 years (Berlin and Brandenburg only)

Depending on the recommendation they received from their teacher, children proceed to their mandatory secondary education in either Hauptschule (Grades 5-9, sometimes 10th grade is added which is then called "Werkrealschule"), Realschule (Grades 5-10), or Gymnasium (Grades 5-12). Upon the successful completion of Grades 11 and 12 in the Gymnasium, students receive the Abitur, a diploma with the permission to enter post-secondary education (similar to the A-level or High School Diploma). The Abitur will not be received at the end of Haupt- and Realschule, but graduating students are eligible to enter the 11th Grade of the Gymnasium if they wish to obtain the Abitur.

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Hungary
Main article Education in Hungary Primary School education for children in Hungary takes 8 years. 1st grade: 67 years 2nd grade: 78 years 3rd grade: 89 years 4th grade: 910 years 5th grade: 1011 years 6th grade: 1112 years 7th grade: 1213 years 8th grade: 1314 years

Iceland
Main article Education in Iceland In Iceland, 10 years of primary school (Grunnskli) are compulsory. Primary school teaching in Iceland consists of 10 grade levels. These are: 1st grade: 67 years 2nd grade: 78 years 3rd grade: 89 years 4th grade: 910 years 5th grade: 1011 years 6th grade: 1112 years 7th grade: 1213 years 8th grade: 1314 years 9th grade: 1415 years 10th grade: 1516 years

India
Main article Education in India The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for school education in India.[6] The NCERT provides support and technical assistance to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of education policies.[7] In India, the various bodies governing school education system are: The state government boards, in which the majority of Indian children are enrolled. The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) board. The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) board. The National Institute of Open Schooling. International schools affiliated to the International Baccalaureate Programme and/or the Cambridge International Examinations. Islamic Madrasah schools, whose boards are controlled by local state governments, or autonomous, or affiliated with Darul Uloom Deoband. Autonomous schools like Woodstock School, Auroville, Patha Bhavan and Ananda Marga Gurukula. Primary school teaching in India consists of 12 grade (classes) levels. These are: Kindergarten: nursery - 3 years, Lower Kindergarten (LKG) -4 years, Upper Kindergarten (UKG) - 5 years. 1st class: 6 years

Primary education 2nd class: 7 years 3rd class: 8 years 4th class: 9 years 5th class: 10 years 6th class: 11 years 7th class: 12 years 8th class: 13 years 9th class: 14 years 10th class: 15 years 11th class: 16 years 12th class: 17 years

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Iran
Main article Education in Iran

Ireland
Main article Education in the Republic of Ireland Primary school teaching in Ireland consists of 8 class levels. These are: Junior Infants (45 years) Senior Infants (56 years) 1st class (Rang a haon, 67 years) 2nd class (Rang a d, 78 years) 3rd class (Rang a tr, 89 years) 4th class (Rang a ceathair, 910 years) 5th class (Rang a cig, 1011 years) 6th class (Rang a s, 1112 years)

Junior and Senior infants correspond to Kindergarten. The subjects mainly taught in primary school are: English (Barla, Spellings are taught more in Primary education, not taught in Secondary although if you make a spelling mistake in Secondary English work, you would be corrected) Maths (Mata) Irish (Gaeilge) Modern European language (i.e. French or/and German) (Very rarely) History (Stair) Geography (Treolaocht/Tr Eolas, direct translation "Country-science/Country information") Science (Eolaocht) PE (Physical Education), (Corpoideachas, direct translation "Body education" Art (Ealan) Drama (Drmaocht) Music (Ceol) SPHE (Social, Personal, Health Education), (OSPS, Oideachas Sisialta, Pearsanta, Slintiil) Religion (Reiligin/Creideamh) The content of the Religion course taught depends on the management of the school. Many schools are managed and owned by the Roman Catholic Church, with a lesser number belonging to the Church of Ireland and to the Multi Denominational Group Educate Together and a handful run by other religions such as Muslims. Each school body

Primary education decides on the emphasis of its religious instruction. In Catholic schools 2nd and 6th class prepare children for Holy Communion and Confirmation respectively. In the Church of Ireland this preparation is done when the pupil is aged about 14 years, and is in secondary school. Children may start at primary school at any age between four and six years of age. Most children finish primary school at or around twelve years of age.

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Italy
Primary school teaching in Italy consists of 5 grades. Before the First Grade, there is the kindergarten (scuola dell'infanzia in Italian), which is not compulsory. Elementary First Grade (67 years) Second Grade (78 years) Third Grade (89 years) Fourth Grade (910 years) Fifth Grade (1011 years) Schools used to have a six day school week, Monday to Saturday. Lately, as of 2008, most elementary and middle schools have reduced the school week to five days, with high schools remaining with six.[8]

Israel
Main article Education in Israel

Japan
Main article Elementary schools in Japan Kindergartens nursery schools are private institutions and attendance is not mandatory. Nursery School / Kindergarten (Junior): 3-4 year olds Nursery School / Kindergarten (Intermediate): 4-5 year olds Nursery School / Kindergarten (Senior): 5-6 year olds Elementary School Grade 1: 6-7 year olds Elementary School Grade 2: 7-8 year olds Elementary School Grade 3: 8-9 year olds Elementary School Grade 4: 9-10 year olds Elementary School Grade 5: 10-11 year olds Elementary School Grade 6: 11-12 year olds Middle School Grade 1: 12-13 year olds Middle School Grade 2: 13-14 year olds Middle School Grade 3: 14-15 year olds High School Grade 1: 15-16 year olds High School Grade 2: 16-17 year olds High School Grade 3: 17-18 year olds

English has become a compulsory subject at primary schools in Japan, since April 2011 in order to compete with other Asian countries in English proficiency; Japanese students have among the lowest English TOEFL scores in Asia. [9]

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Malaysia
Primary education is compulsory in Malaysia. Children spend 6 years in primary schools. In 6th year, students sit for a national standardized test known as the Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR, Primary School Assessment Examination). Standard 1 : age 7-8 Standard 2 : age 8-9 Standard 3 : age 9-10 Standard 4 : age 10-11 Standard 5 : age 11-12 Standard 6 : age 12-13

After completing Standard 6, students will go on to secondary schools. Form 1 : age 13 Form 2 : age 14 Form 3 : age 15 Form 4 : age 16 Form 5 : age 17

Form 6 : age 18(optional) Next, the students will be moving on into universities or college

Mexico
Main article Education in Mexico

Morocco
See List of Morocco-related topics:Education

Netherlands
Main article Education in the Netherlands Children in the Netherlands must be at least four years old to enter primary education. Almost all 4-year-olds (99.3%) in the Netherlands indeed attend primary school, although this is not compulsory until children reach the age of 5. Primary school is free of charge. In most schools, children are grouped by age in mixed ability classes, with one teacher for all subjects. Primary school consists of 8 groups (thus 8 years of schooling). During the first two years (both kindergarten), children receive an average of 22 hours of education, during the last 6 years children receive an average of 25 hours per week. Schools are open 5 days a week, but all children have a half day on Wednesdays (ending at noon). At the end of primary school, in group 8, schools advice on secondary school choice. Most schools use a national test to support this advice, for instance the 'Citotoets', a test developed by the Central Institute for Test development. group 1: age 4-5 (kindergarten) group 2: age 5-6 (kindergarten) group 3: age 6-7 (school curriculum starts with writing, reading, etc.) group 4: age 7-8 group 5: age 8-9 group 6: age 9-10

group 7: age 10-11 group 8: age 11-12 (last school year with advice on secondary school choice)

Primary education For more information: [10]

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Poland
Main article Education in Poland Primary School: 0th - 6-7 years old 1st - 7-8 years old 2nd - 8-9 years old 3rd - 9-10 years old 4th - 10-11 years old 5th - 11-12 years old 6th - 12-13 years old

Middle School: 1st 13-14 years old 2nd 14-15 years old 3rd 15-16 years old Secondary School: 1st 16-17 years old (Vocational School, Liceum and Technikum) 2nd 17-18 years old (Vocational School, Liceum and Technikum) 3rd 18-19 years old (Vocational School, Liceum and Technikum) 4th 19-20 years old (only in Technikum)

Higher education: 18 and over Children may end their schooling after passing secondary school if desired.

Portugal
In Portugal, the primary education (ensino primrio) is known as the 1st cycle of the basic education (1 ciclo do ensino bsico). It includes the first four years of compulsory education (1 classe, 2 classe, 3 classe and 4 classe), their pupils being children between six and ten years old. After the education reform of 1986, the former primary education became part of the basic education (educao bsica). Basic education now includes: 1st cycle (1 ciclo) - former primary education 1st year (6-7 years old) 2nd year (7-8 years old) 3rd year (8-9 years old) 4th year (9-10 years old) 2nd cycle (2 ciclo) - former preparatory education 5th year (10-11 years old) 6th year (11-12 years old) 3rd cycle (3 ciclo) - former preparatory education (continuation) 7th year (12-13 years old) 8th year (13-14 years old) 9th year (14-15 years old)

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Singapore
Main article Education in Singapore Primary education in Singapore, normally starting at age six, is a four-year foundation stage (Primary 1 to 4) and a two-year orientation stage (Primary 5 to 6). Primary education is compulsory and fees are low at public schools, there are also other fees per student to help cover miscellaneous costs. During the foundation stage, all students are taught English Language as a first language, a mother tongue as a second language and Mathematics. Science is introduced from Primary 3 onwards. In addition to these examinable subjects, lessons in Civics and Moral Education, arts and crafts, music, health education, social studies and physical education are conducted at various levels. Students are also introduced to project work, receive pastoral care and career guidance, and are to participate in Co-Curricular Activities and Community Involvement Programmes. In the orientation stage, weaker students are banded based on their abilities in the four examinable subjects. Known as "Subject-based Banding"[11], they take individual subjects either at the standard or foundation level. Conversely, higher mother tongue is offered for higher ability students.

Sri Lanka
Main article Education in Sri Lanka

Sweden
Pre-school class (not compulsory), age 6 Grundskola Lgstadie Year 1, age 7 Year 2, age 8 Year 3, age 9 Mellanstadie Year 4, age 10 Year 5, age 11 Year 6, age 12 Hgstadie Year 7, age 13 Year 8, age 14 Year 9, age 15 Gymnasieskola (not compulsory), age 16-18 Gymnasieskola is not compulsory but most common. What you wish to read is you choice, if you have the right grades for your wanted education. If there are more people who wish to read than spots, the ones with the highest grades are accepted. This is either a preparation for University or for work. During the year before children start compulsory school, all children are offered a place in a pre-school class (frskoleklass), which combines the pedagogical methods of the pre-school with those of compulsory school.[12] Between ages 7 and 15, children attend compulsory comprehensive school (grundskola), divided in three stages. The vast majority of schools in Sweden are municipally run, but there are also independent schools. The education in independent schools has many objectives in common with the municipal school, but it can have an orientation that differs from that of the municipal schools.[13]

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Syria
Main article Education in Syria 9 years of primary school are compulsory. Kindergarten (optional): 56 years 1st grade: 67 years 2nd grade: 78 years 3rd grade: 89 years 4th grade: 910 years 5th grade: 1011 years 6th grade: 1112 years 7th grade: 1213 years 8th grade: 1314 years 9th grade: 1415 years

Tunisia
Main article (Education in Tunisia) In Tunisia pre-school education (3-6 years) is optional and provided primarily in three settings: Kindergartens:socio-educational institutions that come under the supervision of Ministry of culture. Kouttabs:religious institutions also cater for children between 3 and 5 years of age. Their task is to initiate them into learning the Quran as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic. They are under the supervision of the Ministry of Religious Affairs Preparatory year: It is also an integral part of basic education but it is not compulsory. It is supervised by the Ministry of Education and is provided in public, private and quasi-public primary schools 9 years of basic education are compulsory. Kindergarten (optional): 5-6 years 1st grade: 67 years 2nd grade: 78 years 3rd grade: 89 years 4th grade: 910 years 5th grade: 1011 years 6th grade: 1112 years 7th grade: 1213 years 8th grade: 1314 years 9th grade: 1415 years

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Ukraine
Main article Education in Ukraine

United Kingdom
Main article Education in the United Kingdom Primary education is provided by state schools run by the government and by independent fee-paying schools. In the state system children are either educated in separate infant and junior schools or in a combined primary school. Schools in the private sector providing primary education are generally known as preparatory schools or prep schools. In the private sector the transfer to the final stage of education sometimes takes place at 14.

England
Main article Education in England Children start school either in the year or the term in which they reach five depending upon the policy of the Local Education Authority. All state schools are obliged to follow a centralised National Curriculum. The primary school years are split into Key Stages: Nursery, age less than 1 to 4 Reception, age 4 to 5 Year 1, age 5 to 6 Year 2, age 6 to 7 Year 3, age 7 to 8 Year 4, age 8 to 9 Year 5, age 9 to 10 Year 6, age 10 to 11

At the end of Key Stage 2 in Year 6 all children in state primary schools are required to take National Curriculum tests in reading and mathematics also called SATs. All state primary schools are under the jurisdiction of the Department for Children, Schools and Families and are required to receive regular inspections by the Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED). Private schools are inspected by the Independent Schools Inspectorate. They then change schools to go to secondary school. Year 7, age 11 to 12 Year 8, age 12 to 13 Year 9, age 13 to 14 Year 10, age 14 to 15 Year 11, age 15 to 16 Year 12,(6th form) 16 to 17 Year 13 (6th form) 17 to 18

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Northern Ireland
Main article Education in Northern Ireland Children start school either in the year or the term in which they reach four. All state schools are obliged to follow a centralised National Curriculum. The primary school years are split into Key Stages: Primary education Primary school Foundation Stage Primary 1, age 4 to 5 Primary 2, age 5 to 6 Key Stage 1 Primary 3, age 6 to 7 Primary 4, age 7 to 8 Key Stage 2 Primary 5, age 8 to 9 Primary 6, age 9 to 10 Primary 7, age 10 to 11 (Transfer procedure exams to determine secondary school placement.) At the end of Key Stage 2 in P7, all children are offered the voluntary Eleven Plus (also called the transfer procedure) examinations, though the parents of thirty percent of children elect not to, and send their kids to secondary schools instead of grammar schools.[14] All state primary schools are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Education.

Scotland
Main article Education in Scotland In Scotland children typically spend seven years in a primary school, whose years are named P1 to P7. Children enter P1 at the age of four or five (according to a combination of birth date and parental choice). Primary 1 (aged 4-5) Primary 2 (aged 5-6) Primary 3 (aged 6-7) Primary 4 (aged 7-8) Primary 5 (aged 8-9) Primary 6 (aged 9-10) Primary 7 (aged 10-11) At the age of 11-12 children usually transfer to local State Secondary Schools or Public/Private (fee-paying) Schools,

Wales
Main article Primary Education in Wales Children in Wales spend 7 years at primary school between the ages of 4 and 11.

United States
Main article Education in the United States In the United States the first stage of compulsory education is generally known as elementary education. It takes place in elementary schools which usually incorporates grades 1-5. Some schools have a kindergarten and some go up to sixth grade. Elementary schools in the US are also known as grade schools or grammar schools. In some

Primary education schools, teachers utilize a "looping system" where the same teacher teaches the same group of students for two years. For example, a third-grade class may have one teacher who would teach those students for an entire year, then that teacher would teach fourth-grade the next year, and thereby teach the same class again. The teacher would then revert to the third grade the following year to start the process all over again with a different group of students. Over the past few decades, schools in the USA have been testing various arrangements which break from the one-teacher, one-class model. Multi-age programs, where children in different grades (e.g. Kindergarten through to second grade) share the same classroom and teachers, is one increasingly popular alternative to traditional elementary instruction. Another alternative is that children might have a main class and go to another teacher's room for one subject, such as science, while the science teacher's main class will go to the other teacher's room for another subject, such as social studies. This could be called a two-teacher, or a rotation. It is similar to the concept of teams in junior high school. Another method is to have the children have one set of classroom teachers in the first half of the year, and a different set of classroom teachers in the second half of the year. Kindergarten: Ages 5-6 1st Grade: Ages 6-7 2nd Grade: Ages 7-8 3rd Grade: Ages 8-9 4th Grade: Ages 9-10 5th Grade: Ages 10-11 6th Grade: Ages 11-12 7th Grade: Ages 12-13 8th Grade: Ages 13-14 9th Grade: Ages 14-15 10th Grade: Ages 15-16 11th Grade: Ages 16-17 12th Grade: Ages 17-18

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English as a second language

Definition English as a second language (ESL) by definition refers to the specialized instruction designed for students who are either limited in English proficiency or have a primary language other than English. The government oftentimes refers to EL students as Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students. History of the English language in the United States During European settlement, early in the history of the United States of America a variety of languages were spoken, not to mention the language of the indigenous peoples who were the first to live in the continent. However, when the United States was forming as a country, it became clear that English would undoubtedly become the language of the country. As influential men such as Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay strived to establish a distinguished American society and culture, they created an American identity that reflected their own Anglo-Saxon cultural identity. English did not become the official language, but it was the language of schools, the government, and the laws. Similarly, throughout the course of United States history, there have been massive immigration into the country that have created communities where the population speaks languages other than English. [15]

Primary education Statistics 6% of all schools in the United States have English as a second language students, with certain states having large numbers of English as a second language students 87% of Arizona schools have ESL students 90% of California schools have ESL students 96% of Hawaii schools have ESL students Only 18% of all schools offer bilingual education programs and 43% offer ESL programs. However, 27% of these schools find it difficult or impossible to fill these teaching positions with qualified instructors. Therefore, many English as a second language students are inadequately served. [16] California 60% of ESL students in California high schools have not achieved written proficiency in the language, even after six years of a U.S. education 1/4 of all public school attendees in California are English-learners 1.6 million, "the largest bloc of English-learners in the nation" [17] Unequal access to trained teachers Students that are learning English as a second language require teachers with specialized training. However, the demand for teachers with specialized training does not meet the amount of ESL students; there is a significantly low percentage of teachers well prepared to teach. Thus, English learners are more likely to be placed in classes that are taught by teachers who are not fully credentialed. According to the 2000 Class Size Reduction (CSR) teacher survey, 53% of English learners enrolled in grades 1-4, in California, during the 1999-2000 school year, were taught by a teacher with prior specialized training. EL students are less likely than their English-speaking peers to have a qualified teacher direct classroom instruction in their classes. This inevitably creates challenges for the EL students as their needs are not met. [18]

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Millennium Development Goals

Main article Millennium Development Goals Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education By the year 2015, the UN hopes to ensure that children everywhere regardless of race or gender, will be able to complete primary schooling.[19]

Progress
According to the United Nations, in 2008, overall enrollment in primary education in developing areas reached 89 percent. This was a major increase from the 83 percent in 2000. Due to the fact that the United Nations is specifically focusing on Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia, as they are both home to the vast majority of children out of school, they hypothesize that they might not be able to reach their goal by 2015. According to the September 2010 fact sheet, this is because there are still about 69 million school-age children are not in school and almost half of them are in sub-Saharan Africa and more than a quarter are in Southern Asia. [20]

To achieve the goal

In order to achieve the goal by 2015, the United Nations estimates that all children at the official entry age for primary school would have had to be attending classes by 2009. This would depend on the duration of the primary level as well as how well the school schools retain students until the end of the cycle. In half of the sub-Saharan African countries, however, "at least one in four children of primary-school age were out of school in 2008." Also, not only is it important for children to be enrolled but countries will need to ensure that there are a sufficient amount

Primary education of teachers and classrooms to meet the demand. As of 2010 and 2015, the number of new teachers needed in sub-Saharan Africa alone equals the current teaching force in the region.[21] Close gender gap The gender gap in the number of students not in school has also narrowed. Between 1999 and 2008, the number of girls not in school decreased from 57 percent to 53 percent globally. In some regions, however, there is a greater percentage; for example, in Northern Africa, 66 percent of "out-of-school children" are girls. [21]

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What has been done

According to the United Nations, there are many things in the regions that have been accomplished. Although enrollment in the sub-Saharan area of Africa continues to be the lowest of all regions, by 2010 "it still increased by 18 percentage pointsfrom 58 per cent to 76 per centbetween 1999 and 2008." There was also progress in both Southern Asia and Northern Africa, where both countries witnessed an increase in enrollment. Southern Asia increased by 11 percentage points and Northern Africa by 8 percentage points over the last decade. Also, major advances have been made even in some of the poorest countries, again the majority of them in the sub-Saharan region of Africa. With the abolition of primary school fees in Burundi, there was an increase in primary-school enrollment since 1999; it reached 99 percent in 2008. The United Republic of Tanzania experienced a similar outcome. The country doubled its enrollment ratio over the same period. Other regions in Latin America such as Guatemala and Nicaragua as well as Zambia in Southern Africa "broke through the 90 percent towards greater access to primary education." [21]

References
[6] India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 233 [7] India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 230234 [8] Deirdr Straughan. Italian Vacation Habits (http:/ / www. beginningwithi. com/ italy/ living/ summerholidays. html). 2006-09-05. Retrieved 2008-12-26 [9] http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ education/ 2011/ mar/ 08/ japan-launches-primary-english-push [10] http:/ / www. eurydice. org/ ressources/ Eurydice/ pdf/ 047DN/ 047_NL_EN. pdf [11] http:/ / www. moe. gov. sg/ education/ primary/ files/ subject-based-banding. pdf [12] http:/ / www. skolverket. se/ sb/ d/ 2651/ a/ 14987 and http:/ / www. skolverket. se/ sb/ d/ 2651 [13] http:/ / www. skolverket. se/ sb/ d/ 2653 and http:/ / www. skolverket. se/ sb/ d/ 2665/ a/ 15011 [14] Department of Education for Northern Ireland. (http:/ / www. deni. gov. uk/ index/ 85-schools/ 6-admission-and-choice/ 6-transfer-procedure. htm) [15] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Tm1NBwYz5-8C& pg=PA9& dq=esl+ in+ primary+ education& hl=en& ei=MWa5TbPLB9CDtgfjg4DfBA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& sqi=2& ved=0CGcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=esl%20in%20primary%20education& f=false [16] http:/ / www. mindplay. com/ esl. html [17] http:/ / dailytrojan. com/ 2010/ 06/ 01/ ca-schools-drop-ball-with-esl-students/ [18] http:/ / education. ucsb. edu/ rumberger/ internet%20pages/ Papers/ Rumberger%20and%20Gandara--TCR%20paper%20on%20California%20ELs. pdf [19] http:/ / www. un. org/ millenniumgoals/ education. shtml [20] http:/ / www. un. org/ millenniumgoals/ pdf/ MDG_FS_2_EN. pdf [21] http:/ / www. un. org/ millenniumgoals/ pdf/ MDG%20Report%202010%20En%20r15%20-low%20res%2020100615%20-. pdf#page=18

Bibliography India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), New Delhi: Additional Director General (ADG), Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, ISBN 978-81-230-1557-6.

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External links
National Association for Primary Education (UK) (http://www.nape.org.uk) Teachers TV Free Resources and Downloads for Primary School Teachers (http://www.teachers.tv/video/ browser/810) BBC schools website 4-11 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/websites/4_11/index.shtml) Teach.com Information for Elementary School Teachers in the U.S. (http://www.teach.com/ elementary-school-teacher) William N. Hailmann (1920). "Education, Elementary". Encyclopedia Americana. A view from the United States in 1920.

Secondary education
Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education. Except in countries where only primary or basic education is compulsory, secondary education includes the final stage of compulsory education, and in many countries it is entirely compulsory. The next stage of education is usually college or university. Secondary education is characterized by transition from primary education for minors to tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g., university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period or a part of it may be called secondary schools, high schools, gymnasia, lyceums, middle schools, sixth-form, sixth-form colleges, vocational schools and preparatory schools, and the exact meaning of any of these varies between the systems.

Secondary education in the EU

Secondary education is a stage of education following primary school. Except in a few countries where only primary or basic education is compulsory, secondary education includes the final stage of compulsory education. However, secondary education in some countries includes a period of compulsory and a period of non-compulsory education. After secondary education, the next stage of education is usually college or university. Secondary education is characterized by transition from primary education for minors to tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g., university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period or a part of it may be called secondary schools, high schools, gymnasia, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, vocational schools and preparatory schools, and the exact meaning of any of these varies between the systems.

Belgium
For more details see Education in Belgium - Secondary education The Belgian school has a three-tier education system, each stage being divided into various levels: Basic education (F enseignement fondamental D basisonderwijs) Nursery school (F enseignement maternel D kleuteronderwijs): for children aged 3 to 6 is not compulsory Primary school (F : enseignement primaire D lager onderwijs): for children aged 6 to 12 is compulsory Secondary education: there are three cycles (F degrs D graden) Post secondary education: organised by universities or schools of higher education, but also by adult education institutions 3-year further education (enseignement suprieur de type court) at bachelor level 5-year further education (enseignement de type long) at master level (one or two more years for doctoral training)

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Cyprus
1.1 General overview of education stages Cyprus has a three-tier educational system, each stage being divided into specific levels: Basic education Nursery (Ages 35) Not obligatory Pre-primary school (Ages 56) At the age of five, children normally attend the pre primary class, which prepares them to join Primary school Primary school (Ages 612)Primary school has six grades. Secondary education Gymnasium (Ages 1215) After primary school, students attend the lower secondary school (GYMNASIUM) which has three grades. Eniaio Lykeio or Unified Lyceum (Ages 1518) Post secondary education Public Tertiary Institutions or Universities

Czech Republic
The Czech school system is, due to historic reasons, almost the same as the German school system. The school system is free and mandatory to age 15. After the Zkladn kola (Elementary School) in age of 15, students are directed to three different optional secondary education schools: Stedn odborn uilit (SOU) - designed for students going into a trade (e.g., carpentry, masonry, auto-mechanic etc.) Education is 3 years long and entrance exam free, combined with practice(one week study in school/one week practice in factory, bakery,building site... etc.), finished with a certificate. Stedn odborn kola (SO) - designed for students going into a profession (accountant, technician, kindergarten teacher..) and finishes with maturita as exit exam. The leaving exam consist of 2 compulsory and 2 optional subjects. Compulsory subjects are Czech language and World Literature and one other language. Optional ones depend on the type of school (mathematics, physics, accounting, etc.) The study is 4 years long and you need to pass an entrance exam (Czech Language and Mathematics or Physics, varies with the type of school) Gymnzium - designed for students going to university/college and finishes with a maturita exam. Also with two mandatory subjects Czech language and World Literature and one other language. Optional subjects vary, usually between humanistic and science. The study is 4, 6 or 8 years long. In case of 6 (8) years one, the pupils finish elementary school two (four) years earlier and this two (four) years has harder studying programme on Gymnasium. There are also entry exams to all these programmes. The maturita is required for study in University. The Abitur from Gymnasium is better for Humanistic pointed University and SO Abitur is better for Technical pointed university.

Croatia
Secondary education is currently optional, although most political parties now advocate the stance that it should also become compulsory. Secondary schools in Croatia are subdivided into: gymnasiums with four available educational tracks; prirodoslovno-matematika gimnazija (specializing in math,informatics and science), jezina gimnazija (with at least three foreign languages required), klasina gimnazija (with a curriculum centered around classics, namely Latin and Ancient Greek) and opa gimnazija (which covers a general education and is not as specific). vocational schools.

Secondary education Gymnasiums, schools of economics and schools of engineering take four years. There are also some vocational schools that last only three years. Secondary schools supply students with primary subjects needed for the necessary work environment in Croatia. People who completed secondary school are classified as "medium expertise" (srednja struna sprema or SSS). There are currently around 90 gymnasiums and some 300 vocational schools in Croatia. The public secondary schools are under the jurisdiction of regional government, the counties.

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Denmark
In Denmark it is mandatory to receive education answering to the basic school syllabus until the 10th year of school education. Since 2009 it has been compulsory to also attend pre-school. Furthermore, pupils can choose an 11th year of school. After the basic school the majority of pupils between ages 1519 usually choose to go through the 3-year "Gymnasium", which is University-preparatory. Youngsters not attending Gymnasium most commonly attend vocational training. There are over 100 different vocational courses in Denmark.
Krabbesholm Hjskole

Finland
The Finnish education system is a comparatively egalitarian Nordic system. This means for example no tuition fees for full-time students and free meals are served to pupils. There are private schools but they are made unattractive by legislation. The second level education is not compulsory, but an overwhelming majority attends. There is a choice between upper secondary school (lukio, gymnasium) and vocational school (ammatillinen oppilaitos, yrkesinstitut). Graduates of both upper secondary school and vocational school can apply to study in further education (University and Polytechnics).

Helsingin normaalilyseo

Upper secondary school, unlike vocational school, concludes with a nationally graded matriculation examination (ylioppilastutkinto, studentexamen). Passing the test is a de facto prerequisite for further education. The system is designed so that approximately the lowest scoring 5% fails and also 5% get the best grade. The exam allows for a limited degree of specialization in either natural sciences or social sciences. The graduation is an important and formal family event, like christening, wedding, and funeral. In the OECD's international assessment of student performance, PISA, Finland has consistently been among the highest scorers worldwide; in 2003, Finnish 15-year-olds came first in reading literacy, science, and mathematics; and second in problem solving, worldwide. The World Economic Forum ranks Finland's tertiary education #1 in the world.[1]

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Germany
The German school system is free and compulsory until 9th grade. After the Grundschule (primary/elementary school lasting four to six years), teachers recommend each pupil for one of three different types of secondary education. Parents have the final say about which school their child will attend. Hauptschule - designed for students going into trades such as construction; complete after 9th or 10th grade (ages 14 to 16). During apprenticeships, pupils then attend Berufsschule, a dual-education vocational high school. The Hauptschule has been subject to significant criticism, as it tends to segregate the children of immigrants with schoolmates whose German is also poor, leading to a cycle of poverty. Realschule - designed for students who want to apprentice for white-collar jobs not requiring university studies, such as banking; complete after 10th grade (age 15 to 16). Those who change their minds and decide to attend university can proceed after testing to: Gymnasium - academic preparatory school for pupils planning to attend universities or polytechnics. Some offer a classical education (Latin, Greek), while others concentrate on economics and the like. The curriculum leading to the Abitur degree were recently reduced from 13th grade to 12th grade (ages 17 to 18 - "G8," eight years of Gymnasium). The Gesamtschule, a mixed ability school, puts all pupils in a single building, combining the three main types; these are still quite rare. Students with special needs are assigned to Frderschule.

Ireland
In Ireland secondary school starts at the age of 12, and lasts three or optionally five or six years. The main types of secondary school are: community schools, comprehensive schools, colleges (though this term is more usually applied to third-level institutions like universities), vocational schools, voluntary secondary schools and menscoileanna (secondary schools that teach all subjects through Irish). After three years (age 14-16), every student takes a compulsory state exam known as the Junior Certificate. Typically a student will sit exams in 9 to 11 subjects; English (L1), Irish (L2), a Foreign Language (L3) and Mathematics are compulsory.

St. Enda's School

After completing the Junior Certificate, a student may continue for two years to take a second state exam, the Leaving Certificate, around age 17-18. Students typically take 6-8 subjects. Except in exceptional circumstances, subjects taken must include Irish (L1), English (L2), a foreign language (L3) and Mathematics. Leaving Certificate results directly determine admission to university via a ranking system managed by the CAO. More than 80% of students who complete the Junior Certificate continue to the Leaving Certificate. There is an optional year in many secondary schools in Ireland known as Transition Year, which some students choose to take after completing the Junior Certificate, and before starting the Leaving Certificate. Focusing on broadening horizons, the year is often structured around student projects such as producing a magazine, charity work, running a small business, etc. Regular classes may be mixed with classes on music, drama, public speaking, etc. Transition Year is not formally examined but student progress is monitored by teachers on a continuous basis. Programs vary from school to school. This year also focuses on giving the children an insight into the working world through work experience placements. In addition to the main school system, Ireland has a parallel system of vocational schools, which place less focus on academic subjects and more on vocational and technical skills - around 25% of students attend these. Many

Secondary education vocational schools also offer night classes to adults. There is also a prominent movement known as Gaelscoileanna where every subject is taught through the Irish Language, and these are growing fast in number.

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Italy
Secondary school (Scuola secondaria) starts at age 11, after 5 years of Primary school, and lasts 8 years. Secondary school is divided in 3 + 5 years, according to the following scheme: Scuola secondaria di I grado (first grade secondary school, previously scuola media, middle school, by which it is still called): it is mandatory and lasts 3 years and is the first stage in which different specialized professors teach different subjects. It has a common programme for all pupils, and covers all the classical subjects (Italian language and literature, History, Geography, Mathematics, Natural sciences, English language, a second Foreign Language - usually French, German or Spanish, Technology, Arts, Music, and Physical Education). It ends with a final exam, which awards a diploma, which includes: 4 written tests prepared by each examining board: Italian, Mathematics, and the two foreign languages an experimental nationally assessed test for tracking progresses in reading comprehension, language knowledge, reasoning skills and basic mathematical skills an overall oral examination on all subjects. The final grade is a number from 6 to 10 (the best). Scuola secondaria di II grado (second grade secondary school): it lasts 5 years and many different paths exist, which can freely be chosen by the pupil and his/her family; the first 2 years are madatory, the other 3 are not. Liceo: it is the general purpose kind of school, traditionally chosen by those wanting to pursue higher education (university or arts academy). Depending on the area of interest of the pupils, different subkinds exist whose programmes are mostly decided at national level, but all offer at least basic teachings in Italian language and Literature, History, Geography, Philosophy, Mathematics, Physics, Biology, Chemistry, a foreign language (usually English, but also French, German or Spanish), History of Arts and Physical Education: Liceo Classico which focuses on Literature and Classical Studies (Latin and ancient Greek) Liceo Scientifico which focuses on Mathematics and Sciences Liceo Linguistico which focuses on Modern languages Liceo delle Scienze Umane which focuses either on Psichology and Sociology or Law and Economics Liceo Artistico which focuses on different arts (graphical, sculpture, etc...) Liceo Musicale e Coreutico which focuses on music or dance Istituto Tecnico: it is a technical school originally reserved for those who sought a highly qualified work, but today more and more used as a different route to access university. Different paths exist whose programmes are mostly decided at national level, but a general basic education is provided to every pupil, similarly to the liceo, but less focused on the Humanities (no philosophy or arts, but more mathematics than in the non-scientific liceo); the main ones are: Economico which focuses on how to run all aspects of running the economical and managing part of a business Meccanico which focuses on the processes of design and production of machinery and vehicles Elettronico which focuses on the process of production of electrical and electronical devices Informatico which focuses on managing computers and communication devices Chimico focusing on chemical processes for the industry Agrario focusing on agronomy and farming Costruzioni focusing on the processes linked to the civil engineering and building industry Istituto Professionale: it is a manly vocational school which offers a very specialized formation on a specific field for those looking into entering work; it is generally organized at local level according to the local

Secondary education economy and industry and based on broad national guidelines; it offers periods of stage in the local firms as a part of their courses. A general basic education is given to all pupils. All kind of secondary schools end with an examination (Esame di Stato, state exam, but usually still called with the traditional name Esame di Maturit, Maturity exam) whose score is on a 100 point scale: up to 25 points for the general marks obtained through the last 3 years (students barely passing each year are awarded 10 points total) up to 45 points (15 each) on three (or four for some special cases) different written tests (each test judged sufficient is awarded at least 10 points): Italian Language and Literature, decided at national level and the same for all examinees: either a text comprehension and critique, or the writing of an essay a subject dependent on the kind of school followed, decided at national level for each different path a third test prepared by each examining board based on the programmes of all the subjects of the last year of study up to 30 points on an overall oral exam regarding all the subjects of the last year (an oral exam judged sufficient is awarded at least 20 points) up to 5 points (to a maximum of 100) in cases the examining board judges appropriate to meriting students. The exam is passed with a score of 60 or more, and any secondary school diploma is valid for access to any university course.

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Netherlands
In The Netherlands, high school is called middelbare school (literally: "middle-level school") and starts right after the 6th grade of primary school (group 8). The pupils who attend high school are around the age of 12. Because education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 4 and 16 (and partially compulsory between the ages of 16 and 18), all pupils must attend high school. The high schools are part of the voortgezet onderwijs (literally: "continued education"). The voortgezet onderwijs consists of 3 main streams: vmbo, which has 4 grades and is subdivided over several levels; havo, which has 5 grades, and vwo, which has 6 grades. The choice for a particular stream is made based on the scores of an aptitude test (most commonly the CITO test), the advice of the grade 6 teacher, and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers. It is possible to switch between streams. After completing a particular stream, a pupil can continue in the penultimate year of the next stream, from vmbo to havo, and from havo to vwo. Successfully completing a particular stream grants access to different levels of tertiary education. After vmbo, a pupil can continue training at the mbo ("middle-level applied education"). A havo diploma allows for admission to the hbo ("higher professional education"), which are universities of professional education. Only with vwo can a pupil enter into a research university.

Portugal
See High School in Portugal

Slovenia
In Slovenia, a variety of high-school institutions for secondary education exists one can choose in accordance with his or her interests, abilities and beliefs. The majority of them are public and government-funded, although there are some diocesan upper secondary schools and a Waldorf upper secondary school, which are private and require tuition to be paid. Upper secondary schools (Sln. gimnazije) are the most elite and the most difficult high-school programmes, intended for the best students that wish to pursue university education in the future. They are further divided into

Secondary education general upper secondary schools, classical upper secondary schools, technical upper secondary schools, upper secondary schools for arts, and upper secondary schools for business. They all last for four years and conclude with a compulsory leaving examination (Sln. matura) that is a prerequsite for studying at universities. Their curricula include a wide range of subjects that should deliver a broad general knowledge. Technical high schools last for four years and cover a wide range of disciplines. They end with a vocational leaving examination and allow pupils to study at vocational or professional colleges. Vocational high schools come in two varieties: the dual and in school-based programme. For the former, the apprenticeship is provided by employers, while the practical training for the latter is offered in school. Both of them complete with a final examination. Students may continue their education in the two-year vocational-technical programme (colloquially known as 3+2 programme), which prepares them for vocational leaving exam if they want to pursue higher education. The leaving exam course is a one-year programme, intended for vocational leaving exam graduates. After completing leaving exam course, they take the leaving examination, which makes the eligible for university education. The Vocational course is a one-year programme provided to upper secondary school students who, for various reasons, do not want to continue their education. It concludes with a final examinations, qualifying the applicants for a selected occupation.

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Spain
Secondary education in Spain is called Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria (Compulsory Secondary Education), usually known as E.S.O., and lasts for 4 years (12 to 16). As its name indicates, every Spanish citizen must, by law, attend secondary education when they arrive at the defined age. The State is also committed to guaranteeing every student the possibility of attending it, and also at a state run school (hence no tuition fees) if so demanded.

United Kingdom
Main articles: Education in the United Kingdom In the United Kingdom secondary schools offer secondary education covering the later years of schooling. State secondary schools in England and Wales are classed as either (selective) grammar schools, (non-selective) comprehensive schools, city technology colleges or academies. Within Scotland, there are only two types of state-run schools, Roman Catholic or non-denominational. Most secondary schools in England and Wales are comprehensive schools. Grammar schools have been retained in some counties in England. Academies (previously known as city academies) are a new type of school introduced in 2000 by the New Labour government of Tony Blair. Independent secondary schools generally take pupils at 13. The table below lists the equivalent secondary school year systems used in the United Kingdom:

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Scotland Primary 7 First Year (Secondary 1)

England, Wales Year 7 (First Form)

Northern Ireland Year 8 (First Form)

Equivalent Ages 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16

Year 8 (Second Form) Year 9 (Second Form) Year 10 (Third Form)

Second Year (Secondary 2) Year 9 (Third Form) Third Year (Secondary 3) Fourth Year (Secondary 4) Fifth Year (Secondary 5)

Year 10 (Fourth Form) Year 11 (Fourth Form) Year 11 (Fifth Form) Year 12 Lower Sixth AS First Year College Year 13 Upper Sixth A2 Second Year College Year 12 (Fifth Form)

Year 13 [Post 16] Lower Sixth 16-17

Sixth Year (Secondary 6)

Year 14 [Post 16] Upper Sixth 17-18

Private schools in England and Wales generally still refer to years 7-11 as 1st-5th Form, or alternatively privates schools refer to Year 7 as IIIrds (Thirds), Y8 as LIV (Lower Four), Y9 as UIV (Upper Four), Y10 as LV (Lower Fifth), Y11 as UV (Upper Fifth) and then Sixth-Form. England, Wales and Northern Ireland Education in England, Wales, Northern Ireland In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, students usually transfer from primary school straight to secondary school at age 11. In a few parts of the UK there are middle schools for ages 9 to 13 (similar to American middle schools), and upper schools for ages 1318. A handful of 8-12 middle schools, an 12-16 or 18 secondary schools still exist. These schools were first introduced in September 1968, and the number rose dramatically during the 1970s, but the number of such schools has declined since the mid 1980s. It is uncommon, but sometimes secondary schools (particularly in South West Wales) can also be split into 'Upper' (ages 1316) and 'Lower' secondary schools (ages 1113). Education is compulsory up until the end of year 11 (the last Friday in June in the academic year a person turns 16), and schooling can continue for a further two years after that. Traditionally the five years of compulsory secondary schooling from ages 11 to 16 were known as "first year" through to "fifth year," (and still are in the private sector) but from September 1990 these years were renumbered Year 7 through to Year 11 (Year 8 to Year 12 in Northern Ireland) with the coming of the National Curriculum. After Year 11 a student can opt to remain at school, transfer to a college, or to leave education and seek work or to start an apprenticeship. Those who stay at school enter Years 12 and 13 (Years 13 and 14 in Northern Ireland). These years are traditionally known as the Sixth Form ("Lower Sixth" and "Upper Sixth"), and require students to specialise in three to five subjects for their A Levels. In ever-increasing numbers since the 1990s some students also undertake more vocational courses at college such as a BTEC or other such qualification. This is an unusually specialised curriculum for this age group by international standards, and recently some moves have been made to increase the number of subjects studied. After attaining the relevant A Level qualifications the student can enter university.

Secondary education Scotland In Scotland, students usually transfer from primary to secondary education at 12 years old.[] The first and second years of secondary school (abbreviated to S1 and S2) is a continuation of the 5-14 curriculum started in primary school. After which students choose which subjects they wish to study with certain compulsory subjects such as English and Mathematics for S3 and S4. These are called Standard Grades, but some schools use Intermediates which take two years to complete with an exam at the end of S4. After Standard Grades/Intermediates, some students leave to gain employment or Balwearie High School attend further education colleges, however nowadays most students study for Highers, of which five are usually studied. These take a year to complete. After which some students decide to apply for university or stay on for 6th year, where other Highers are gained, or Advanced Highers are studied. Due to the nature of schooling in Scotland, undergraduate honours degree programmes are four years long as matriculation is normally at the completion of highers in S5 (age 16-17), which compares with three years for the rest of the UK. As well as instruction through the English language education Gaelic medium education is also available throughout Scotland.

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Secondary education in other countries

Argentina
The school system is free and mandatory.

Australia
School is compulsory in Australia between the ages of five/six-fifteen/sixteen or seventeen, depending on the state, with, in recent years, over three-quarters of people staying on until their thirteenth year in school. Government schools educate about two-thirds of Australian students, with the other third in independent schools. Government schools are free although most schools charge what are known as "voluntary contributions" or "Tax Levies", while independent schools, both religious and secular, charge fees as well as levies. Regardless of what whether a school is government or independent, it is required to adhere to the same curriculum frameworks. Most school students, be they in government or independent school, usually wear uniforms, although there are varying expectations and a few school exceptions.Wikipedia:Please clarify Each State and Territories has its own format of Year 12 Matriculation: Australian Capital Territory: ACT Year 12 Certificate South Australia: South Australian Certificate of Education (SACE) Northern Territory: Senior Secondary Studies Certificate / Northern Territory Certificate of Education (NTCE) Queensland: Queensland Certificate of Education (QCE) New South Wales: Higher School Certificate (HSC) Tasmania: Tasmanian Certificate of Education (TCE) Victoria: Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) or Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (VCAL) Western Australia: Western Australian Certificate of Education (WACE)

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Malaysia
The national secondary education in Malaysia, modelled after the (historical) English system, consists of 5 school years referred to as "forms" (tingkatan in Malay). Students begin attending secondary schools in the year they turn 13, after sitting for the UPSR (Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah or Primary School Assessment Examination) at the end of primary school. Students failing the academic requirement in UPSR are required to read an additional year called the Remove (Peralihan) year before they are allowed to proceed to Form 1. Automatic promotion up to Form 5 has been in place since 1996. Some secondary schools offer an additional two years known as sixth form, divided into lower sixth and upper sixth. Forms 1 to 3 are known as Lower Secondary (Menengah Rendah), while Forms 4 and 5 are known as Upper Secondary (Menengah Tinggi). Streaming into Art, Science or Commerce streams is done at the beginning of the Upper Secondary stage. Students sit for a standardised test at the end of both stages; Penilaian Menengah Rendah (PMR) for Lower Secondary, and Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM, equivalent to the O-Level examination) for Upper Secondary. At the end of the sixth form, students sit for the Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia or the Malaysian Higher School Certificate (equivalent to the A levels). The language of instruction in national secondary schools is Malay except for language, science and mathematics subjects. Science and mathematics subjects are taught in English since 2003, but Malay will be reintroduced in stages from 2012.

Brazil
In Brazil, since 1996 high school is officially called Ensino Mdio (formerly Segundo Grau). Until the year 1971, ensino mdio had three different names: curso cientfico, curso normal and curso clssico (which means classic). As a result, the course was changed after and called colegial, also divided, with the first three years were the same for everyone and anyone who would subsequently make the old normal and clssico, had to do another year. Historically, in Brazil, is called the secondary what is now the second part of the school (from the sixth year of primary school, 11 years) together with the high school. It is the last phase to basic education, Brazilian high school lasts 3 years, attempting to deepen what students have learned in the Ensino Fundamental. Brazilian high school students are referenced by their year 1st, 2nd and 3rd years. Unlike other countries, Brazilian students don't have a final test to conclude studies. Their approval depends only on their final grade on each subject. Each university elaborates its own test to select new students this test, the vestibular, generally happens once a year. Enem, a non-mandatory national exam, evaluates high school students in Brazil and is used to rank both private and public schools. The best scores in vestibular and in Enem [2] and the best universities are concentrated on the Southern and Southeastern regions of the country, mainly in the states of So Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Esprito Santo, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and Paran, and in the Federal District. The lack of funds and historical and social problems contribute to poor attendance from the students, especially those in public schools. Private establishments, on the other hand, may be recognized as academically excellent or merely as investments in social networking. Schedules vary from school to school. The subjects taught, however, are conceived by the Ministrio da Educao (Ministry of Education) which emphasises the hard sciences. The educational year begins in February and finishes in December; institutions are permitted to define their own actual start and end dates. They must, however, provide at least 200 days of classes per year. Universities are also divided into public and private. At this level, public ones are considered excellent and their vestibular exam is highly competitive (the exam for med school in UNICAMP may hit 300 candidates per place). For better preparation, therefore, many students take a curso pr-vestibular (university preparation course), which is offered by large private high schools.

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Hong Kong
secondary school ( , Cantonese: jung1 hok6), college ( ) Secondary education in Hong Kong is largely based on the British education system. Secondary school starts in the seventh year, or Form One, of formal education, after Primary Six. Students normally spend five years in secondary schools, of which the first three years (Forms One to Three) are compulsory like primary education. Forms Four and Five students prepare for the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE), which takes place after Form Five. Students obtaining a satisfactory grade will be promoted to Form Six. They then prepare for the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination (HKALE) (colloquially the A-levels), which is to be taken after Form Seven. The HKALE and HKCEE results will be considered by universities for admission. Some secondary schools in Hong Kong are called 'colleges'. In some schools, Form Six and Form Seven are also called Lower Six and Upper Six respectively. The HKCEE is equivalent to the British GCSE and HKALE is equivalent to the British A-level. As of October 2004, there has been heated discussion on proposed changes in the education system, which includes (amongst others) reduction of the duration of secondary education from seven years to six years, and merging the two exams HKCEE and HKALE into one exam, Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE). The proposed changes will take effect in 2009. The secondary education system of Hong Kong, just as other East Asian countries, is examination-oriented. This does the strong but controversial post-school tutorial education industrya favor.

India
In India, Before The Indian Constitutional Amendment in 2002, Article 45 (Articles 36 - 51 are on Directive-Principles of State Policy) of the Constitution was- Art.45. Provision for free and compulsory education for children.The State shall endeavour to provide,within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years. But that Constitutional obligation was time and again deferred - first to 1970 and then to 1980,1990 and 2000. The 10th Five-Year Plan visualizes that India will achieve the Universal Elementary Education by 2007. However, the Union Human Resource Development Minister announced in 2001 that India will achieve this target only by 2010. (Ninety-third Amendment) Bill, 2002, renumbered as the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002, which was passed on 12 December 2002 stated: An Act further to amend the Constitution of India. . BE it enacted by Parliament in the Fifty-third Year of the Republic of India as follows:- 1. Short title and commencement. (1) This Act may be called the Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002. (2) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint. 2. Insertion of new article 21A.- After article 21 of the Constitution, the following article shall be inserted, namely Right to education.- "Art.21A. The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.". 3. Substitution of new article for article 45.- For article 45 of the Constitution, the following article shall be substituted, namely:- Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years. "Art.45. The State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years.". 4. Amendment of article 51A.

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Iraq
Secondary Education in Iraq comprises TWO stages, each ending in Baccalaureate Examination Intermediate three years Preparatory three years. No student is admitted to college in Iraq before passing the Baccalaureate Examination held by this Ministry for Preparatory Schools. The maximum obtainable mark is 100, the minimum passing mark is 50.
Girls at a secondary school in Iraq

Mexico
Lower-secondary education (3 years) is considered part of basic education in Mexico and is compulsory. For entry, students are required to have successfully completed six years of primary education. The next stage (3 years), Upper-Secondary Education or Preparation School ("Preparatoria"), became compulsory since 2012 and has three pathways: General upper-secondary, Technical professional education, and Technological upper-secondary, as it has been called "Bachillerato" it has been frequently confused with the U.S.A. "Bachelors Level" which is called "Licenciatura o Ingeniera" in Latin American countries (well not all, as in Venezuela, the U.S.A. Bachelors Level is referred to as "Doctor".[3]

New Zealand
In New Zealand students attend secondary school from the ages from about 13 to 18. Formerly known as Forms 3 to 7, these grades are now known as Years 9 to 13. Schooling is compulsory until the student's 15th (with permission) or 16th birthday. In some areas of the country, secondary school is colloquially known as "college". NCEA is the Government-supported school qualification. New Zealand also has intermediate schools, but these cover the last two years of primary education (years 7 and 8) and are not secondary schools.

Pakistan
Secondary education in Pakistan begins from grade 9 and lasts for four years. Upon completion of grade 10, students are expected to take a standardised test administered by a regional Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (or BISE). Upon successful completion of this examination, they are awarded a Secondary School Certificate (or SSC). This locally termed as 'matriculation certificate' or 'matric' for short. Students then enter a college and complete grades 11 and 12. Upon completion of grade 12, they again take a standardised test which is also administered by the regional boards. Upon successful completion of this test, students are awarded the Higher Secondary (School) Certificate (or HSC). This level of education is also called the F.Sc./F.A. or 'intermediate'. There are many streams students can choose for their 11 and 12 grades, such as pre-medical, pre-engineering, humanities (or social sciences) and commerce. Some technical streams have recently been introduced for grades 11 and 12. Alternative qualifications in Pakistan are also available but not maintained by the BISE but by other examination boards. Most common alternative is the General Certificate of Education (or GCE), where SSC and HSC are replaced by Ordinary Level (or O Level) and Advanced Level (or A Level) respectively. Other qualifications include IGCSE which replaces SSC. GCE O Level, IGCSE and GCE AS/A Level are managed by British examination boards of CIE of the Cambridge Assessment and Edexcel of the Pearson PLC. Advanced Placement (or AP) is an alternative option but much less common than GCE or IGCSE. This replaces the secondary school education as

Secondary education 'High School Education' instead. AP exams are monitored by a North American examination board, College Board and can only be given under supervision of centers which are registered with the College Board, unlike GCE O/AS/A Level and IGCSE which can also be given privately.

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Paraguay
In Paraguay, the secondary education is called Educacin Media. After nine years of Educacin Escolar Bsica (Primary School), the student can choose to go to either a Bachillerato Tcnico (Vocational School) or a Bachillerato Cientfico (High School), both are part of the Educacin Media' system. This two forms of secondary education last three years, and are usually located in the same campus called Colegio. The Bachillerato Tcnico combine general education with some specific subjects, referred to as pre-vocational education and career orientation. Some of the fields are mechanical, electricity, commerce, construction, business administration, etc. After completing secondary education, one can enter to the universities. It is also possible for a student to choose both Tcnico and Cientfico schooling.

Republic of Macedonia
High school in Republic of Macedonia is called " " or "middle school", and the structure is left from the socialists period. Reforms are conducting at the moment, so the education would be appropriate with the most of the leading world countries.That means that there are still many forms. In general there is high school for preparing for every faculty on the university. There are: electro technical high school, mechanical high school, economics high school, pharmaceutical, medical, and natural sciences and linguistics gymnasium. The high school is attended between the years of 14 and 18.

Russia
There were around 60,000 general education schools in 20072008 school year;[] this number includes ca. 5,000 advanced learning schools specializing in foreign languages, mathematics etc., 2,300 advanced general-purpose schools[4] and 1,800 schools for all categories of disabled children;[] it does not include vocational technical school and technicums. Private schools accounted for 0.3% of elementary school enrolment in 2005 and 0.5% in 2005.[5] According to a 2005 UNESCO report, 96% of the adult population has completed lower secondary schooling and most of them also have an upper secondary education.[6]

Singapore
Children attend Primary school for the first 6 levels, then secondary schools for the next 4/5 levels, which is followed by either junior college for 2 year courses or centralised institutes for 3-year courses. Based on results of the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE), Singapore's students undergo secondary education in either the Special(Abolished in 2008), Express, Normal streams or the Integrated Programme (implemented in 2004). Both the Special and Express are 4-year courses leading up to a Singapore-Cambridge General Certificate of Education (GCE) 'Ordinary' - 'O' level examination. The difference between Special and Express is that the former takes higher Mother Tongue, which can be used as a first language in exams instead of the subject "mother tongue" that Express students take. However if some Express students can cope with higher Mother Tongue, they are allowed to used it as a first language in exams too. The Normal stream is a four-year course leading up to a Singapore-Cambridge GCE "Normal" - "N" level examination, with the possibility of a 5th year followed by a Singapore-Cambridge GCE "Ordinary" - "O" level examination. It is split into "Normal (Academic)" and "Normal (Technical)" where in the latter students take subjects that are technical in nature, such as Design and Technology.

Secondary education The Integrated Programme (IP) is a 6 year programme offered to the top 10 percent of the cohort to pass through the O level exams, and go straight to the affiliated JC. After the second year of a secondary school course, students are typically streamed into a wide range of course combinations, making the total number of subject they have to sit for in "O" level six to ten subjects. This includes science (Physics, Biology and Chemistry), humanities (Elective Geography/History, Pure Geography/History, Social Studies, Literature, etc.) and additional mathematics subject at a higher level, or "combined" subject modules. Some schools have done away with the O level examination, and pupils only sit for the A level examination or the International Baccalaureate at the end of their sixth year (known as Year 6 or Junior College 2). Co-curricular activities have become compulsory at the Secondary level, where all pupils must participate in at least one core CCA, and participation is graded together with other things like Leadership throughout the four years of Secondary education, in a scoring system. Competitions are organised so that students can have an objective towards to work, and in the case of musical groups, showcase talents.[7]

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United States
As part of education in the United States, secondary education comprises grades 5 6, 7, 8, and 9 through 12. This varies among school districts. Grades 9 through 12 is the most common grade structure for high school.

Vietnam
West Orange-Stark High School

High school in Vietnam is called Trung hc ph thng, which means "Popular Middle School", for children from grade ten to grade twelve (age of 16 to 18). In high school, students have 12 subjects to learn, and all the 12 subjects are compulsory. For each main subject (Literature, Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics, Biology, History, Geography and Foreign language), there are two levels of study: Basic and Advanced. Subjects in advanced level will receive more time and intensiveness than the basic ones do. Students are divided into five groups: Basic group: All subjects are in basic level. Group A: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry are in advanced level. Group B: Mathematics, Chemistry and Biology are in advanced level. Group C: Literature, History and Geography are in advanced level. Group D: Mathematics, Literature and Foreign language are in advanced level.

Students will graduate from high school if they have passed Graduation Tests of 6 subjects. If not, they must wait for the next year's tests. Students must graduate from high school to attend a university or college.

Names for secondary education by country

Argentina: Secundaria or Polimodal, Escuela secundaria Australia: High School, Secondary college Austria: Gymnasium (Ober- & Unterstufe), Hauptschule, "Hhere Bundeslehranstalt (HBLA), Hhere Technische Lehranstalt (HTL) Azrbaycan: Orta Mktb Bahamas, The: Junior High (grades 7-9), Senior High (grades 10-12) Belgium: middelbare school, secundair onderwijs, humaniora, cole secondaire, humanits Bolivia: Educacin Primaria Superior (grades 6-8) and Educacin Secundaria, (grades 9-12) Bosnia and Herzegovina: srednja kola (literally middle school), gimnazija (gymnasium) Brazil: Ensino Mdio (officially), Colegial (informally), Segundo Grau (formerly);

Secondary education Bulgaria: (gymnasium), (Lyceum) Chile: Enseanza Media. Colombia: Bachillerato, Segunda Enseanza(literally Second Learning) People's Republic of China (China): zhong xue ( ; literally, middle school), consisting of chu zhong ( ; literally beginning middle) from grades 7 to 9 and gao zhong ( ; literally high middle) from grades 10 to 12 Canada: high school, secondary school, cole secondaire, lyce, collegiate institute Croatia: srednja kola (literally middle school), gimnazija (gymnasium) Cyprus: (gymnasium), (Lyceum) Czech Republic: stedn kola (literally middle school), gymnzium (gymnasium), stedn odborn uilit Denmark: gymnasium Estonia: Gymnasium, Lyceum Finland: lukio (Finn.) gymnasium (Swed.) France: collge (junior), lyce (senior) Germany: Gymnasium, Gesamtschule, Realschule, Hauptschule, Fachoberschule Greece: (3 years)(gymnasium), (3 years) (~1996,2006~present), (3 years), (1997~2006) (Lyceum) Hong Kong: Secondary school( ) Hungary: gimnzium (grammar school), kzpiskola (comprehensive school, lit. "middle-school"), szakkzpiskola (vocational secondary school, lit. "specified middle-school") Iceland: Menntaskli, Framhaldskli. India: secondary school Indonesia: Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA) (lit. "Upper Middle School"), Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP) (lit. "First Middle School"), Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan (SMK) (vocational school, lit. "Middle Vocational School"), Italy: scuola secondaria di primo grado (3 years) + scuola secondaria di secondo grado (5 years): Liceo and Istituto Tecnico. Japan: chgakk ( ; literally middle school), ktgakk ( ; literally high school), chtkyikugakk ( ; Secondary School) - In the pre-Meiji educational system, the equivalent was called "chsei" South Korea: (joongdeung gyoyook; literally middle education), comprising (joonghakkyo; grades 7-9, though referred to as "middle school grades 1-3") and (godeunghakkyo; grades 10-12, though referred to as "high school grades 1-3") Liechtenstein: gymnasium Lithuania: vidurin mokykla (literally middle school), gimnazija (gymnasium) Malaysia: secondary school or sekolah menengah, sometimes high school is used Malta: skola sekondarja or secondary school Mexico: Educacin secundaria y preparatoria Netherlands: middelbare school or voortgezet onderwijs New Zealand: high school, college or secondary school Norway: Videregende skole Paraguay: Educacin Media Peru: Educacin Secundaria or Escuela Secundaria Philippines: High School or Mataas na Paaralan Poland: gimnazjum (grades 7-9), liceum (grades 10-12) Portugal: 2 Ciclo do Ensino Bsico (5th and 6th grades), 3 Ciclo do Ensino Bsico (7th to 9th grades), and Ensino Secundrio, Liceu (10th to 12th grades) Romania: gimnaziu (grades 5-8), liceu (grades 9-12) Russia: (literally middle school)

133

Secondary education Serbia: gymnasium (4 years), professional schools (4 years), vocational schools (3 years) Spain: Educacin secundaria, composed of two cycles: E.S.O. (Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria, compulsory secondary education, 4 years, 7th to 10th grade) and Bachillerato (non-compulsory secondary education, 2 years, 11th and 12th grade); formerly, primary education comprised up to the 8th grade and the secondary education was composed of two non-compulsory cycles: B.U.P. (Bachillerato Unificado Polivalente, 3 years, 9th to 11th grade) and C.O.U. (Curso de Orientacin Universitaria, 1 year, 12th grade) Sweden: gymnasium Switzerland: gymnasium, secondary school, collge or lyce Taiwan: Junior High School( ), Senior High School( ), Vocational High School( ), Military School( ), and Complete High School( ). Turkiye: Lise United Kingdom: Secondary School (May be referred to as High School) Ukraine: (transliteration: serednya osvita) United States: high school (usually grades 912 but sometimes 1012, it is also called senior high school) is always considered secondary education; junior high school or middle school (68, 78, 69, 79, or other variations) are sometimes considered secondary education. Uruguay: Liceo (3 years of compulsory education - Ciclo Bsico [8] -, and 3 years of specialization into: humanitites-(law or economics), sciences-(engineering or architecture) or biology-(medicine or agronomy) Bachillerato diversificado [9]-). Vietnam: Trung hc ph thng (lit. "popular middle school").

134

References
[4] Those identified as , gymnasiums and lycaeums. [5] Education for all by 2015, p. 284 [6] EDUCATION TRENDS IN PERSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE WORLD EDUCATION INDICATORS 2005 Edition (http:/ / www. uis. unesco. org/ TEMPLATE/ pdf/ wei/ WEI2005. pdf) UNESCO Retrieved on July 2, 2009 [8] http:/ / www. ces. edu. uy/ ces/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=1059& Itemid=74 [9] http:/ / www. ces. edu. uy/ ces/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=922& Itemid=74

External links
BBC Schools Website 11-16 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/websites/11_16) Revision World Schools Website 11-16 (http://www.revisionworld.co.uk) World Bank Secondary Education (http://www.worldbank.org/education/secondary) Becoming a High-School teacher in Australia (http://www.acu.edu.au/international/study_options/ secondary_school_teaching) Belgium Private lessons (http://www.lalibre.be/actu/belgique/article/556314/ cours-particuliers-le-prix-de-la-reussite.html) Belgium Private Lessons (http://webjournal.ulb.ac.be/index.php?option=com_content&view=article& id=1692:les-enseignants-exclus-du-secteur-des-cours-particuliers&catid=40:viedescampus&Itemid=64) Belgium The cost of education (http://www.enseignement.be/index.php?page=23669) Belgium Technical and vocational education (http://www.enseignement.be/index.php?page=24186) Belgium Secondary education steps (http://www.koi29.be/noos_doss_art.php?id_dart=17&id_dossier=3) Belgium The cost of Education (http://www.enseignement.be/index.php?page=26157&navi=3018) Belgium Compulsory education (http://www.enseignement.be/index.php?page=24546) Cyprus A guide to Education in Cyprus (http://www.moec.gov.cy/)

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Higher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education is the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology. Higher education also includes certain college-level institutions, such as vocational schools, trade schools, and career colleges, that award academic degrees or professional certifications. The right of access to higher education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. The UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 declares, in Article 13, that "higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education". In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education.

Princeton University is an Ivy League institution of higher learning in the United States.

Overview
Higher education is an educational level that follows a completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school, or gymnasium. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges, universities, and institutes of technology are the main institutions that provide tertiary education (sometimes known collectively as tertiary institutions). Examples of institutions that provide post-secondary education are vocational schools, community colleges, independent colleges (e.g. institutes of technology), and universities in the United States, the institutes of technical and further education in Australia, CEGEPs in Quebec, and the IEKs in Greece. They are sometimes known collectively as tertiary institutions. Completion of a tertiary education program of study generally results in the awarding of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
The University of Cambridge is an institution of higher learning in England, UK.

The University of Toronto is an institution of higher learning in Canada.

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136

Moscow State University is an institution of higher learning in Russia.

University of Tokyo is an institution of higher learning in Japan.

University of So Paulo is an institution of higher learning in Brazil.

Higher education

137 Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work (e.g. in medical schools and dental schools), and social services activities of universities. Within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level (or postgraduate level). The latter level of education is often referred to as graduate school, especially in North America. In the United Kingdom and certain other countries (e.g. Ireland), post-secondary school education below the level of higher education is referred to as "further education".[citation needed] In the UK and Ireland some institutions (referred to as further education colleges) provide both further and higher educational qualifications. Examples of further education qualifications include FETAC level 5 certificates.[citation needed] Higher educational awards such as the BTEC Higher National Diploma and the HETAC Higher Certificate are offered in some FE colleges - in conjunction with the Institutes of Technologies.[citation needed] "Higher Education" in the UK generally involves work towards a college-degree-level, Higher National Diploma or foundation degree education.[citation needed]

Rupert I founded the University of Heidelberg in 1386

NVQ at level 4 and NVQ at level 5 are deemed "Higher Education".[citation

needed]

In many developed countries, a high proportion of the population (up to 50%), now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers command a significant wage premium and are much less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers.[1][2] There are two types of higher education in the U.K.: higher academic education, and higher vocational education. Higher education in the United States and Canada specifically refers to post-secondary institutions that offer Associate's degrees, Bachelor's degrees, Master's degrees, Education Specialist (Ed.S.) degrees or Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degrees, or their equivalents, and also higher professional degrees in areas such as law, medicine, optometry, and dentistry. Such institutions may also offer non-degree certificates, which indicate completion of a set of courses comprising a body of knowledge on a particular topic, but the granting of such certificates is not the primary purpose of the institutions. Tertiary education is not a term used in reference to post-secondary institutions in the United States or Canada.

Reading, mathematics, and writing

Demonstrated ability in reading, mathematics, and writing, as typically measured in the United States by the SAT or similar tests such as the ACT, have often replaced colleges' individual entrance exams, and is often required for admission to higher education.[3] There is some question as to whether advanced mathematical skills or talent are in fact necessary for fields such as history, English, philosophy, or art.[]

Types
General
The general higher education and training that takes place in a university, college, or Institute of Technology usually includes significant theoretical and abstract elements, as well as applied aspects (although limited offerings of internships or SURF programs attempt to provide practical applications). In contrast, the vocational higher education

Higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on practical applications, with very little theory. In addition, professional-level education is always included within Higher Education, and usually in graduate schools, since many postgraduate academic disciplines are both vocationally, professionally, and theoretically/research oriented, such as in the law, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, and veterinary medicine. A basic requirement for entry into these graduate-level programs is almost always a bachelor's degree. Requirements for admission to such high-level graduate programs is extremely competitive, and admitted students are expected to perform well. In the United States, there are large differences in wages and employment associated with different degrees. Medical doctors and lawyers are generally the highest paid workers, and have among the lowest unemployment rates. Among undergraduate fields of study, science, technology, engineering, math, and business generally offer the highest wages and best chances of employment, while education, communication, and liberal arts degrees generally offer lower wages and a lower likelihood of employment.[1][4][5][6]

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Liberal arts
Academic areas that are included within the Liberal arts include: Environmental Science Great Books History Languages including English Linguistics Literature Mathematics Music Philosophy

Mean financial wealth of U.S. families by education of the head of household, 1989-2010

Mean income of U.S. families by education of the head of household, 1989-2010

Political Science Psychology Religious studies Science Sociology Theater

Higher education Performing arts The performing arts differ from the plastic arts or visual arts, insofar as the former uses the artist's own body, face and presence as a medium; the latter uses materials such as clay, metal or paint, which can be molded or transformed to create a work of art. Higher educational institutions include: Circus schools Dance school Drama school Music education Music school

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Plastic or visual arts The plastic arts or visual arts are a class of art forms, that involve the use of materials, that can be moulded or modulated in some way, often in three dimensions. Examples are painting, sculpture, and drawing, etc. Higher educational institutions in these arts are: Film schools List of art schools List of art schools in Europe List of international architecture schools

Vocational
Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non-university tertiary level. Such education combines teaching of both practical skills and theoretical expertise. Higher education differs from other forms of post-secondary education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education, which are more colloquially known as trade schools. Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a usually broader scientific field, which might concentrate on theory and abstract conceptual knowledge.

Professional education
Graduate College of Architecture Graduate College of Business Graduate College of Journalism Graduate College of the Law Graduate College of Library Science Graduate College of Optometry Graduate College of Pharmacy Graduate College of Public Policy Human Medicine Professional Engineering Podiatric Medicine Professional certification Scientific Dentistry Veterinary Medicine

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Recognition of studies
The Lisbon Recognition Convention stipulates that degrees and periods of study must be recognised in all Signatory Parties of the Convention.

As employers
Universities may employ a number of people. Depending on the funding, a university typically hires one teacher per 3-25 students. According to the ideal of research-university, the university teaching staff is actively involved in the research of the institution. In addition, the university usually also has dedicated research staff and a considerable support staff. Typically to work in higher education as a member of the academic faculty, a candidate must first obtain a doctorate in an academic field, although some lower teaching positions require only a master's degree.[citation needed] Most of the administrative staff works in different administrative sections, such as Student Affairs.[citation needed] In addition, there may be central support units, such as a university library which have a dedicated staff.[7] The professional field involving the collection, analysis, and reporting of higher education data is called institutional research. Professionals in this field can be found at locations in addition to universities, e.g. state educational departments.[citation needed]

Notes
[1] [2] [4] [5] [6] Michael Simkovic, Risk-Based Student Loans (http:/ / ssrn. com/ abstract=1941070) (2013) OECD, Education at a Glance (2011) Scott L. Thomas, Deferred Costs and Economic Returns to College Major, Quality, and Performance, 41 RES. HIGHER EDUC. 281 (2000) Charlotte Christiansen et. al, The Risk Return Trade-off in Human Capital Investment, 14 LABOR ECON. 971, 984-85 (2007) Dan A. Black et. al, The Economic Reward for Studying Economics, 41 ECON. INQUIRY 365 (2003)

Precededby Higher Education Succeededby Twelfth grade or Grade 13 age varies (usually 18-22) Graduate school

References
Bakvis, Herman and David M. Cameron (2000), "Post-secondary education and the SUFA" (http://www.irpp. org/po/archive/po0500.htm#sufa). IRPP. Commission Reports: A National Dialogue: The Secretary of Education's Commission on the Future of Higher Education, United States Department of Education, 2006. (http://www.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/ hiedfuture/reports.html) Davies, Antony and Thomas W. Cline (2005). The ROI on the MBA, (http://www.business.duq.edu/faculty/ davies/research/roimba.pdf) BizEd. Douglass, John A. and Todd Greenspan, eds. "The History of the California Master Plan for Higher Education." (http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/uchistory/archives_exhibits/masterplan/) El-Khawas, E. (1996). Campus trends. Washington, DC.: American Council on Education. Ewell, P.T. (1999). Assessment of higher education and quality: Promise and politics. In S.J. Messick (Ed.), Assessment in higher education: Issues of access, quality, student development, and public policy. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Finn, C. E. (1988, Jul.-Aug.). Judgment time for higher education: In the court of public opinion. Change, 20(4), 34-39. Forest, James and Kinser, Kevin. (2002). Higher Education in the United States: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Green, Madeleine, F., ed. 1988. Leaders for a New Era: Strategies for Higher Education. New York: Macmillan.

Higher education Snyder, Benson R. (1970). The Hidden Curriculum. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Spellings, Margaret, "A Test of Leadership: Charting the Future of U.S. Higher Education" (http://www.ed. gov/about/bdscomm/list/hiedfuture/reports/pre-pub-report.pdf), A Report of the Commission Appointed by Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings, September 2006. (highlights of report) (http://www.ed.gov/about/ bdscomm/list/hiedfuture/pre-pub-report-highlights.html) Veblen, Thorstein (1918). The Higher Learning in America: A Memorandum on the Conduct of Universities by Businessmen. New York: Huebsch

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External links
Association for the Study of Higher Education (http://www.ashe.ws/) Center for Higher Education Policy Studies (http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/) World Bank Tertiary Education (http://www.worldbank.org/education/tertiary/) college.gov - U.S. Department of Education (http://www.college.gov/) Accrediting Counsel for Independent Colleges and Schools (http://www.acics.org/) "College, Inc." (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/collegeinc/), PBS FRONTLINE documentary, May 4, 2010

Adult education
Adult education is the practice of teaching and educating adults. Adult education takes place in the workplace, through "extension" school (e.g. Harvard Extension) or "school of continuing education" (Columbia School of Continuing Education). Other learning places include community colleges, folk high schools, colleges and universities, libraries, and lifelong learning centers. The practice is also often referred to as "Training and Development" and is often associated with workforce or professional development. It has also Libraries are useful resources for adult learners. been referred to as andragogy (to distinguish it from pedagogy). Adult education is different from vocational education, which is mostly workplace-based for skill improvement; and also from non-formal adult education, including learning skills or learning for personal development. In 1926, the American Library Association study Libraries and Adult Education was published and the association established the Board on Library and Adult Education (later the Adult Education Board) with reports in the ALA Bulletin. The concept of the library as an agency of ongoing education for adults became firmly established in US society.[1] In her historical review of libraries and adult education, Margaret E. Monroe (1963: 6) identified a variety of library services provided by libraries to adults during the first half of the twentieth century that incorporated aspects of adult education.[2] Many libraries have a literacy center, either within their community or in the building; others offer on-site tutoring for adults, or at least space for tutors to meet with students. Family literacy programs are also quite popular within libraries and schools.[3] The US Institute of Museum and Library Services [4] helps create vibrant, energized learning communities recognizing that "Our achievement as individuals and our success as a democratic society depends on learning continually, adapting to change readily, and evaluating information critically."

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Characteristics
Programs provide one-to-one tutoring and small group sessions for adults at the 6th grade level or below. Public libraries, nonprofit organizations and school systems administer these programs across the country. Many adult education centers from community colleges receive grants from Welfare and Unemployment departments to offer training to welfare and unemployment recipients to help these individuals gain life and work skills to facilitate their return to the mainstream. They also provide programs for ex-offenders to reintegrate to society. Educating adults differs from educating children in several ways. One of the most important differences is that adults have accumulated knowledge, work experience or military service that can add to the learning experience. Another difference is that most adult education is voluntary, therefore, the participants are generally better motivated. So researcher Andr Lemieux (Universit du Qubec Montral) pointed out that the learning of wisdom should be the focus of future university programs to educate the elderly in one of his research.[5] Adults frequently apply their knowledge in a practical fashion to learn effectively. They must have a reasonable expectation that the knowledge recently gained will help them further their goals. One example, common in the 1990s, was the proliferation of computer training courses in which adults (not children or adolescents), most of whom were office workers, could enroll. These courses would teach basic use of the operating system or specific application software. Because the abstractions governing the user's interactions with a PC were so new, many people who had been working white-collar jobs for ten years or more eventually took such training courses, either at their own whim (to gain computer skills and thus earn higher pay) or at the behest of their managers. In the United States, a more general example, and stereotypical, is that of the high-school dropout who returns to school to complete general education requirements. Most upwardly mobile positions require at the very least a high school diploma or equivalent. A working adult is unlikely to have the freedom to simply quit his or her job and go "back to school" full time. Public school systems and community colleges usually offer evening or weekend classes for this reason. In Europe this is often referred to as "second-chance", and many schools offer tailor-made courses and learning programs for these returning learners. Those adults who read at the very lowest level get help from volunteer literacy programs. These national organizations provide training, tutor certification, and accreditation for local volunteer programs. States often have state organizations such as Literacy Florida!Inc., which provide field services for volunteer literacy programs. In the USA, the equivalent of the high-school diploma earned by an adult through these programs is to pass the General Education Development (GED) exam. Another fast-growing sector of adult education is English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), also referred to as English as a Second Language (ESL) or English Language Learners (ELL).[6] These courses are key in assisting immigrants with not only the acquisition of the English language, but the acclimation process to the culture of the United States. A common problem in adult education in the US is the lack of professional development opportunities for adult educators. Most adult educators come from other professions and are not well trained to deal with adult learning issues. Most of the positions available in this field are only part-time without any benefits or stability since they are usually funded by government grants that might last for only a couple of years.

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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] McCook, Kathleen de la Pea (2011). Introduction to Public Librarianship, p. 50. Neal-Schuman. Monroe, Margaret E. 1963. Library Adult Education: The Biography of an Idea. New York: Scarecrow Press. Roehrig, L. (2010). "The ABC's of Adult Ed." Library Journal (1976), 135 (10), 48-51. http:/ / www. imls. gov/ about/ about. shtm

External links
International Council for Adult Education (http://www.icae2.org/) (ICAE) European Association for the Education of Adults (http://www.eaea.org) (EAEA) Adult Literacy Education (USA) (http://wiki.literacytent.org/index.php/) The Council for Adult and Experiential Learning (USA) (http://www.cael.org/) UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (http://www.unesco.org/uil/) (UIL) National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy (http://ncsall.net/) (NCSALL U.S.) Adult Education in Ireland (http://adulteducation.wikibook.us/index. php?title=A_look_at_Adult_Education_and_Extension_Programs_in_Ireland) American Society for Training & Development (http://www.astd.org/) (ASTD) BBC Adult Learners resources (http://www.bbc.co.uk/learning/adults/) (http://eff.cls.utk.edu/fundamentals/eff_standards.htm) Database of Adult Education Courses in Ireland (http://www.nightcourses.com)

Alternative education
Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, includes a number of approaches to teaching and learning other than mainstream or traditional education. Educational alternatives are often rooted in various philosophies that are fundamentally different from those of mainstream or traditional education. While some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophical orientations, others are more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with some aspect of mainstream or traditional education. Educational alternatives, which include charter schools, alternative schools, independent schools, and home-based learning vary widely, but often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between students and teachers, and a sense of community.

Terminology
Alternative education refers to any type of education outside of the conventional standard, frequently referenced to the public school system, though in some contexts public schools use alternative approaches. Other words used in place of alternative by many educational professionals include non-traditional, non-conventional, or non-standardized, although these terms are used somewhat less frequently and may have negative connotations and multiple meanings. Those involved in forms of education which differ in their educational philosophy (as opposed to their intended pupil base) often use words such as authentic, holistic, and progressive as well. However, these words each have different meanings which are more specific or more ambiguous than the term alternative.

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Origins
While pedagogical controversy is very old, "alternative education" presupposes some kind of orthodoxy to which the alternative is opposed. In general, this limits the term to the last two or perhaps three centuries, with the rise of standardized and, later, compulsory education at the primary and secondary levels. Many critics in this period have suggested that the education of young people should be undertaken in radically different ways than ones in practice. In the 19th century, the Swiss humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi; the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau; the founders of progressive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker; and educational pioneers, such as Friedrich Frbel, Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner (founder of the Waldorf schools); among others, all insisted that education should be understood as the art of cultivating the moral, emotional, physical, psychological, and spiritual aspects of the developing child. Anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Francisco Ferrer y Guardia emphasized education as a force for political liberation, secularism, and elimination of class distinctions. After World War II alternative approaches to early childhood education were developed in Reggio Emilia, Italy; this is known as the Reggio Emilia approach. More recently, social critics such as John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison and Ivan Illich have examined education from more individualist, anarchist, and libertarian perspectives, that is, critiques of the ways that they feel conventional education subverts democracy by molding young people's understandings [citation needed] . Other writers, from the revolutionary Paulo Freire to American educators like Herbert Kohl and Jonathan Kozol, have criticized mainstream Western education from the viewpoint of their varied left-liberal and radical politics. The argument for an approach that caters more to the personal interest and learning style of each individual is supported by recent research that suggest that learner-responsible models prove to be more effective than the traditional teacher-responsible models.[1] Ron Miller has identified five core elements common to many contemporary educational alternatives:[2] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Respect for every person Balance Decentralization of authority Noninterference between political, economic, and cultural spheres of society A holistic worldview

Modern forms
A wide variety of educational alternatives exist at the elementary, secondary, and tertiary levels of education. These generally fall into four major categories: school choice, alternative school, independent school, and home-based education. These general categories can be further broken down into more specific practices and methodologies.

School choice
The public school options include entirely separate schools in their own settings as well as classes, programs, and even semi-autonomous "schools within schools." Public school choice options are open to all students in their communities, though some have waiting lists. Among these are charter schools, combining private initiatives and state funding; and magnet schools, which attract students to particular themes, such as performing arts.

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Alternative school
An alternative school is an educational establishment with a curriculum and methods that are nontraditional.[3] Many such schools were founded in the United States in the 1970s as an alternative to mainstream or traditional classroom structure.[4] A wide range of philosophies and teaching methods are offered by alternative schools; some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophical orientations, while others are more ad-hoc assemblies of teachers and students dissatisfied with some aspect of mainstream or traditional education. In 2003 there were approximately 70 alternative schools in the United Kingdom. In the UK public funding is not available for alternative schools and therefore alternative schools are usually fee-paying institutions.[5] In the USA an increasing number of public school systems are offering alternative streams (language immersion, Montessori, Waldorf), but the majority of alternative schools are still independent and thus without financial support from the government. In addition to schools providing an academic alternative, some states in the U.S. have established alternative schools for students who have had disciplinary or social challenges. In some states such schools are organized to have a strong punitive aspect emphasizing discipline and provide a greatly inferior education. It is common in those states for children found to be delinquent by courts to be sentenced to alternative school as a punishment.[6] It is also common in the United States for public school systems to operate alternative schools as a place to segregate special needs students, such as students with emotional disabilities. In such cases they are often mixed with delinquents. Certain alternative education initiatives have been created for Alternative Schools to help students achieve. These programs are found in either separate alternative schools entirely or a separate school program within a mainstream school: Alternative Education of At-Risk Students and Drop Out Prevention Advocates of programs designed to prevent or discourage students from leaving school before they graduate (usually from high school) believe that leaving school without a diploma negatively impacts the lives of individuals both their professional and personal lives. Professionally, income is a direct reflection of educational attainment, and the difference between those who have obtained a diploma or degree and those who have not is large. The average annual income of high school dropouts in 2007 was $8,358, while students with a high school diploma earned $14,601 and those with a college degree accrued close to three times as much ($24,797).[] Their personal lives are also in jeopardy because dropping out of high school correlates with incarceration rates. When focusing on black males in particular, around one in 10 high school dropouts enter the prison system. As a whole, high school dropouts were 63 times more likely to be institutionalized than four-year college graduates in 2006-2007.[] Advocates also argue that it has a negative societal impact. The U.S. is losing economic viability from having fewer educated citizens. For example, looking at a single state impact, Georgia, losing a total of nearly $16 billion of lifetime earnings solely from the 61,500 students who did not graduate in 2010.[7] Possible Causes for Dropping Out Data on determining risk factors can serve as predicting variables for students dropping out. Moreover, high risk students in alternative schools encounter formidable challenges that can further increase their risk. Finn discusses risk factors in his 1989 work, "Withdrawing from School" (as cited by Dynarski & Gleason, 2002). He creates two theoretical models in his attempt to examine the reasons students leave school without high school diplomas. In his frustration-self-esteem model, poor past academic performance leads to an impaired self-view, and "negative emotions" caused by this eventually cause the student to leave school (Dynarski & Gleason, 2002 p.45). Other possible causes have been examined in various studies. Gleason and Dynarksi cited studies finding that a students family income, socioeconomic status, and parental level of schooling are correlated with early school withdrawal. Limited English ability, membership to a family which receives welfare, neglect, having caregivers with

Alternative education drug addictions, other family members dropping out of school, needing to support family, and personal safety issues may also be correlated with the act of leaving school without a diploma. Non-profit organizations like the Association for High School Innovation, originally the Alternative High School Initiative, and Diploma Plus, Inc. have developed as a response to the growing national trend of diminishing graduation rates, especially as they impacted the United States' low income, minority youth. Drop Out Prevention Methods Individual schools in the U.S. have tried to tackle the problem through their own program initiatives. Three that have been used and studied for success are: the Check & Connect program; the Career Academies initiative; and the Talent Development High School model. The Check & Connect Program This alternative is a dropout prevention model that was developed in Minnesota through a partnership with the University of Minnesota, the local public schools and community service organizations. It was used in the Minneapolis public schools, specifically focusing in on students with learning, emotional and behavioral disabilities.[] The Check portion pairs each student with a mentor, deemed a monitor. This mentor figure assesses attendance, academics and overall performance with regular discussions about twice a month. The Connect aspect utilizes this individualized attention to connect this student with school personnel, family and community service providers that can intervene to keep the student on track.[] Effectiveness: A 1998 study conducted by Sinclair and colleagues shows overall positive effects on 94 high school students from Minneapolis public schools in the Check & Connect program. The study found that students enrolled in the program were significantly less likely to have dropped out of school after the end of freshman year (9% compared with 30%). This positive outcome remained after the final check-up at the end of senior year39% of students enrolled dropped out of high school compared to 58% of those not enrolled. In addition to actually staying in school, the study also found the students progress in school to be positive as well; Check & Connect students earned more course credits in their night-grade year than non-intervention students.[] Cost Efficiency: According to the Dakota County schools in Minnesota, the cost of implementing the Check & Connect program is around $1,400 per student in 2001-2002.[] This model is very cost-inefficient, and now in 2011, the total may even be costlier.Wikipedia:Disputed statement The Career Academies Initiative This alternative intervenes to target the most at-risk students. The Career Academies is a school-within-a-school model with a career-themed approach to learning. Developed 35 years ago, this alternative has evolved and around 2,500 academies are operated nationwide.[] It tends to be found in larger high schools and helps create a smaller community by keeping students with the same teachers for three or fours years of high school. The program requires students to take the career-related courses with the Academy in subjects such as finance or technology and even partners with local employers to offer internship opportunities.[] Effectiveness: A 2000 study conducted by Kemple and Snipes shows overall positive effects for 1,700 high school students in nine different Career Academies. The study found that the most at-risk students participating in the program produced significantly fewer dropouts (21% compared with 32%).[] When assessing progress in school, the high-risk students earned more credits by their senior year and 40% had earned enough credits to graduate, as opposed to only 25% of non-intervention students, posting positive results for the program. Cost Efficiency: According to the California Partnership Academies, average cost estimates for the Career Academies intervention are $600 more per pupil than the average cost for a non-Academy student in 2004.[] This

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Alternative education figure does not include additional costs of intensive services for high-risk students. The Talent Development High School Model This alternative was developed in 1994 by The Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk and initiated at Patterson High School in Baltimore, Maryland. The Talent Development High School (TDHS) approach is an entire reform intervention, with dropout prevention as one component. It includes breaking the larger high school into smaller learning communities, like Career Academies, but is more extensive.[] There is a separate ninth grade academy, a career academy for the upper grades and an additional Twilight School afterschool program for those with chronic discipline and attendance issues. This model homes in on reforming students low expectations and schools poor academic preparation through a college-preparatory sequence in ninth and tenth grade as well as increased focus on English and Math courses.[] Effectiveness: A 2005 study conducted by Kemple, Herlihy, and Smith, which followed 30 cohorts of participants for four years in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, shows positive effects of the Talent Development High School (TDHS) model, primarily on academic progress. The study found that students using this model earned more course credits over the first two years of high school than those not in the program (9.5 credits compared with 8.6 credits). These students were also more likely to move onto the tenth grade (68% compared with 60%).[] Cost Efficiency: According to Johns Hopkins University 's Center for the Social Organization of Schools (CSOS), the developer of the initiative, average costs for a student participating in the Talent Development High School model run an additional $350 a year per student. This estimate includes the cost of materials and ongoing technical assistance.[] These are just three of many possible alternative education models to help at-risk students. The matter has also gained national attention. On March 1, 2010, President Barack Obama called on states to identify and focus on schools with graduation rates below 60 percent. Those districts could be eligible for federal aid as his budget proposal includes $900 million in "school turnaround grants" on top of $3.5 billion in federal dollars the administration has committed to persistently low-performing schools. With respect to keeping students engaged and on-track to graduation specifically, he committed $50 million to the Graduation Promise Fund.[8]

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Popular education
Popular education was related in the 19th century to the workers' movement.[citation needed] Such experiences have been continued throughout the 20th century, such as the folk high schools in Scandinavian countries, or the "popular universities" in France.

Independent school
Independent, or private, schools have more flexibility in staff selection and educational approach. The most plentiful of these are Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (the latter are also called Steiner schools after their founder), and Friends schools. Other independent schools include democratic, or free schools such as Sands School, Summerhill School and Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, open classroom schools, those based on experiential education, as well as schools which teach using international curriculum such as the International Baccalaureate and Round Square schools. An increasing number of traditionally independent school forms now also exist within state-run, public education; this is especially true of the Waldorf and Montessori schools. The majority of independent schools offer at least partial scholarships.

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Homeschooling
Families who seek alternatives based on educational, philosophical, or religious reasons, or if there appears to be no nearby educational alternative can decide to have home-based education. Some call themselves unschoolers, for they follow an approach based on interest, rather than a set curriculum. Others enroll in umbrella schools which provide a curriculum to follow. Many choose this alternative for religious-based reasons, but practitioners of home-based education are of all backgrounds and philosophies.

Other
There are also some interesting grey areas. For instance, home-educators have combined to create resource centers where they meet as often as five or more days a week, but their members all consider themselves home-educated. In some states publicly run school districts have set up programs for homeschoolers whereby they are considered enrolled, and have access to school resources and facilities.[citation needed] Also, many traditional schools have incorporated methods originally found only in alternative education into their general approach, so the line between alternative and mainstream education is continually becoming more blurred.
[citation needed]

Alternative schooling in different countries

Australia
Preshil, in Kew, Australia, was established in the 1930s. Alia College [9], in Hawthorn East, Australia, was established in 1999. They are two of the few alternative schools in Australia that are unaffiliated with any doctrinal or theological movement. Preshil's primary school has run since established by Margaret Lyttle in 1931, and the secondary school since the late 1970s. See also Village School, Vic [10]; Currambena School, NSW;Kinma, NSW [11] ; Melbourne Community School, Vic [12]; Collingwood College, Vic [13]; Fitzroy Community School, Vic [14]; Lynall Hall, Vic [15]; Berengarra, Vic [16] Candlebark School, Vic [17]; Brisbane Independent School, Qld; Pine Community School [18], Arana Hills, Qld, Edmund Rice Educaiton Australia Youth+ www.youthplus.edu.au (QLd) The Pavilion [19], West Heidelberg, Vic

India
In India, from the early 20th century, some educational theorists discussed and implemented radically different forms of education. Rabindranath Tagore's Visva-Bharati University, and Sri Aurobindo's Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education are prime examples. In recent years many new alternative schools have formed[20] including Kanavu in Wyanadu, Kerala, Timbaktoo Collective, and The Peepal Grove School (Andhra Pradesh). A traditional system of learning in India is now regardedWikipedia:Avoid weasel words as a basis for developing new methods of alternative schooling. Students used to stay in Gurukulas, where they received free food and shelter, and education from a "guru" ("teacher" in Sanskrit). Progress was not based on examinations and marks; tests were given by the gurus but not ranks. This system aimed to nurture the students' natural creativity and all-round personality development. While the mainstream education system in India is still based on that introduced by Lord Macaulay, a few projects aim to rejuvenate the early system, Some students in these and similar projects take up research work in the field of Sanskrit studies, Vedic studies, Vedic science, Yoga and Ayurveda. Others after completing their education in a Gurukula continue into regular mainstream education such as Bachelor degrees in Commerce, Science, Engineering etc.

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Japan
Meiji, Taisho, Showa eras (up to World War II) Japans first law on the school system, modeled after France, was proclaimed in 1872,[21] but the word compulsory education did not appear in the law until 1886.[22] "The New Education (Neue Erziehung) movement" started at a British school Abbotsholme (founded in 1889) reached Japan, where it turned into "Taisho-era Free Education Movement" (Taisho Jiyu Kyoiku Undo ). They tried to establish a system focusing on childrens interests and to provide a liberal learning environment instead of the standardized inflexible system. Schools were founded, both public and private, based on this concept. All public schools built under this new movement were subjected to the Militaristic and Nationalistic government control and turned into National Schools (Kokumin Gakko ) in 1941, modeled after Nazis primary education system. Many private schools survived and still exist today. Almost all of them maintain the Western influence, however some have lost its roots and enthusiasm. Others are still strongly known as a unique school such as Jiyu Gakuen ( ) for its high student-autonomy, Tamagawa Gakuen ( ) as the only Round Square member school in Japan, and the Rudolf Steiner School Fuji, the oldest of the Waldorf schools (w:ja: ) in the country. After World War II Japans recovery efforts from World War II and the subsequent so-called post-war economic miracle encouraged the mass production of educated work force and the highly competitive entrance exams, which gave little space for alternative education. All children with disabilities, regardless of the severity, were finally allowed to Special Schools (Yogo Gakko ) in 1979. To this date Japanese education has been run as a nation-wide standardized system under the full control of the Ministry of Education. The only alternative option has been accredited private schools that have more freedom to offer different curriculum including the choice of textbooks (public schools can use only the government approved textbooks) and foreign languages, teaching methods, hiring guidelines. However, almost all of these private schools require competitive entrance examination and tuition with very few scholarships available. In the 1970s and early 1980s school violence was the major problem. Private non-accredited Totsuka Yacht School ( ), one of such schools for correctional education, had multiple deaths and missing incidents. Some public and private schools, usually non-competitive ones, had been functioning as American-equivalent of alternative schools to accept "at-risk students, though most of them never claimed themselves as one. A private boarding High school, Hokusei-Gakuen Yoichi ( ), being one of the few exceptions, admitted its status as the alternative school and started to accept High school drop outs from all over the country since 1988.

Alternative education 1980s to present Since 1980s the problem shifted from violence against people and property to ijime (bullying by peers) to drive the victim into School refusal, Hikikomori (acute social withdrawal) and the worst case, suicide. It is 1980s that the second wave of alternative education movement came in. There exist two different forces that triggered the interest in alternative education: Ijime and Globalization. Ijime and Free Schools Free school is the term used in Japan to describe a non-profit groups or independent schools specialized in the care and education of children who refused to go to school. Tokyo Shure ( founded in 1985, modeled after the American democratic school) was the beginning of the Free School emergence in Japan. It started as a shelter for children who avoid school environment, then introduced homeschooling in 1998, creating several branches around Tokyo. It was approved as a Non-profit organization in 2000 to run a college, Shure University( . Japanese free schools have various policies and curricula. Though most of them are democratic schools, there are Jukus (cram schools) that house school-refusal children. Learned from Chinas Special Economic Zone policy, Japan introduced Special Zones for Structural Reform ( ) in 2003, which enables to open a government-accredited school that provides alternative education. The first school founded in 2005 under the new law was a charter school called Gunma Kokusai Academy , an English immersion school for grades 1 through 12. Tokyo Shure also started a free school-based junior high school in 2007 in the special zone of Katsushika, Tokyo. Globalization and International schools More and more parents are interested in sending their children to International schools to acquire native-level command of foreign language (English mostly), with a possible plan of higher education outside of Japan. Although International schools are not legally certified by the Japanese government, many of them are approved by its home country such as US, Canada, Germany, France, Korea and China, and some offer the International Baccalaureate program. For the past two decades or so, International, especially American or English-based, schools have been very popular in spite of its costly tuition, however the new trend in the early 21st century is Chinese schools. In expectation of Chinas rapid economic growth, many think knowledge of the Chinese language and culture will be valuable. Compared to American school, which covers all the materials in English only, Chinese schools teach Chinese, Japanese and English for only a 1/8 to 1/4 of what an American school charges for a tuition. [23].

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United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom parents have a right to educate their children outside school. Education Otherwise is a charity set up to support those who educate their children outside school. Summerhill School, established by A.S. Neill in 1921 is known for its alternative approach to education. It is a boarding school (although it also takes day students) where students choose whether or not to attend classes. It is run as a democracy with children and teachers having equal voting rights at school meetings which are held 2-3 times a week. There are a number of Steiner-Waldorf schools in the UK. Sands School is an alternative school in the UK. It has only 65 students, with a high ratio of teachers. The students learn at their own pace in a supportive environment. The school is run democratically, with the students having as much say in how the school is run as the staff. Decisions are made by voting in a weekly school meeting, where matters ranging from what colour the new carpets should be, to the employment of new staff. The school offers a full range of subjects, and attendance to lessons is negotiated, not compulsory. The school also educates students on a larger range than most schools, and gives students choice in what they can learn. Their interests form a large part of what is offered in the curriculum.

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United States
AEF Schools in Fort Lauderdale, Florida is a leading non-profit organization creating lasting changes in the lives of children in the United States and around the world. Many of these children have been diagnosed with Autism, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Asperger's, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, Non Verbal Learning Disorder, etc. These children are average to above average intelligence and are physically normal in appearance. But their learning styles and social communications delineates their need for an alternative teaching program.[24] New Vista High School in Boulder, Colorado is a small public high school that "emphasizes project learning, multi-cultural perspectives, active involvement in the community."[25] Open since 1993, the school offers focused and unique classes, off-campus activities, and a supportive school community. Serving a heterogeneous student body, the school educates students in the conventional subjects as well as preparation for a variety of post secondary programs. The school also "helps each student identify and pursue interests or talents at which they are genuinely motivated to excel."[26] Another example of an alternative high school in the United States is Holden High School (California) in Orinda. Holden is a part of the National Coalition of Alternative and Community Schools (NCACS) and is accredited by the NCACS's legal counterpart, the National Association for the Legal Support of Alternative Schools (NALSAS). Another example of an alternative high school is the Fusion Academy & Learning Center in California. Fusion operates on the philosophy of Caring, Acceptance, Tolerance, and Empathy (CATE) and is accredited by Western Association of Schools & Colleges (WASC), National Independent Private Schools Association (NIPSA), and National Council for Private School Accreditation (NCPSA). One of the oldest alternative high school programs in the country is the Academic Community for Educational Success, or ACES. This very small (approximately 25 students) school of choice is for very capable students who are not thriving in the traditional school. Students and staff become a community through a variety of events and trips. The school works to enable students to acquire knowledge in a more natural, authentic, and relevant manner. This high school follows the model of a one room school house in that all students and staff learn together as often as possible and they are with each other for the whole school day. Between 2010-2012, students who were at risk of dropping out have graduated at a rate of 100% with a plan to attend college.[27] At the level of higher education several alternative practices have arisen, especially since the late 20th century. Colleges such as Bennington College, Evergreen State College, Goddard College, Union Institute & University, Hampshire College, Johnston Center at the University of Redlands, Burlington College and New College of Florida have no grades, for instance, and use only narrative evaluations for assessment. Other colleges, such as Bard College at Simon's Rock, Marlboro College, Antioch College, Antioch University, and Shimer College do not have traditional academic departments and are instead organized around interdisciplinary units. In regard to graduate education, there is Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center, Fielding Institute, Union Institute & University, the California Institute of Integral Studies and The Institute of Transpersonal Psychology. There are also several consciousness-based education alternatives, including the California Institute of Integral Studies and Maharishi University of Management.

The Netherlands
At the level of higher education there is Intercultural Open University, an alternative education provider for person-centered graduate education. In keeping with the philosophy of alternative education, the university does not issue grades; narrative evaluations are used for assessment. There are no traditional academic departments or paid faculty and staff; its faculty and staff are volunteers. Learners develop a self-directed individualized curriculum under the guidance of a faculty advisor.

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References
[2] Ron Miller, Self-Organizing Revolution, Holistic Education Press, 2008 [3] (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ dictionary_/ Alternative%20school. html) Definition of alternative school. Retrieved August 9, 2007. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kwKAYr0J) 2009-10-31. [4] "Alternative Schools Adapt", by Fannie Weinstein. The New York Times, June 8, 1986, section A page 14. [5] Fiona Carnie, Alternative Approaches to Education: A Guide for Parents and Teachers [6] J. Kellmayer, "How to Establish an Alternative School", Corwin Press (1996). [7] Alliance for Excellent Education. (2010, October). Georgia High Schools. Retrieved from: http:/ / www. all4ed. org/ Dropping out may also increase the likelihood that these individuals will require public assistance. [8] The White House (2010, March 1). President Obama Announces Steps to Reduce Dropout Rate and Prepare Students for College and Careers. Retrieved from the White House website: http:/ / www. whitehouse. gov/ the-press-office/ president-obama-announces-steps-reduce-dropout-rate-and-prepare-students-college-an [9] http:/ / www. alia. vic. edu. au [10] http:/ / www. villageschool. vic. edu. au/ contact. htm [11] http:/ / www. kinma. nsw. edu. au/ [12] http:/ / www. melbournecommunityschool. com [13] http:/ / www. collingwood. vic. edu. au [14] http:/ / www. fcs. vic. edu. au [15] http:/ / www. lynallhall. vic. edu. au/ welcome. htm [16] http:/ / www. berengarra. vic. edu. au [17] http:/ / www. candlebark. info/ [18] http:/ / www. pinecommunityschool. org/ [19] http:/ / www. thepavilionschool. com. au [20] a list of some alternative schools in India (http:/ / www. alternativeeducationindia. net/ altschools. htm) [21] Japanese Wikipedia w:ja: May 26, 2007. 18:53 UTC [22] Japanese Wikipedia w:ja: May 16, 2007. 11:42 UTC [23] Peoples Daily Online (http:/ / j. peopledaily. com. cn/ 2004/ 05/ 25/ jp20040525_39741. html)(Japanese)

External links
Why the Free School Rules, The Independent (http://www.indypendent.org/?p=440) www.nisai.com (http://www.nisai.com)

Further reading
Korn, Claire V. (1991). Alternative American Schools: Ideals in Action. Ithaca, New York: SUNY Press. Trickett, Edison J. (1991). Living an Idea: Empowerment and the Evolution of an Alternative High School. University of Maryland: Brookline Books.

External links
General
Alternative Education Resource Organization (AERO) (http://www.edrev.org) publishers of the journal Education Revolution; links to over 500 alternative schools and organizations worldwide International Association for Learning Alternatives (http://www.learningalternatives.net/) AltLearn (http://www.alternative-learning.org) - a worldwide network of Natural Learners, Unschoolers, and support groups, linked Informal Education (http://www.infed.org) Special Education in Alternative Education Programs (http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/special.htm) ERIC Digest E585 Alternative Education: The Challenge of Educators (http://www.learn-portuguese-now.com/ alternative-education.html) - by Prof. Antnio Luiz Bianchessi

Alternative education together by map Holden High School (http://www.holdenhigh.org) Fusion Academy (http://www.fusionacademy.com) National Coalition of Alternative and [http://www.nisai.com www.nisai.com (Alternative Education Providers)] Community Schools (http://www.ncacs.org/) National Association for the Legal Support of Alternative Schools (http://www.nalsas.org/) Association for High School Innovation (http://www.ahsi.org/)

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Particular areas
Aurinko Academy, Bangalore (http://www.aurinkoacademy.com/) Indian School that welcomes Dyslexia and all Learning Difficulties Bhavya Learning, Bangalore (http://www.bhavyalearning.org/) eklavya foundation Madhya Pradesh (http://www.eklavya.in/go/) Indian organisation that has developed alternative material Iowa Association of Alternative Education (http://www.iaae.net/) Blueprint Education, Phoenix, Arizona (http://www.blueprinteducation.org/services/AlternativeEducation/ index.cfm) Oklahoma Technical Assistance Center (http://www.otac.info) Learning for a Cause (http://www.learningforacause.org) - Alternative educational projects. (http://www.myunion.edu) Union Institute & University, (http://www.myunion.edu) Alternative university education for adults, offering BA, BS, MA, M.Ed.,Ph.D,Ed.D in online and low-residency programs.

Special education
Disability

Disability portal Category: Disability Category: Disability lists

Special education or special needs education is the education of students with special needs in a way that addresses the students' individual differences and needs. Ideally, this process involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, accessible settings, and other interventions designed to help learners with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and community than would be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education. Common special needs include challenges with learning, communication challenges, emotional and behavioral disorders, physical disabilities, and developmental disorders.[1] Students with these kinds of special needs are likely to benefit from additional educational services such as different approaches to teaching, use of technology, a specifically adapted teaching area, or resource room. Intellectual giftedness is a difference in learning and can also benefit from specialized teaching techniques or different educational programs, but the term "special education" is generally used to specifically indicate instruction

Special education of students whose special needs reduce their ability to learn independently or in an ordinary classroom, and gifted education is handled separately. In most developed countries, educators are modifying teaching methods and environments so that the maximum number of students are served in general education environments. Special education in developed countries is often regarded less as a "place" and more as "a range of services, available in every school."[2][3][4][5][6] Integration can reduce social stigmas and improve academic achievement for many students.[7] The opposite of special education is general education. General education is the standard curriculum presented with standard teaching methods and without additional supports.

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Identifying students with special needs

Some children are easily identified as candidates for special needs from their medical history. They may have been diagnosed with a genetic condition that is associated with mental retardation, may have various forms of brain damage, may have a developmental disorder, may have visual or hearing disabilities, or other disabilities. Among students whose identification is less obvious, such as students with learning difficulties, two primary methods have been used for identifying them: the discrepancy model and the response to intervention model. The discrepancy model depends on the teacher noticing that the students' achievements are noticeably below what is expected. The response to intervention model advocates earlier intervention. In the discrepancy model, a student receives special educational services for a specific learning difficulty (SLD) if and only if the student has at least normal intelligence and the student's academic achievement is below what is expected of a student with his or her IQ. Although the discrepancy model has dominated the school system for many years, there has been substantial criticism of this approach (e.g., Aaron, 1995, Flanagan and Mascolo, 2005) among researchers. One reason for criticism is that diagnosing SLDs on the basis of the discrepancy between achievement and IQ does not predict the effectiveness of treatment. Low academic achievers who also have low IQ appear to benefit from treatment just as much as low academic achievers who have normal or high intelligence. The alternative approach, response to intervention, identifies children who are having difficulties in school in their first or second year after starting school. They then receive additional assistance such as participating in a reading remediation program. The response of the children to this intervention then determines whether they are designated as having a learning disability. Those few who still have trouble may then receive designation and further assistance. Sternberg (1999) has argued that early remediation can greatly reduce the number of children meeting diagnostic criteria for learning disabilities. He has also suggested that the focus on learning disabilities and the provision of accommodations in school fails to acknowledge that people have a range of strengths and weaknesses and places undue emphasis on academics by insisting that people should be propped up in this arena and not in music or sports.

Individual needs
A special education program should be customized to address each individual student's unique needs. Special educators provide a continuum of services, in which students with special needs receive services in varying degrees based on their individual needs. Special education programs need to be individualized so that they address the unique combination of needs in a given student.[] In the United States, Canada, and the UK, educational professionals used the initialism IEP when referring to a students individualized education plan. Students with special needs are assessed to determine their specific strengths and weaknesses.[] Placement, resources, and goals are determined on the basis of the student's needs. Accommodations and Modifications to the regular program may include changes in curriculum, supplementary aides or equipment, and the provision of specialized physical adaptations that allow students to participate in the educational environment to the fullest extent possible.[8] Students may need this help to access subject matter, to physically gain access to the school, or to meet

Special education their emotional needs. For example, if the assessment determines that the student cannot write by hand because of a physical disability, then the school might provide a computer for typing assignments, or allow the student to answer questions orally instead. If the school determines that the student is severely distracted by the normal activities in a large, busy classroom, then the student might be placed in a smaller classroom such as a resource room.

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Methods of provision
Schools use different approaches to providing special education services to identified students. These can be broadly grouped into four categories, according to whether and how much contact the student with special needs has with non-disabled students (using North American terminology): Inclusion: In this approach, students with special educational needs spend all, or at least more than half, of the school day with students who do not have special educational needs. Because inclusion can require substantial modification of the general curriculum, most PS 721, a special school in Brooklyn, New York schools use it only for selected students with mild to moderate exclusively for the education of students with special needs, for which is accepted as a best practice.[9][10] special needs. Specialized services may be provided inside or outside the regular classroom, depending on the type of service. Students may occasionally leave the regular classroom to attend smaller, more intensive instructional sessions in a resource room, or to receive other related services that might require specialized equipment or might be disruptive to the rest of the class, such as speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, rehabilitation counseling, or might require greater privacy, such as counseling sessions with a social worker.[] Mainstreaming refers to the practice of educating students with special needs in classes with non-disabled students during specific time periods based on their skills. Students with special needs are segregated in separate classes exclusively for students with special needs for the rest of the school day.[] Segregation in a separate classroom or special school exclusively for students with special needs: In this model, students with special needs spend no time in classes with non-disabled students. Segregated students may attend the same school where regular classes are provided, but spend all instructional time exclusively in a separate classroom for students with special needs. If their special class is located in an ordinary school, they may be provided opportunities for social integration outside the classroom, e.g., by eating meals with non-disabled students.[11] Alternatively, these students may attend a special school.[] Exclusion: A student who does not receive instruction in any school is excluded from school. Historically, most students with special needs have been excluded from school.[12] Such exclusion still affects about 23 million disabled children worldwide, particularly in poor, rural areas of developing countries.[] It may also occur when a student is in hospital, housebound, or detained by the criminal justice system. These students may receive one-on-one instruction or group instruction. Students who have been suspended or expelled are not considered excluded in this sense.

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Special schools
A special school is a school catering for students who have special educational needs due to severe learning difficulties, physical disabilities or behavioural problems. Special schools may be specifically designed, staffed and resourced to provide the appropriate special education for children with additional needs. Students attending special schools generally do not attend any classes in mainstream schools. Special schools provide individualised education, addressing specific needs. Student:teacher ratios are kept low, often 6:1 or lower depending upon the needs of the children. Special schools will also have other facilities for the development of children with special needs, such as soft play areas, sensory rooms, or swimming pools, which are vital for the therapy of certain conditions. In recent times, places available in special schools are declining as more children with special needs are educated in mainstream schools. There will always be some children, however, whose learning needs are not appropriately met in a regular classroom setting and will require specialised education and resources to provide the level of support they require. An example of a special need that may require the intensive services a special school provides is mental retardation. However this practice is often frowned upon by school districts in the USA in the light of Least Restrictive Environment as mandated in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.[13] An alternative is a special unit or special classroom, also called a self-contained classroom, which is a separate room or rooms dedicated solely to the education of students with special needs within a larger school that also provides general education. These classrooms are typically staffed by specially trained teachers, who provide specific, individualized instruction to individuals and small groups of students with special needs. Self-contained classrooms, because they are located in a general education school, may have students who remain in the self-contained classroom full-time, or students who are included in certain general education classes. In the United States a part-time alternative that is appropriate for some students is sometimes called a resource room. History of special schools One of the first special schools in the world was the Institut National des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris, which was founded in 1784. It was the first school in the world to teach blind students.[14] The first school in U.K, for the Deaf was established c1767? in Edinburgh by Thomas Braidwood. In the 19th Century, people with disabilities and the inhumane conditions where they were supposed to be housed and educated were addressed in the literature of Charles Dickens. Dickens characterized people with severe disabilities as having the sameif not morecompassion and insight in Bleak House and Little Dorrit.[15] Such attention to the downtrodden conditions of people with disabilities brought with it reforms in Europe including the re-evalutation of special schools. In the United States reform came slower. Throughout the mid half of the 20th century, special schools, termed institutions, were not only acceptable they were encouraged. Students with disabilites were housed with people with mental illness, and little if any education took place.[16] With the Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1997, school districts in the United States began to slowly integrate students with moderate and severe special needs into regular school systems. This changed the form and function of special education services in many school districts and special schools subsequently saw a steady decrease in enrollment as districts weighed the cost per student. It also posed general funding dilemmas to certain local schools and districts, changed how schools view assessments, and formally introduced the concept of inclusion to many educators, students and parents.[17]

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Instructional strategies
Different instructional techniques are used for some students with special educational needs. Instructional strategies are classified as being either accommodations or modifications. An accommodation is a reasonable adjustment to teaching practices so that the student learns the same material, but in a format that is accessible to the student. Accommodations may be classified by whether they change the presentation, response, setting, or scheduling.[] For example, the school may accommodate a student with visual impairments by providing a large-print textbook; this is a presentation accommodation. A modification changes or adapts the material to make it simpler.[] Modifications may change what is learned, how difficult the material is, what level of mastery the student is expected to achieve, whether and how the student is assessed, or any another aspect of the curriculum.[18] For example, the school may modify a reading assignment for a student with reading difficulties by substituting a shorter, easier book. A student may receive both accommodations and modifications. Examples of modifications Skipping subjects: Students may be taught less information than typical students, skipping over material that the school deems inappropriate for the student's abilities or less important than other subjects. For example, students whose fine motor skills are weak may be taught to print block letters, but not cursive handwriting. Simplified assignments: Students may read the same literature as their peers but have a simpler version, for example Shakespeare with both the original text and a modern paraphrase available.[19] Shorter assignments: Students may do shorter homework assignments or take shorter, more concentrated tests, e.g. 10 math problems instead of 30. Extra aids: If students have deficiencies in working memory, a list of vocabulary words, called a word bank, can be provided during tests, to reduce lack of recall and increase chances of comprehension. Students might use a calculator when other students are not. Extended time: Students with lower processing speed may benefit from extended time in assignments and/or tests in order to comprehend questions, recall information, and synthesize knowledge. Examples of accommodations Response accommodations:[] Typing homework assignments rather than hand-writing them (considered a modification if the subject is learning to write by hand). Having someone else write down answers given verbally. Presentation accommodations:[] Listening to audio books rather than reading printed books. Agencies like Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic in America and RNIB National Library Service in the UK offer a variety of titles on tape and CD. These may be used as substitutes for the text, or as supplements intended to bolster the students' reading fluency and phonetic skills. Similar options include designating a person to read text to the student, or providing text to speech software. (Considered a modification if the purpose of the assignment is reading skills acquisition). Designating a person to take notes during lectures. Using a talking calculator rather than one with only a visual display. Setting accommodations:[] Taking a test in a quieter room. Moving the class to a room that is physically accessible, e.g., on the first floor of a building or near an elevator. Arranging seating assignments to benefit the student, e.g., by sitting at the front of the classroom. Scheduling accommodations:[] Students may be given rest breaks or extended time on tests (may be considered a modification, if speed is a factor in the test). All developed countries permit or require some degree of accommodation for students with special needs, and special provisions are usually made in examinations which take place at the end of formal schooling.[] In addition to how the student is taught the academic curriculum, schools may provide non-academic services to the student. These are intended ultimately to increase the student's personal and academic abilities. Related services include developmental, corrective, and other supportive services as are required to assist a student with special needs

Special education and includes speech and language pathology, audiology, psychological services, physical therapy, occupational therapy, counseling services, including rehabilitation counseling, orientation and mobility services, medical services as defined by regulations, parent counseling and training, school health services, school social work, assistive technology services, other appropriate developmental or corrective support services, appropriate access to recreation and other appropriate support services.[] In some countries, most related services are provided by the schools; in others, they are provided by the normal healthcare and social services systems. As an example, students who have autistic spectrum disorders, poor impulse control, or other behavioral challenges may learn self-management techniques, be kept closely on a comfortingly predictable schedule, or given extra cues to signal activities.[20]

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Issues
At-risk students (those with educational needs that are not associated with a disability) are often placed in classes with students who have disabilities. Critics assert that placing at-risk students in the same classes as students with disabilities may impede the educational progress of people with disabilities.[21] Some special education classes have been criticized for a watered-down curriculum.[22] The practice of inclusion (in mainstream classrooms) has been criticized by advocates and some parents of children with special needs because some of these students require instructional methods that differ dramatically from typical classroom methods. Critics assert that it is not possible to deliver effectively two or more very different instructional methods in the same classroom. As a result, the educational progress of students who depend on different instructional methods to learn often fall even further behind their peers.[] Parents of typically developing children sometimes fear that the special needs of a single "fully included" student will take critical levels of attention and energy away from the rest of the class and thereby impair the academic achievements of all students.[] Some parents, advocates, and students have concerns about the eligibility criteria and their application. In some cases, parents and students protest the students' placement into special education programs. For example, a student may be placed into the special education programs due to a mental health condition such as obsessive compulsive disorder, depression, anxiety, panic attacks or ADHD, while the student and his parents believe that the condition is adequately managed through medication and outside therapy. In other cases, students whose parents believe they require the additional support of special education services are denied participation in the program based on the eligibility criteria.[23] Whether it is useful and appropriate to attempt to educate the most severely disabled children, such as children who are in a persistent vegetative state, is debated. While many severely disabled children can learn simple tasks, such as pushing a buzzer when they want attention, some children may be incapable of learning. Some parents and advocates say that these children would be better served by substituting improved physical care for any academic program.[24] In other cases, they question whether teaching such non-academic subjects, such as pushing a buzzer, is properly the job of the school system, rather than the health care system. Another large issue is the lack of resources enabling individuals with special needs to receive an education in the developing world. As a consequence, 98 percent of children with special needs in developing countries do not have access to education.[25]

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National approaches
Africa
South Africa White Papers in 1995 and 2001 discuss special education in the country. Local schools are given some independent authority.[] Both modifications and accommodations are recommended, depending on the student's individual needs.

Asia
China Japan Japanese students with special needs are placed in one of four different school arrangements: special schools, special classrooms with another school, in resource rooms (which are called tsukyu), or in regular classrooms.[] Special schools are reserved for students whose severe disabilities cannot be accommodated in the local school.[] They do not use the same grading or marking systems as mainstream schools, but instead assess students according to their individualized plans.[] Special classes are similar, and may vary the national curriculum as the teachers see fit. Tsukyu are resource rooms that students with milder problems use part-time for specialized instruction individually in small groups. These students spend the rest of the day in the mainstream classroom. Some students with special needs are fully included in the mainstream classroom, with accommodations or modifications as needed.[] Training of disabled students, particularly at the upper-secondary level, emphasizes vocational education to enable students to be as independent as possible within society. Vocational training varies considerably depending on the student's disability, but the options are limited for some. It is clear that the government is aware of the necessity of broadening the range of possibilities for these students. Advancement to higher education is also a goal of the government, and it struggles to have institutions of higher learning accept more disabled students. Pakistan Singapore Special education is regulated centrally by the Singapore Ministry of Education.[] Both special schools and integration into mainstream schools are options for students with special educational needs, but most students with disabilities are placed in special schools.[] Students with special education who wish accommodations on national exams must provide appropriate documentation to prove that they are disabled.[] Accommodations, but not modifications (e.g., simpler questions) are normally approved if they are similar to the accommodations already being used in everyday schoolwork, with the goal of maintaining the exam's integrity while not having students unfairly disadvantaged by factors that are unrelated to what is being tested. The accommodations are listed on the Primary School Leaving Exam.[]

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Australia
Australian Association of Special Education Inc (AASE)s position is informed by the Disability Standards for Education 2005 which require that students with disabilities are treated on the same basis as other students in regards to enrolment and participation in education.[26] With respect to standardized tests, special consideration procedures are in place in all states for students who are disabled.[] Students must provide documentation Not all desired forms of accommodations are available. For example, students who cannot read, even if the inability to read is due to a disability, cannot have the exam read to them, because the exam results should accurately show that the student is unable to read. Reports on matriculation exams do not mention whether the student received any accommodations in taking the test.[]

Europe
Each country in Europe has its own special education support structures. Czech Republic Schools must take students' special education needs into account when assessing their achievements.[] Denmark In Denmark, 99% of students with specific learning difficulties like dyslexia are educated alongside students without any learning challenges.[27] Finland Schools adapt the national guidelines to the needs of individual students. Students with special educational needs are given an individualized plan. They may be exempted from some parts of school examinations, such as students with hearing impairments not taking listening comprehension tests. If the student receives modifications to the school-leaving exams, this is noted on the certificate of achievement.[] If they are not following the national core curriculum, then they are tested according to the goals of their individual educational program.[] France French students with disabilities are normally included in their neighborhood school, although children may be placed in special schools if their personalized plan calls for it.[] Each student's personalized school plan describes teaching methods, psychological, medical and paramedical services that the school will provide to the student. Germany Most students with special needs in Germany attend a special school that serves only children with special needs. These include: Frderschule fr Lernbehinderte (special school for learning disabilities): for children who have challenges that impair learning Frderschule mit dem Frderschwerpunkt Geistige Entwicklung (school for cognitive development): for children with very severe learning challenges Frderschule Schwerpunkt emotionale und soziale Entwicklung (school for emotional and social development): for children who have special emotional needs Frderschule fr Blinde (school for the blind): for blind children Frderschule fr Sehbehinderte (school for the visually impaired): for children who are visually challenged Frderschule fr Gehrlose (school for the deaf): for deaf children Frderschule fr Schwerhrige (school for the hearing impaired): for children who are hearing impaired

A special school for children with special emotional needs in Ktitz, Germany

Special education Frderschule fr Krperbehinderte (school for children with physical disabilities): for children with physical disabilities Frderschule fr Sprachbehinderte (school for children with language disorders): for children with language disorders Frderschule fr Taubblinde (school for the deafblind): for children who are deafblind Schule fr Kranke (school for ill children): for children who are too ill to attend school or are hospitalized for a longer Frderschule fr schwer mehrfach Behinderte (school for children with severe and multiple disabilities): for children with severe and multiple disabilities who needn very special care and attention. Sometimes these children are only susceptible for very basic emotional and sensory stimulation. Thus teachers at these school (as well as at schools for the deafblind) are highly specialized professionals. One in 21 German students attends a special school. Teachers at those schools are specially trained professionals who have specialized in special needs education while in university. Special schools often have a very favorable student-teacher ratio and facilities other schools do not have. Some special needs children in Germany do not attend a special school, but are educated in a mainstream school such as a Hauptschule or Gesamtschule (comprehensive school). Students with special educational needs may be exempted from standardized tests or given modified tests.[] Greece Greek students with special needs may attend either mainstream schools or special schools.[] Students whose disabilities have been certified may be exempted from some standardized tests or given alternative tests.[] Accommodations are responsive to students' needs; for example, students with visual impairments may take oral tests, and students with hearing impairments take written tests. Accommodations and modifications are noted on the certificate of achievement. Hungary Special education is regulated centrally.[] According to the 1993 Act on Public Education, students with special educational needs may be exempted from standardized tests or given modified tests.[] They have a right to extra time, a choice of formats for the tests (e.g., oral rather than written), and any equipment that they normally use during the school day.[] As of 2006, students with disabilities received a significant bonus (eight points) on the university entrance examination, which has been criticized as unfair.[] The Netherlands As a general rule, students with special educational needs are integrated into their regular, mainstream schools with appropriate support, under the "Going to School Together" policy (Weer Samen Naar School).[] Four types of disability-specific special schools exist. The national policy is moving towards "suitable education" (passend onderwijs), based on the individual's strengths and weakensses.[] A strong emphasis is placed on the specific needs and positive capabilities of the individual, rather than on limitations.[] Disabilities are normally documented by experts.[] Norway The National Support System for Special Needs Education (Statped) is managed by the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training. The general objective for Statped is to give guidance and support to those in charge of the education in municipalities and county administrations to ensure that children, young people and adults with major and special educational needs are secured well-advised educational and developmental provisions. The institutions affiliated with Statped offer a broad spectrum of services. Statped consists of 13 resource centres owned by the State, and 4 units for special education, where Statped buys services. These centres offer special educational guidance and

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Special education support for local authorities and county administrations. Portugal Students with disabilities have a "guaranteed right" to appropriate accommodations on assessments.[] Schools are generally considered autonomous. Slovenia On national tests, the National Examination Center normally grants most requests for accommodations that are supported by the local school's examination committee. Legislation opposes the use of modifications that would be unfair to non-disabled students.[] Spain Schools are required to provide services and resources to students with special educational needs so that they make progress and participate in school.[] If the local school is unable to provide appropriately for an individual student, then the student may be transferred to a special school.[] Spanish non-governmental organizations like ONCE have traditionally provided significant services to students with disabilities.[] Sweden Local schools have significant autonomy, based on national guidelines. Schools are expected to help students meet the goals that are set for them.[] There are special schools (Swedish:Srskola) for students with low abilities to attend normal education. There has in 2012-2013 been media criticism on the fact that students with light problems such as dyslexia have been placed in special schools, seriously hampering their chances on the labour market. Switzerland Education is controlled by the 26 cantons, and so special education programs vary from place to place.[] However, integration is typical.[] Students are assessed according to their individual learning goals.[] United Kingdom In England and Wales the acronym SEN for Special Educational Needs denotes the condition of having special educational needs, the services which provide the support and the programmes and staff which implement the education.[28] In England SEN PPS refers to the Special Educational Needs Parent Partnership Service. SENAS is the special educational needs assessment service, which is part of the Local Authority. SENCO refers to a special educational needs coordinator, who usually works with schools and the children within schools who have special educational needs. The Special Educational Needs Parent Partnership Services help parents with the planning and delivery of their child's educational provision. The Department for Education oversees special education in England. Most students have an individual educational plan, but students may have a group plan in addition to, or instead of, an individual plan. Groups plans are used when a group of students all have similar goals.[29] In Scotland the Additional Support Needs Act places an obligation on education authorities to meet the needs of all students in consultation with other agencies and parents. In Scotland the term Special Educational Needs (SEN), and its variants are not official terminology although the very recent implementation of the Additional Support for Learning Act means that both SEN and ASN (Additional Support Needs) are used interchangeably in current common practice.

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North America
In North America, special education is commonly abbreviated as special ed, SpecEd, SPED, or SpEd in a professional context. Canada Education in Canada is the responsibility of the individual provinces and territories.[] As such, rules vary somewhat from place to place. However, inclusion is the dominant model. For major exams, Canadian schools commonly use accommodations, such as specially printed examinations for students with visual impairments, when assessing the achievements of students with special needs.[] In other instances, alternative assessments or modifications that simplify tests are permitted, or students with disabilities may be exempted from the tests entirely.[] United States All special-needs students receive an Individualized Education Program (IEP) that outlines how the school will meet the students individual needs. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that students with special needs be provided with a Free Appropriate Public Education in the Least Restrictive Environment that is appropriate to the student's needs. Government-run schools provide special education in varying degrees from the least restrictive settings, such as full inclusion, to the most restrictive settings, such as segregation in a special school.[] The education offered by the school must be appropriate to the student's individual needs. Schools are not required to maximize the student's potential or to provide the best possible services. Unlike most of the developed world, American schools are also required to provide many medical services, such as speech therapy, if the student needs these services. According to the Department of Education, approximately 6 million children (roughly 10 percent of all school-aged children) currently receive some type of special education services.[30] As with most countries in the world, students who are poor, ethnic minorities, or do not speak the dominant language fluently are disproportionately identified as needing special education services.[31] Poor, black and Latino urban schools are more likely to have limited resources and to employ inexperienced teachers that do not cope well with student behavior problems, "thereby increasing the number of students they referred to special education."[32] During the 1960s, in some part due to the civil rights movement, some researchers began to study the disparity of education amongst people with disabilities.[33] The landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision, which declared unconstitutional the "separate but equal" arrangements in public schools for students of different races, paved the way for PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills vs. Board of Education of District of Columbia, which challenged the segregation of students with special needs. Courts ruled that unnecessary and inappropriate segregation of students with disabilities was unconstitutional.[31] Congress responded to these court rulings with the federal Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975 (since renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)). This law required schools to provide services to students previously denied access to an appropriate education. In US government-run schools, the dominant model is inclusion. In the United States, three out of five students with academic learning challenges spend the overwhelming majority of their time in the regular classroom.[34]

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References
[1] What is special education? (http:/ / www. minedu. govt. nz/ educationSectors/ SpecialEducation/ AboutSpecialEducation/ WhatIsSpecialEducation/ WhatIsSpecialEducation. aspx) from New Zealand's Ministry of Education [2] National Council on Disability. (1994). Inclusionary education for students with special needs: Keeping the promise. Washington, DC: Author. [8] Special Education Inclusion (http:/ / www. weac. org/ Issues_Advocacy/ Resource_Pages_On_Issues_one/ Special_Education/ special_education_inclusion. aspx) [11] Warnock Report (http:/ / www. educationengland. org. uk/ documents/ warnock/ warnock07. html) (1978). "Report of the Committee of Enquiry into the Education of Handicapped Children and Young People", London. [12] Wolffe, Jerry. (20 December 2010) What the law requires for disabled students (http:/ / www. theoaklandpress. com/ articles/ 2010/ 12/ 20/ news/ doc4d0fc3a6b0867472513928. txt?viewmode=fullstory) The Oakland Press. [13] Turnbull, Ron (2002). "Exceptional Lives: Special Education in Today's Schools (3rd ed.)Merrill Prentice Hall. New Jersey. [14] History of the INJA (http:/ / www. inja. fr/ inja/ htmgen/ SimHTMLGen. asp?FORM=0& STYLE=2& URL=/ pages-infos/ pages/ informations_generales/ presentation_de_l_inja/ histoire-inja/ histoirinja_sommaire. xhtml& CSS=1) [15] The history of special education: From isolation to integration. MA Winzer [16] Inventing the feeble mind: A history of mental retardation in the United States. S McCuen Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, 1997 Duke Univ Press [17] Jorgensen, C.M. (1998). Restructuring high school for all students: Taking inclusion to the next level. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing co. [19] Thorson, Sue. "Macbeth in the Resource Room: Students with Learning Disabilities Study Shakespeare." Journal of Learning Disabilities, v28 n9 p575-81 Nov 1995. [25] UNESCO. (1995). Review of the present situation in special education. Webaccessed: http:/ / www. unesco. org/ pv_obj_cache/ pv_obj_id_C133AD0AF05E62AC54C2DE8EE1C026DABFAF3000/ filename/ 281_79. pdf [29] Management of Inclusion (http:/ / education. staffordshire. gov. uk/ NR/ rdonlyres/ 6C2C3FF2-43F1-40A4-AB6F-77E4CC4602F6/ 22865/ SENCOResourceCentreCompletedocument2. pdf). The SENCO Resource Centre, part 3. [31] Blanchett, W. J. (2009). A retrospective examination of urban education: From "brown" to the resegregation of African Americans in special educationit is time to "go for broke". Urban Education, 44(4), 370388. [32] Tejeda-Delgado, M. (2009). Teacher efficacy, tolerance, gender, and years of experience and special education referrals. International Journal of Special Education, 24(1), 112119. [34] Cortiella, C. (2009). The State of Learning Disabilities. (http:/ / www. ncld. org/ stateofld) New York, NY: National Center for Learning Disabilities.

Further reading
Wilmshurst, L., & Brue, A. W. (2010). The complete guide to special education (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Nola Purdie & Louise Ellis (2005). "A Review of the Empirical Evidence Identifying Effective Interventions and Teaching Practices for Students with Learning Difficulties in Year 4, 5 and 6" (http://research.acer.edu.au/ tll_misc/7/). ACEReSearch.

External links
The European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (http://www.european-agency.org/) National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY) (http://www.nichcy.org/) (US) Council for Exceptional Children (http://www.cec.sped.org/) (US) Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/index. html) U.S. Department of Education When It's Your Own Child: A Report on Special Education from the Families Who Use It (http://www. publicagenda.org/reports/when-its-your-own-child) Public Agenda, 2002 (US) Inclusive Education in Scotland (http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/search/index.asp?bFilter=1& strSearchText=inclusion&12_educationaltheme=presentation subject\|key themes\|Inclusive education) (UK)

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Process
Pedagogy
Pedagogy

Disciplines

Critical pedagogy Research framework

Participant observation Holism Reflexivity Cultural relativism Key theories

Critical pedagogy Anti-oppressive education Anti-bias curriculum Student-centred learning Key concepts

Education Society Culture Related articles

Outline of pegagogy History of pedagogy List of pedagogy journals List of important publications List of years in pedagogy Pedagogy portal

Pedagogy Pedagogy (/pddi/ or /pdodi/)[1] is the science and art of education. Its aims range from the full development of the human being to skills acquisition. For example, Paulo Freire referred to his method of teaching people as "critical pedagogy". In correlation with those instructive strategies the instructor's own philosophical beliefs of instruction are harbored and governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experience, situation, and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher. One example would be the Socratic schools of thought.[2][3][4]

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Etymology and generalizations

The word comes from the Greek (paidagge); in which (pas, genitive , paidos) means "child" and (g) means "lead"; so it literally means "to lead the child". Other relevant roots from Greek include [] or toddler; [] or boy child; [] or girl child; [] or young child, indicating that is used with very young children of both sexes. An instructor develops conceptual knowledge and manages the content of learning activities in pedagogical settings. This is consistent with the Cognitivism of Piaget, 1926, 1936/1975; Bruner, 1960, 1966, 1971, 1986; and Vygotsky, 1962 where sequential development of individual mental processes such as recognize, recall, analyze, reflect, apply, create, understand, and evaluate are scaffolded. The learning technique is adoptive learning of procedures, organization, and structure to develop an internal cognitive structure that strengthens synapses in the brain. The learner requires assistance to develop prior knowledge and integrate new knowledge using Verbal/Linguistic and Logical/Mathematical intelligences. The learner must learn how to learn while developing existing schema and adopting knowledge from both people and the environment. This is low order learning of conceptual knowledge, techniques, procedures, and algorithmic problem solving.[]
Douris Man with wax tablet

Academic degree
An academic degree, Ped. D., Doctor of Pedagogy, is awarded honorarily by some U.S. universities to distinguished teachers (in the U.S. and U.K. earned degrees within the instructive field are classified as an Ed. D., Doctor of Education or a Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy). The term is also used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field (for instance, a Doctor of Music degree in piano pedagogy).

Contributors to pedagogy
A number of people contributed to the theories of pedagogy, among these are

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Paul Lewis Johann Friedrich Herbart Josef Albers John Asimakopoulos Caleb Gattegno Benjamin Bloom John Dewey Adolphe Ferriere Celestin Freinet Paulo Freire Friedrich Frbel Eugenio Mara de Hostos Kurt Hahn John Hejduk Gloria Jean Watkins (bell hooks) Jan Amos Komensky Shinichi Suzuki (violinist)

Janusz Korczak William G Perry Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi Jean Piaget Simon Soloveychik Rudolf Steiner Lev Vygotsky Henry Giroux Peter McLaren Maria Montessori Pierre Bourdieu Joseph Jacotot Tsunesaburo Makiguchi John Taylor Gatto

Pedagogues
In Denmark, a pedagogue is a practitioner of pedagogy. The term is primarily used for individuals who occupy jobs in pre-school education (such as kindergartens and nurseries) in Scandinavia. But can occupy various kinds of jobs e.g. in retirement homes, prisons, orphanages, and human resource managements. These are often recognised as social pedagogues as they perform on behalf of society. The pedagogue's job is usually distinguished from teachers by primarily focusing on teaching children life-preparing knowledge such as social skills and cultural norms etc. There is also a very big focus on care and well-being of the child. Many pedagogical institutions also practice social inclusion. The pedagogue's work also consists of supporting the child in his or her mental- and social development. [5] In Denmark all pedagogues are trained at a series of national institutes for social educators located in all major cities. The programme is a 3.5 year academic course giving the student the title of a Bachelor in Social Education (Danish: Professionsbachelor som pdagog) [6]

References
[3] Petrie et al. (2009). Pedagogy a holistic, personal approach to work with children and young people, across services. p. 4. (http:/ / eprints. ioe. ac. uk/ 58/ 1/ may_18_09_Ped_BRIEFING__PAPER_JB_PP_. pdf) [4] Aarhus University Department of Education (DPU) - Research (http:/ / edu. au. dk/ en/ research/ ) [5] Taipei Times Learning from Denmark (http:/ / www. taipeitimes. com/ News/ editorials/ archives/ 2006/ 03/ 22/ 2003298639) [6] Educational Guide - Denmark Pdagog - UddannelsesGuiden.dk (http:/ / www. ug. dk/ job/ paedagogiskkirkeligtogsocialtarbejde/ paedagogiskarb/ paedagog. aspx).

Further reading
Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Belkapp Press. Bruner, J. S. (1971). The relevance of education. New York, NY: Norton Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., Austin, G. A. (1986). A study of thinking. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum Montessori, M. (1909). Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica applicato all'educazione infantile nelle Case dei Bambini.

Pedagogy Montessori, M. (1910). Antropologia Pedagogica. Montessori, M. (1921). Manuale di pedagogia scientifica. Montessori, M. (1934). Psico Geomtria. Montessori, M. (1934). Psico Aritmtica. Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. London: Routledge & Kegan. Piaget, J. (1975/1936). La naissance de lintelligence chez lenfant. [Emergence of intelligence in the child]. Neuchatel: Delachaux et Niesl. Cited in Tomic, W. & Kingma, J (1996). Three theories of cognitive representation and their evaluation standards of training effect. Heerlson, The Netherlands: The Open University. Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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External links
Pedagogics as a System (http://www.archive.org/stream/pedagogicsasasy00bracgoog#page/n4/mode/2up) Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz, 1848, Translated 1872 by Anna C. Brackett, R.P. Studley Company The philosophy of education (http://www.archive.org/details/philosophyeduca01rosegoog) Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz, D. Appleton and Co., 1899 Methods and Theories of Education (http://www.dmoz.org/Reference/Education/Methods_and_Theories/) at the Open Directory Project TeachShare.org (Techniques) (http://www.teachshare.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Techniques) describes how to use a variety of teaching techniques (step-by-step). Pedagogy: Critical Approaches to Teaching Literature, Language, Composition, Culture (http://pedagogy. dukejournals.org/) SocialPedagogyUK.com (http://www.socialpedagogyuk.com/) Developments in the field of Social Pedagogy in the UK

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Curriculum
In formal education, a curriculum (pron.: /krkjlm/; plural: curricula /krkjl/ or curriculums) is the set of courses, and their content, offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum came from the Latin word "Currere" which means to run/to proceed, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard. Curriculum has numerous definitions, which can be slightly confusing. In its broadest sense a curriculum may refer to all courses offered at a school. This is particularly true of schools at the university level, where the diversity of a curriculum might be an attractive point to a potential student. A curriculum may also refer to a defined and prescribed course of studies, which students must fulfill in order to pass a certain level of education. For example, an elementary school might discuss how its curriculum, or its entire sum of lessons and teachings, is designed to improve national testing scores or help students learn the basics. An individual teacher might also refer to his or her curriculum, meaning all the subjects that will be taught during a school year. On the other hand, a high school might refer to a curriculum as the courses required in order to receive ones diploma. They might also refer to curriculum in exactly the same way as the elementary school, and use curriculum to mean both individual courses needed to pass, and the overall offering of courses, which help prepare a student for life after high school.

Curriculum from Different Points of View

The word "curriculum" is used to communicate many different ideas and to signify many different things. The word's intended meaning varies across speakers and writers and across place and time. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the numerous definitions indicate dynamism that connotes diverse interpretations of what curriculum is all about. The definitions are influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, political as well as cultural experiences. Traditional Points of View of Curriculum In the early years of the 20th century, the traditional concepts held of the "curriculum is that it is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to learn." It was synonymous to the "course of study" and "syllabus". Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as "permanent studies" where the rules of grammar, rhetoric and logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. Basic education should emphasize 3 Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal education. On the other hand, Arthur Bestor as an essentialist, believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should also include mathematics, science, history and foreign language. This definition leads us to the view of Joseph Schwab that discipline is the sole source of curriculum. Thus in our education system, curriculum is divided into chunks of knowledge we call subject areas in basic education such as English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and others. In college, discipline may include humanities, sciences, languages and many more. To Phenix, curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines. Thus curriculum can be viewed as a field of study. It is made up of its foundations (philosophical, historical, psychological, and social foundations); domains of knowledge as well as its research theories and principles. Curriculum is taken as scholarly and theoretical. It is concerned with broad historical, philosophical and social issues and academics. Progressive Points of View of Curriculum

Curriculum On the other hand, to a progressivist, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and list of courses of specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only be called curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner. Broadly speaking, curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual. This definition is anchored on John Dewey's definition of experience and education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by application. Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as "all experiences children have under the guidance of teachers." This definition is shared by Smith, Stanley and shores when they defined "curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting." Marsh and Willis on the other hand view curriculum as all the "experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted by teacher, and also learned by the students.[1]

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Historical conception
In The Curriculum,[2] the first textbook published on the subject, in 1918, John Franklin Bobbitt said that curriculum, as an idea, has its roots in the Latin word for race-course, explaining the curriculum as the course of deeds and experiences through which children become the adults they should be, for success in adult society. Furthermore, the curriculum encompasses the entire scope of formative deed and experience occurring in and out of school, and not only experiences occurring in school; experiences that are unplanned and undirected, and experiences intentionally directed for the purposeful formation of adult members of society. (cf. image at right.)

Curricula vector

To Bobbitt, the curriculum is a social engineering arena. Per his cultural presumptions and social definitions, his curricular formulation has two notable features: (i) that scientific experts would best be qualified to and justified in designing curricula based upon their expert knowledge of what qualities are desirable in adult members of society, and which experiences would generate said qualities; and (ii) curriculum defined as the deeds-experiences the student ought to have to become the adult he or she ought to become. Hence, he defined the curriculum as an ideal, rather than as the concrete reality of the deeds and experiences that form people to who and what they are. Contemporary views of curriculum reject these features of Bobbitt's postulates, but retain the basis of curriculum as the course of experience(s) that forms human beings into persons. Personal formation via curricula is studied at the personal level and at the group level, i.e. cultures and societies (e.g. professional formation, academic discipline via historical experience). The formation of a group is reciprocal, with the formation of its individual participants. Although it formally appeared in Bobbitt's definition, curriculum as a course of formative experience also pervades John Dewey's work (who disagreed with Bobbitt on important matters). Although Bobbitt's and Dewey's idealistic understanding of "curriculum" is different from current, restricted uses of the word, curriculum writers and researchers generally share it as common, substantive understanding of curriculum.[3][4]

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Primary and secondary education

A curriculum may be partly or entirely determined by an external, authoritative body (e.g., the National Curriculum for England in English schools). In the U.S., each state, with the individual school districts, establishes the curricula taught.[5] Each state, however, builds its curriculum with great participation of national[6] academic subject groups selected by the United States Department of Education, e.g. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)[7] for mathematical instruction. In Australia each state's Education Department establishes curricula with plans for a National Curriculum in 2011. UNESCO's International Bureau of Education[8] has the primary mission of studying curricula and their implementation worldwide. Curriculum[9] means two things: (i) the range of courses from which students choose what subject matters to study, and (ii) a specific learning program. In the latter case, the curriculum collectively describes the teaching, learning, and assessment materials available for a given course of study. Currently, a spiral curriculum is promoted as allowing students to revisit a subject matter's content at the different levels of development of the subject matter being studied. The constructivist approach, of the tycoil curriculum, proposes that children learn best via active engagement with the educational environment, i.e. discovery learning. Crucial to the curriculum is the definition of the course objectives that usually are expressed as learning outcomes and normally include the program's 'assessment strategy. These outcomes and assessments are grouped as units (or modules), and, therefore, the curriculum comprises a collection of such units, each, in turn, comprising a specialised, specific part of the curriculum. So, a typical curriculum includes communications, numeracy, information technology, and social skills units, with specific, specialized teaching of each. A core curriculum is a curriculum, or course of study, which is deemed central and usually made mandatory for all students of a school or school system. However, this is not always the case. For example, a school might mandate a music appreciation class, but students may opt out if they take a performing musical class, such as orchestra, band, chorus, etc. Core curricula are often instituted, at the primary and secondary levels, by school boards, Departments of Education, or other administrative agencies charged with overseeing education. In the United States, the Common Core State Standards Initiative promulgates a core curriculum for states to adopt and optionally expand upon. This coordination is intended to make it possible to use more of the same textbooks across states, and to move toward a more uniform minimum level of educational attainment.

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Higher Education
Many educational institutions are currently trying to balance two opposing forces. On the one hand, some believe students should have a common knowledge foundation, often in the form of a core curriculum; on the other hand, others want students to be able to pursue their own educational interests, often through early specialty in a major, however, other times through the free choice of courses. This tension has received a large amount of coverage due to Harvard University's reorganization of its core [10][11] requirements. An essential feature of curriculum design, seen in Core curriculum has typically been highly emphasized in Soviet and every college catalog and at every other level of Russian universities and technical institutes. In this photo, a student has come to the university's main class schedule board on the first day of classes schooling, is the identification of prerequisites for to find what classes he and all students in his specialization (sub-major) each course. These prerequisites can be satisfied will attend this semester. by taking particular courses, and in some cases by examination, or by other means, such as work experience. In general, more advanced courses in any subject require some foundation in basic courses, but some coursework requires study in other departments, as in the sequence of math classes required for a physics major, or the language requirements for students preparing in literature, music, or scientific research. A more detailed curriculum design must deal with prerequisites within a course for each topic taken up. This in turn leads to the problems of course organization and scheduling once the dependencies between topics are known.

United States
Core curriculum At the undergraduate level, individual college and university administrations and faculties sometimes mandate core curricula, especially in the liberal arts. But because of increasing specialization and depth in the student's major field of study, a typical core curriculum in higher education mandates a far smaller proportion of a student's course work than a high school or elementary school core curriculum prescribes. Amongst the best known and most expansive core curricula programs at leading American colleges are that of Columbia College at Columbia University, as well as the University of Chicago's. Both can take up to two years to complete without advanced standing, and are designed to foster critical skills in a broad range of academic disciplines, including: the social sciences, humanities, physical and biological sciences, mathematics, writing and foreign languages. In 1999, the University of Chicago announced plans to reduce and modify the content of its core curriculum, including lowering the number of required courses from 21 to 15 and offering a wider range of content. When The New York Times, The Economist, and other major news outlets picked up this story, the University became the focal point of a national debate on education. The National Association of Scholars released a statement saying, "It is truly depressing to observe a steady abandonment of the University of Chicago's once imposing undergraduate core curriculum, which for so long stood as the benchmark of content and rigor among American academic institutions.[12] Simultaneously, however, a set of university administrators, notably then-President Hugo Sonnenschein, argued that reducing the core curriculum had become both a financial and educational imperative, as the university was struggling to attract a commensurate volume of applicants to its undergraduate division compared

Curriculum to peer schools as a result of what was perceived by the pro-change camp as a reaction by the average eighteen-year-old to the expanse of the collegiate core. Further, as core curricula began to be diminished over the course of the twentieth century at many American schools, several smaller institutions became famous for embracing a core curriculum that covers nearly the students entire undergraduate education, often utilizing classic texts of the western canon to teach all subjects including science. St. Johns College in the United States is one example of this approach. Concordia University, Irvine (California) has also implemented a similar classical core curriculum starting in the Fall of 2010 Distribution requirements Some colleges opt for the middle ground of the continuum between specified and unspecified curricula by using a system of distribution requirements. In such a system, students are required to take courses in particular fields of learning, but are free to choose specific courses within those fields. Open curriculum Other institutions have largely done away with core requirements in their entirety. Brown University offers the "New Curriculum," implemented after a student-led reform movement in 1969, which allows students to take courses without concern for any requirements except those in their chosen concentrations (majors), plus a single writing course. In this vein it is certainly possible for students to graduate without taking college-level science of mathematics or math courses, or to take only science or math courses. Amherst College requires that students take one of a list of first-year seminars, but has no required classes or distribution requirements. Others include Evergreen State College, Hamilton College, and Smith College.[13] Wesleyan University is another school that has not and does not require any set distribution of courses. However, Wesleyan does make clear "General Education Expectations" such that if a student does not meet these expectations, he/she would not be eligible for academic honors upon graduation. [14] These types of approaches respect college students' choice as to which courses they take.

173

References
notes
[1] Bilbao, Purita P., Lucido, Paz I., Iringan, Tomasa C., and Javier, Rodrigo B. (2008). Curriculum Development. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. [2] Bobbitt, John Franklin. The Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1918. [3] Jackson, Philip W. "Conceptions of Curriculum and Curriculum Specialists." In Handbook of Research on Curriculum: A Project of the American Educational Research Association, edited by Philip W. Jackson, 3-40. New York: Macmillan Pub. Co., 1992. [4] Pinar, William F., William M. Reynolds, Patrick Slattery, and Peter M. Taubman. Understanding Curriculum: An Introduction to the Study of Historical and Contemporary Curriculum Discourses. New York: Peter Lang, 1995. [5] National Education Standards...They're Back! (http:/ / hnn. us/ articles/ 22591. html) (article) [6] Diane Ravitch, National Standards in American Education A Citizen's Guide (http:/ / www. brook. edu/ press/ books/ NATLSTDS2. HTM) (book) [7] nctm.org (http:/ / www. nctm. org/ ) [8] ibe.unesco.org (http:/ / www. ibe. unesco. org/ ) [9] Kelly, A.V. (2009) The Curriculum: theory and practice 6th Ed (http:/ / www. uk. sagepub. com/ textbooksProdDesc. nav?prodId=Book232571) [12] (http:/ / www. nas. org/ print/ pressreleases/ hqnas/ releas_16apr02. htm) [13] http:/ / openjar. org/ curricular-freedom-examples-in-action [14] http:/ / www. wesleyan. edu/ registrar/ academic_regulations/ general_education_expectations. html

Curriculum

174

Sources
World Council for Curriculum and Instruction (http://www.wcci-international.org/) Bilbao, Purita P., Lucido, Paz I., Iringan, Tomasa C., and Javier, Rodrigo B. (2008). Curriculum Development. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

External links
George M. Wiley (1920). "Education, Courses of Study in". Encyclopedia Americana.

List of academic disciplines

An academic discipline, or field of study, is a branch of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part), and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. However, there exists no formal criteria for when educational programs and scholarly journals form an academic discipline. A huge difference exists between, on the one hand, well established disciplines that exist in almost all universities all over the world, have a long history, and have a well established set of journals and conferences, and, on the other hand, suggestions for new fields supported only by few universities and publications. Fields of study usually have several sub-disciplines or branches, and the distinguishing lines between these are often both arbitrary and ambiguous.[1]

Overview
The University of Paris in 1231 consisted of four faculties: Theology, Medicine, Canon Law and Arts.[2] Most academic disciplines have their roots in the mid-to-late-19th century secularization of universities, when the traditional curricula were supplemented with non-classical languages and literatures, social sciences such as political science, economics, sociology and public administration, and natural science and technology disciplines such as physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering. In the early 20th century, new disciplines such as education and psychology were added. In the 1970s and 1980s, there was an explosion of new disciplines focusing on specific themes, such as media studies, women's studies, and black studies. Many disciplines designed as preparation for careers and professions, such as nursing, hospitality management, and corrections, also emerged in the universities. Finally, interdisciplinary scientific fields such as biochemistry and geophysics gained prominence as their contribution to knowledge became widely recognized. There is no consensus on how some academic disciplines should be classified, e.g., whether anthropology and linguistics are social sciences disciplines or humanities disciplines. More generally, the proper criteria for organizing knowledge into disciplines are also open to debate. An asterisk (*) denotes a field whose academic status has been debated among this article's editors.

Humanities
History

List of academic disciplines

175

African history American history Ancient history History of Asia History of Europe Chinese history Cultural history Economic history Ethnohistory

Greek History History of science and technology Iranian History Indian History Indonesian History Intellectual history Military history Modern history World history

Diplomatic history

Linguistics
Languages Classical language Standard English* Business English* World Englishes* Modern language Morphology Philology Phonetics Phonology Pragmatics Semantics Semiotics Sociolinguistics Syntax Composition studies Rhetoric Interlinguistics

Applied Linguistics Discourse analysis Etymology Historical linguistics History of linguistics

Computational linguistics / Natural language processing

List of academic disciplines

176

Literature
World literatures Arabic literature Argentine literature Bengali literature Bulgarian literature Bosnian literature Classics Comparative literature Chinese literature English literature American literature African American literature Asian American literature Jewish American literature Southern literature Australian literature British literature Hebrew literature Hindi literature Italian literature Japanese literature Korean literature Latin American literature Nigerian literature Oriya literature Pashto literature Persian literature Polish literature Philippine literature Portuguese and Brazilian literature Russian literature Serbian literature Spanish literature Yiddish literature Tamil literature Welsh Literature Literary theory Critical theory Literary criticism Poetics Rhetoric Creative writing Creative nonfiction Fiction writing Non-fiction writing Literary journalism Poetry composition Screenwriting Playwrighting

Scottish literature Welsh literature Canadian literature Indian literature Irish literature New Zealand literature Medieval literature Post-colonial literature Post-modern literature West Indian literature French literature Gaelic literature German literature and Austrian literature

List of academic disciplines

177

Performing arts
Arts administration Music Accompanying Chamber music Church music Musical composition Conducting Choral conducting Orchestral conducting Wind ensemble conducting Early music Jazz studies Music education Music history Music theory Musicology Historical musicology Systematic musicology Ethnomusicology Performance and literature Organ and historical keyboards Piano Strings, harp, and guitar Singing Woodwinds, brass, and percussion Recording Orchestral studies Dance Choreography Dance notation Ethnochoreology History of dance Theatre History Acting Directing Stage design Dramaturgy Playwrighting Scenography Musical theatre Film Animation Live-action Filmmaking Film criticism Film theory Oral literature Public speaking Performance poetry Storytelling

Philosophy
Meta-philosophy Continental philosophy Eastern philosophy Feminist philosophy

Metaphysics Ontology Teleology Philosophy of mind Philosophy of artificial intelligence Philosophy of perception Philosophy of pain Philosophy of space and time Philosophy of Action

History of philosophy Ancient philosophy Medieval philosophy Scholasticism Humanism Modern philosophy Contemporary philosophy

Epistemology

Logic Philosophical logic Mathematical logic

List of academic disciplines

Ethics Normative ethics Meta-ethics Value theory Moral psychology Applied ethics Animal rights Bioethics Environmental ethics Applied philosophy Philosophy of education Philosophy of history Philosophy of religion Philosophy of language Philosophy of law Philosophy of mathematics Philosophy of music Philosophy of science Philosophy of social science Philosophy of physics Philosophy of biology Philosophy of Chemistry Philosophy of economics Philosophy of Psychology Philosophy of engineering Systems philosophy

178

Aesthetics/Philosophy of Art Social philosophy and political philosophy Feminist philosophy Anarchism Marxism

Philosophical traditions and schools African philosophy Platonism Aristotelianism Analytic philosophy

Religion
Abrahamic religions Baha'i Faith Christianity Christian Theology Bibliology Hermeneutics Theology Proper East Asian religions Chinese folk religion Confucianism Shinto Daoism I-Kuan Tao Caodaism Chondogyo Tenrikyo Oomoto Other religions African religions Ancient Egyptian religion Native American religions Gnosticism Esotericism New religious movements Sumerian religion Zoroastrianism Comparative religion Mythology and Folklore Irreligion Agnosticism Atheism and religious humanism

Christology Pneumatology Demonology Theological anthropology Soteriology Nomology Ecclesiology Eschatology Christian ethics Islam / Islamic studies Judaism / Jewish studies Indian religions Buddhism / Buddhist Studies Hinduism Jainism Sikhism

List of academic disciplines

179

Visual arts
Art history Calligraphy Creative arts Drawing Fine arts Painting Filmmaking Photography Mixed Media Printmaking Studio art Sculpture Art conservation

Connoisseurship

Social sciences
Anthropology
Biological anthropology Forensic anthropology Gene-culture coevolution Human behavioral ecology Human evolution Medical anthropology Paleoanthropology Population genetics Primatology Anthropological linguistics Synchronic linguistics (or Descriptive linguistics) Diachronic linguistics (or Historical linguistics) Ethnolinguistics Sociolinguistics Cultural anthropology Anthropology of religion Economic anthropology Ethnography Ethnohistory Ethnology Ethnomusicology Folklore Mythology Missiology Political anthropology Psychological anthropology

Archaeology
Classical archaeology Egyptology Experimental archaeology Maritime archaeology Near Eastern archaeology Paleoanthropology Prehistoric archaeology

Area studies
African studies American studies Appalachian studies Canadian studies Latin American studies Iranian studies Japanology (Japanese studies) Korean studies Sinology (Chinese studies) Scandinavian studies Slavic studies German studies Indology (Indian studies)

Asian studies Celtic studies European studies

List of academic disciplines

180

Cultural and ethnic studies

Asian studies Asian American studies Black studies or African American studies Chicano studies Childhood studies Latino studies Native American studies

Economics
Agricultural economics Behavioral economics Bioeconomics Complexity economics Computational economics Consumer economics Development economics Ecological economics Econometrics Economic geography Economic history Economic sociology Economic systems Energy economics Entrepreneurial economics Environmental economics Evolutionary economics Experimental economics Feminist economics Financial economics Financial econometrics Game theory Green economics Growth economics Human development theory Industrial organization Information economics Institutional economics International economics Islamic economics Labor economics Law and economics Macroeconomics Managerial economics Mathematical economics Microeconomics Monetary economics Neuroeconomics Political economy Public finance Public economics Real estate economics Resource economics Social choice theory Socialist economics Socioeconomics Transport economics Welfare economics

Gender and sexuality studies

Feminine psychology Heterosexism Human sexual behavior Human sexuality Masculine psychology Men's studies Queer studies/Queer theory Sex education Sexology Women's studies

Gender studies/Gender theory

List of academic disciplines

181

Geography
Cartography Human geography Cultural geography Feminist geography Economic geography Development geography Historical geography Time geography Political geography & geopolitics Military geography Strategic geography Population geography Social geography Behavioral geography Children's geographies Health geography Tourism geography Urban geography Environmental geography Physical geography Biogeography Climatology Palaeoclimatology Coastal geography Geomorphology Geodesy Hydrology/Hydrography

Glaciology Limnology Oceanography Landscape ecology Palaeogeography Regional geography Remote Sensing

Political science
American politics Canadian politics Civics Comparative politics International relations International organizations Political behavior Political culture Political economy Political history Political philosophy Psephology Public administration Nationalism studies Peace and conflict studies Policy studies Nonprofit administration Non-governmental organization (NGO) administration

Geopolitics (Political geography)

Public policy Social choice theory

Psychology
Abnormal psychology Applied psychology Biological psychology Clinical psychology Cognitive psychology Community psychology Comparative psychology Conservation Psychology Consumer psychology Counseling psychology Cultural psychology Differential psychology Health psychology Legal psychology Media psychology Medical psychology Military psychology Neuropsychology Occupational health psychology Organizational psychology Parapsychology Personality psychology Political psychology Positive psychology Psychometrics

Developmental psychology

List of academic disciplines

Educational psychology Evolutionary psychology Experimental psychology Forensic psychology Psychology of religion Psychophysics Quantitative psychology School psychology Social psychology Sport psychology

182

Environmental psychology

Sociology
Applied sociology Political sociology Public sociology Social engineering Leisure studies Social control Pure sociology

Collective behavior Social movements

Social economy

Community informatics Social network analysis

Social philosophy

Comparative sociology Conflict theory Cultural studies

Social psychology Social policy Social research Computational sociology Economic sociology/Socioeconomics Economic development Social development

Criminology/Criminal justice Critical management studies Demography/Population Environmental sociology Feminist sociology Future studies Human ecology Interactionism Phenomenology Ethnomethodology Symbolic interactionism Social constructionism

Sociology of culture Sociology of deviance Sociology of education Sociology of gender Sociology of the family Sociology of knowledge Sociology of law Sociology of religion

Medical sociology Military sociology Organizational studies Sexology Social capital

Sociology of sport Sociology of work Social theory Social stratification Sociological theory Sociobiology Sociocybernetics Sociolinguistics Urban studies or Urban sociology/Rural sociology Visual sociology

Science studies/Science and technology studies

List of academic disciplines

183

Natural sciences
Space sciences
Astrobiology Astronomy Observational astronomy Interstellar medium Numerical simulations in Astrophysical plasma Galaxy formation and evolution High-energy astrophysics Hydrodynamics Magnetohydrodynamics Star formation Physical cosmology Stellar astrophysics

Radio astronomy Microwave astronomy Infrared astronomy Optical astronomy UV astronomy X-ray astronomy Gamma ray astronomy Astrophysics Gravitational astronomy Black holes

Helioseismology Stellar evolution Stellar nucleosynthesis Planetary science (alternatively, a part of earth science)

Earth sciences
See also Branches of earth sciences
Edaphology Environmental science Gemology Geodesy Meteorology Mineralogy Oceanography Pedology Paleontology Geography Geology Geochemistry Geomorphology Geophysics Glaciology Hydrogeology Hydrology Paleobiology

Environmental chemistry

Planetary science (alternatively, a part of space science) Sedimentology Soil science Speleology Tectonics Volcanology

List of academic disciplines

184

Life sciences
See also Branches of life sciences
Biochemistry Paleobiology Paleontology Systems biology Virology Molecular virology Xenobiology Zoology (outline) Bioinformatics Animal communications Arachnology Carcinology Entomology Ethnozoology Ethology Herpetology Ichthyology Oology Ornithology Primatology Zootomy

Biophysics

List of academic disciplines

Biology (outline) Aerobiology Anatomy Comparative anatomy Human anatomy (outline) Botany Ethnobotany Phycology Cell biology Chronobiology Computational biology Cryobiology Developmental biology Embryology Teratology Ecology (outline) Agroecology Ethnoecology Human ecology Landscape ecology Genetics (outline) Behavioural genetics Molecular genetics Population genetics Endocrinology Evolutionary biology Human biology Immunology Marine biology Mathematical biology Microbiology Molecular biology Nutrition (outline) Neuroscience Behavioral neuroscience Linnaean taxonomy Mycology Parasitology Pathology Physiology Human physiology Exercise physiology Limnology

185

Systematics (Taxonomy)

Chemistry
See also Branches of chemistry

List of academic disciplines

186

Analytical chemistry Biochemistry (outline) Cheminformatics Materials science Mathematical chemistry

Quantum chemistry Inorganic chemistry Organic chemistry (outline) Physical chemistry Theoretical chemistry Interface and colloid science

Computational chemistry

Physics
See also Branches of physics
Acoustics Applied Physics Astrophysics Biophysics Computational physics Condensed matter physics Cryogenics Electromagnetism Elementary particle physics Fluid dynamics Geophysics Materials science Mathematical physics Medical physics Mechanics Molecular physics Newtonian dynamics Nuclear physics Optics Plasma physics Quantum physics Solid mechanics Solid state physics Statistical mechanics Theoretical physics Thermodynamics Vehicle dynamics

Atomic, molecular, and optical physics

Formal sciences
Computer sciences
See also ACM Computing Classification System
Theory of computation Automata theory (Formal languages) Computability theory Computational complexity theory Concurrency theory Information science Data management Data mining Database Relational database Distributed database Object database Information retrieval Information management Knowledge management Multimedia, hypermedia Sound and music computing

List of academic disciplines

Algorithms Randomized algorithms Distributed algorithms Parallel algorithms Computational geometry Artificial intelligence (outline) Cognitive science Automated reasoning Machine learning

187

Data structures

Artificial neural network Support vector machine Natural language processing (Computational linguistics) Computer vision Expert systems Robotics (outline)

Computing in Mathematics, Natural sciences, Engineering and Medicine Numerical analysis Algebraic (symbolic) computation Computational number theory Computational mathematics Scientific computing (Computational science) Computational biology (bioinformatics) Computational physics Computational chemistry Computational neuroscience Computer-aided engineering Finite element analysis Computational fluid dynamics

Computer architecture VLSI design

Computing in Social sciences, Arts and Humanities, Professions Computational economics Computational sociology Computational finance The Digital Humanities (Humanities computing)

Operating systems

Computer and society History of computer hardware History of computer science (outline) Humanistic informatics Community informatics

Computer communications (networks) Information theory Internet, World wide web Wireless computing (Mobile computing) Ubiquitous computing Cloud computing

Computer security and reliability Cryptography Fault-tolerant computing

Distributed computing Grid computing

Parallel computing High-performance computing

Quantum computing Computer graphics Image processing Scientific visualization

Software engineering Formal methods (Formal verification)

List of academic disciplines

Programming languages Programming paradigms Imperative programming Object-oriented programming Functional programming Logic programming Concurrent programming Program semantics Type theory Compilers

188

Human-computer interaction

Logic
Mathematical logic Set theory Proof theory Model theory Recursion theory Modal logic Intuitionistic logic Philosophical logic Logical reasoning Modal logic Deontic logic Doxastic logic Logic in computer science Programming language semantics Formal methods (Formal verification) Type theory Logic programming Multi-valued logic Fuzzy logic

List of academic disciplines

189

Mathematics
See also Branches of mathematics and AMS Mathematics Subject Classification [3]
Algebra Group theory Group representation Ring theory Commutative algebra Noncommutative algebra Field theory Linear algebra (Vector space) Multilinear algebra Lie algebra Associative algebra Non-associative algebra Universal algebra Homological algebra Differential algebra Lattice theory (Order theory) Representation theory K-theory Category theory Number theory Analytic number theory Algebraic number theory Geometric number theory Logic and Foundations of mathematics Set theory Proof theory Model theory Recursion theory Modal logic Intuitionistic logic Applied mathematics Statistics Mathematical statistics Econometrics Actuarial science Demography Approximation theory Numerical analysis Operations research Mathematical optimization Linear programming Dynamic programming Assignment problem Decision analysis Inventory theory Scheduling Real options analysis Systems analysis Stochastic processes Optimal maintenance Dynamical systems Chaos theory Fractal geometry Mathematical physics Quantum mechanics Quantum field theory Quantum gravity

Topos theory Analysis Real analysis Calculus Complex analysis Functional analysis Operator theory Non-standard analysis Harmonic analysis

Fourier analysis p-adic analysis Ordinary differential equations Partial differential equations Probability theory Measure theory

Integral geometry Ergodic theory Stochastic process Geometry and Topology General topology Algebraic topology Geometric topology Differential topology Algebraic geometry Differential geometry Projective geometry Affine geometry Non-Euclidean geometry Convex geometry Discrete geometry Integral geometry Noncommutative geometry

String theory Statistical mechanics Theory of computation Computational complexity theory Information theory Cryptography Combinatorics Coding theory Graph theory Game theory

List of academic disciplines

190

Statistics
Computational statistics Data mining Regression Simulation Statistical modelling Biostatistics Epidemiology Multivariate analysis

Bootstrap (statistics) Design of experiments Block design and Analysis of variance Response surface methodology Sample Survey Sampling theory

Structural equation model Time series Reliability theory Quality control Statistical theory Decision theory Mathematical statistics Probability Survey methodology

Systems science
Complex systems Cybernetics Control theory Systems dynamics Systems engineering Systems analysis Systems theory Developmental systems theory General systems theory Mathematical system theory

Control engineering Control systems Dynamical systems Operations research

Professions and Applied sciences

Agriculture
Agroecology Agronomy Aquaculture Enology Food science

Animal husbandry (Animal science) Beekeeping (Apiculture)

Agrology Entomology Agricultural economics

Horticulture Hydrology Plant science Pomology

Agricultural engineering Biological systems engineering Food engineering

Viticulture

List of academic disciplines

191

Architecture and Design

Architecture and related design Industrial design (product design) Ergonomics (outline) Game design Toy and amusement design User experience design Interaction design Information architecture User interface design User experience evaluation Fashion design Textile design

Architecture (outline) Urban planning (urban design) Interior design (interior architecture) Landscape architecture (landscape planning) Historic preservation Visual communication Graphic design Type design Technical drawing

Business
Accounting scholarship Information systems (Business informatics) Business administration Business analysis Business ethics Business Law E-Business Entrepreneurship Finance (outline) Industrial and labor relations Collective bargaining Human resources Organizational studies Labor economics Labor history Management information systems Health informatics

Information technology (outline) International Trade Marketing (outline) Purchasing Risk management and insurance Systems science

Divinity
Canon law Church history Field ministry Scriptural study and languages Biblical Hebrew Biblical studies/Sacred Scripture New Testament Greek Latin Old Church Slavonic Theology Dogmatic theology Ecclesiology Sacramental theology Systematic theology Christian Ethics

Pastoral counseling Pastoral theology Religious education techniques Homiletics Liturgy Sacred music Missiology

List of academic disciplines

192

Education
Consumer education Music education Nursing education Peace education Physical education/Sports coaching Physics education Reading education Religious education Science education Special education Sex education Sociology of education Technology education Vocational education

Critical pedagogy Curriculum and instruction Alternative Education Elementary education Secondary education Higher education Mastery learning Cooperative learning Agricultural education Art education Bilingual education Chemistry education Counselor education Language education Legal education Mathematics education Medical education Military education and training

Educational leadership Educational philosophy

Educational psychology Educational technology Distance Education

Engineering
See also Branches of engineering
Aerospace engineering Materials engineering Agricultural engineering Food engineering Ceramic engineering Metallurgical engineering Polymer engineering

Mechanical engineering Manufacturing engineering

Architectural engineering Bioengineering Biomechanical engineering Biomedical engineering

Mining engineering Nanoengineering

Chemical engineering

Nuclear engineering

List of academic disciplines

Civil engineering Geotechnical engineering Engineering Geology Earthquake engineering Highway engineering Transportation engineering Ocean engineering Marine engineering Naval architecture

193

Computer engineering Control systems engineering Ecological engineering Electrical engineering Electronic engineering Instrumentation engineering Engineering physics Environmental engineering Industrial engineering

Optical engineering Quality assurance engineering Petroleum engineering Safety engineering Software engineering (outline) Structural engineering Systems engineering Telecommunications engineering Vehicle engineering Automotive engineering

Environmental studies and Forestry

Environmental management Environmental policy Recreation ecology Silviculture Sustainability studies Sustainable development Toxicology

Coastal management Fisheries management Land management Natural resource management Wildlife management

Family and consumer science

Consumer education Housing* Interior design Nutrition Foodservice management* Textiles*

Health science
Clinical laboratory sciences/Clinical pathology/Laboratory medicine Clinical biochemistry Cytogenetics Cytohematology Cytology Haemostasiology Histology Clinical immunology Clinical microbiology Molecular genetics Parasitology Obstetrics Oncology Ophthalmology Orthopedic surgery Hand surgery Foot and ankle surgery Sports medicine Joint replacement Shoulder surgery Otolaryngology Pathology Pediatrics

List of academic disciplines

Dentistry Dental hygiene and epidemiology Dental surgery Endodontics Orthodontics Oral and maxillofacial surgery Periodontics Prosthodontics Implantology Pharmaceutical sciences Physical fitness Group Fitness / aerobics Personal fitness training Kinesiology / Exercise Science / Human Performance Pharmacy

194

Health informatics/Clinical informatics Nursing Nursing theory Midwifery

Hepatology Nutrition and dietetics

Podiatry Primary care General practice

Optometry

Psychiatry Addiction medicine

Orthoptics

Psychology Behavioral medicine Clinical psychology Health psychology Medical psychology Counseling psychology

Physiotherapy Occupational therapy Speech and language pathology Internal medicine Preventive medicine Cardiology Dermatology Pulmonology Medical toxicology Endocrinology Oncology Geriatrics Gynaecology Hematology Infectious disease Nephrology Neurology Neurosurgery

Public health Radiology Recreation therapy Rehabilitation medicine

Respiratory medicine Pulmonology Sleep medicine

Respiratory therapy Rheumatology Sports medicine

List of academic disciplines

Surgery Bariatric surgery Cardiothoracic surgery Neurosurgery Plastic surgery Traumatology

195

Urology Andrology

Veterinary medicine

Human physical performance and recreation*

Biomechanics / Sports Biomechanics Sports coaching Dance Ergonomics Physical fitness Group Fitness / aerobics Personal trainer / Personal fitness training Sport management Exercise physiology Kinesiology / Exercise Science / Human Performance Athletic director Leisure studies Physical education / Pedagogy Sociology of sport Sexology Sports journalism / sportscasting

Game design*

Sport psychology Sports medicine Athletic training

Toy and amusement design*

Journalism, media studies and communication

Journalism Broadcast journalism Literary journalism New media journalism Print journalism Sports journalism / sportscasting Media studies (Mass media) Newspaper Magazine Radio Television Television studies* Internet Communication studies Advertising Animal communication Communication design Environmental communication Information theory Intercultural communication Marketing Mass communication Nonverbal communication Organizational communication Propaganda Public relations Speech communication Technical writing Translation

List of academic disciplines

196

Law
Canon law Civil law Comparative law Constitutional law Competition law Criminal law Criminal procedure Criminal justice Police science Forensics Admiralty law Animal law/Animal rights Corporations Civil procedure Contract law Environmental law International law Labor law Paralegal studies Property law Tax law Tort law

Islamic law Jewish law Jurisprudence (Philosophy of Law)

Library and museum studies

Archival science Bibliometrics Citation analysis Conservation science Informatics Information architecture Museology Museum administration

Military sciences
Amphibious warfare Artillery Campaigning Military law Military medicine Naval science Military engineering Doctrine Naval engineering Naval tactics Naval architecture Weapons systems

Strategy Tactics Naval tactics

Game theory Leadership Logistics Military history Military intelligence

List of academic disciplines

197

Public administration
Corrections Public policy Agricultural policy Defense policy Domestic policy Education policy Health policy Housing policy Labor policy Social policy Drug policy Energy policy Environmental policy Fiscal policy Foreign policy Immigration policy Trade policy

Conservation biology Criminal justice Emergency management Fire safety (Structural fire protection) Fire ecology (Wildland fire management) Governmental affairs International affairs Peace and conflict studies Police science Public administration Nonprofit administration Non-governmental organization (NGO) administration

Social work
Child welfare Community practice Community organizing Social policy Corrections Gerontology Medical social work Mental health School social work

Transportation
Highway safety Infographics Intermodal transportation studies Marine transportation Port management Operations research Mass transit

Notes
[1] Andrew Abbott, Chaos of Disciplines University Of Chicago Press 2001 ISBN 0-226-00101-6 [2] History of Education, Encyclopdia Britannica (1977, 15th edition), Macropaedia Volume 6, p. 337 [3] http:/ / www. ams. org/ msc/

List of academic disciplines

198

References
Andrew Abbott, Chaos of Disciplines University Of Chicago Press 2001 ISBN 0-226-00101-6 Alexandra Oleson & John Voss (eds) The Organization of Knowledge in Modern America, 1860-1920 Johns Hopkins University Press 1979 ISBN 0-8018-2108-8 US Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences. Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP) (http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/cipcode/default.aspx?y=55). National Center for Education Statistics.

External links
Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP 2000) (http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/cip2000/): Developed by the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics to provide a taxonomic scheme that will support the accurate tracking, assessment, and reporting of fields of study and program completions activity. Complete JACS (http://www.hesa.ac.uk/jacs/completeclassification.htm) (Joint Academic Classification of Subjects) from Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) in the United Kingdom Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classification (ANZSRC 2008) (http://www.arc.gov.au/pdf/ ANZSRC_FOR_codes.pdf) ( web-page (http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/ 1297.0Contents12008?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=1297.0&issue=2008&num=&view=)) Chapter 3 and Appendix 1: Fields of research classification.

Content listings
Lists
Overviews Outlines Featured content Lists Glossaries Portals Indexes Reference Culture Geography Health History Mathematics Nature People Philosophy Religion Society Technology Academic disciplines Anniversaries
today

Countries and territories Current events People

deaths this year

List of academic disciplines Timelines

centuries decades

199

Indices
AZ index Categories Dewey Decimal classes Library of Congress Classification Roget's Thesaurus Spoken articles Wikipedia books

Educational technology
Educational research

Disciplines

Evaluation Organization Psychology Technology History Philosophy International education School counseling School psychology Special education Teacher education Curricular domains

Arts Business Early childhood Language Literacy Mathematics Science Social science Technology Vocational Methods

Educational technology

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Case study Conversation analysis Discourse analysis Factor analysis Factorial experiment Focus group Meta-analysis Multivariate statistics Participant observation

Educational technology, sometimes termed EdTech, is the study and ethical practice of facilitating e-learning, which is the learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.[1] The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory. While instructional technology is "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning," according to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology Committee,[2] educational technology includes other systems used in the process of developing human capability. Educational technology includes, but is not limited to, software, hardware, as well as Internet applications, such as wikis and blogs, and activities. But there is still debate on what these terms mean.[3] Technology of education is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student learning and may be measured in how and why individuals behave. Educational Technology relies on a broad definition of the word "technology." Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not limited to overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools such as "smartphones" and games (both online and offline) are beginning to draw serious attention for their learning potential. Media psychology is the field of study that applies theories in human behavior to educational technology. Consider the Handbook of Human Performance Technology.[4] The word technology for the sister fields of Educational and Human Performance Technology means "applied science." In other words, any valid and reliable process or procedure that is derived from basic research using the "scientific method" is considered a "technology." Educational or Human Performance Technology may be based purely on algorithmic or heuristic processes, but neither necessarily implies physical technology. The word technology comes from the Greek "techne" which means craft or art. Another word, "technique," with the same origin, also may be used when considering the field Educational Technology. So Educational Technology may be extended to include the techniques of the educator.[citation needed] A classic example of an Educational Psychology text is Bloom's 1956 book, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.[5] Bloom's Taxonomy is helpful when designing learning activities to keep in mind what is expected ofand what are the learning goals forlearners. However, Bloom's work does not explicitly deal with educational technology per se and is more concerned with pedagogical strategies. According to some, an Educational Technologist is someone who transforms basic educational and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction. Educational Technologists typically have a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of Educational, Instructional or Human Performance Technology or Instructional Systems Design. But few of those listed below as theorists would ever use the term "educational technologist" as a term to describe themselves, preferring terms such as "educator."[citation needed] The transformation of educational technology from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville, Browne, and Whitaker.[6]

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History
Educational technology in a way could be traced back to the emergence of very early tools, e.g., paintings on cave walls. But usually its history starts with educational film (1900s) or Sidney Pressey's mechanical teaching machines in the 1920s. The first large scale usage of new technologies can be traced to US WWII training of soldiers through training films and other mediated materials. Today, presentation-based technology, based on the idea that people can learn through aural and visual reception, exists in many forms, e.g., streaming audio and video, or PowerPoint presentations with voice-over. Another interesting invention of the 1940s was hypertext, i.e., V. Bush's memex. The 1950s led to two major, still popular designs. Skinners work led to "programmed instruction" focusing on the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small units and rewarding correct responses early and often. Advocating a mastery approach to learning based on his taxonomy of intellectual behaviors, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. Models based on these designs were usually referred to as computer-based training" (CBT), Computer-aided instruction or computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in the 1970s through the 1990s. In a more simplified form they correspond to today's "e-contents" that often form the core of "e-learning" set-ups, sometimes also referred to as web-based training (WBT) or e-instruction. The course designer divides learning contents into smaller chunks of text augmented with graphics and multimedia presentation. Frequent Multiple Choice questions with immediate feedback are added for self-assessment and guidance. Such e-contents can rely on standards defined by IMS, ADL/SCORM and IEEE. The 1980s and 1990s produced a variety of schools that can be put under the umbrella of the label Computer-based learning (CBL). Frequently based on constructivist and cognitivist learning theories, these environments focused on teaching both abstract and domain-specific problem solving. Preferred technologies were micro-worlds (computer environments where learners could explore and build), simulations (computer environments where learner can play with parameters of dynamic systems) and hypertext. Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid 80s and became popular by the mid-90's, in particular through the World-Wide Web (WWW), eMail and Forums. There is a difference between two major forms of online learning. The earlier type, based on either Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computer-based learning (CBL), focused on the interaction between the student and computer drills plus tutorials on one hand or micro-worlds and simulations on the other. Both can be delivered today over the WWW. Today, the prevailing paradigm in the regular school system is Computer-mediated communication (CMC), where the primary form of interaction is between students and instructors, mediated by the computer. CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while CMC involves teacher/tutor facilitation and requires scenarization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge management tasks. It also provides tools for student and curriculum management. In addition to classroom enhancement, learning technologies also play a major role in full-time distance teaching. While most quality offers still rely on paper, videos and occasional CBT/CBL materials, there is increased use of e-tutoring through forums, instant messaging, video-conferencing etc. Courses addressed to smaller groups frequently use blended or hybrid designs that mix presence courses (usually in the beginning and at the end of a module) with distance activities and use various pedagogical styles (e.g., drill & practise, exercises, projects, etc.). The 2000s emergence of multiple mobile and ubiquitous technologies gave a new impulse to situated learning theories favoring learning-in-context scenarios. Some literature uses the concept of integrated learning to describe blended learning scenarios that integrate both school and authentic (e.g., workplace) settings. Students are now growing up in a digital age where they have constant exposure to a variety of media.[7]

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Theories and practices

Three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks have been present in the educational technology literature. These are Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. Each of these schools of thought are still present in today's literature but have evolved as the Psychology literature has evolved.

Behaviorism
This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century with the animal learning experiments of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, B.F. Skinner and many others. Many psychologists used these theories to describe and experiment that is parallel to human learning. While still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor with many educators. Skinner's contributions B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysis of Verbal Behavior[8] and wrote "The Technology of Teaching",[9] an attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education as well as promote his system he called programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley also developed the Celeration learning system similarly based on behavior analysis but quite different from Keller's and Skinner's models.

Cognitivism
Cognitive science has changed on how educators view learning. Since the very early beginning of the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. After memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's Working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. It is important to note that Computer Science and Information Technology have had a major influence on Cognitive Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly known as short term memory) and long term memory have been facilitated by research and technology from the field of Computer Science. Another major influence on the field of Cognitive Science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory. In addition, psychology as applied to media is easily measured in studying behavior. The area of media psychology is both cognative and affective and is central to understanding educational technology.

Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning theory or educational philosophy that many educators began to consider in the 1990s. One of the primary tenets of this philosophy is that learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or others with different perspectives. Constructivist learning environments require students to use their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning. Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen (1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners and that "ill-structured" environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing technology when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose technologies that reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving environment.

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Instructional technique and technologies

Children and young people are growing up in a vastly changing context. No aspect of their lives is untouched by the digital era which is transforming how they live, relate and learn[10] Some examples of these changes in the classroom include Problem Based Learning, Project-based Learning, and Inquiry-based learning. Together they are active learning educational technologies used to facilitate learning. Technology which includes physical and process applied science can be incorporated into project, problem, inquiry-based learning as they all have a similar educational philosophy. All three are student centered, ideally involving real-world scenarios in which students are actively engaged in critical thinking activities. The process that students are encouraged to employ (as long as it is based on empirical research) is considered to be a technology. Classic examples of technologies used by teachers and Educational Technologists include Bloom's Taxonomy and Instructional Design.[11]

Theorists
This is an area where new thinkers are coming to the forefront everyday. Many of the ideas spread from theorists, researchers, and experts through their blogs. Extensive lists of educational bloggers by area of interest are available at Steve Hargadon's "SupportBloggers" site or at the "movingforward" wiki started by Scott McLeod.[12] Many of these blogs are recognized by their peers each year through the edublogger awards.[13] Web 2.0 technologies have led to a huge increase in the amount of information available on this topic and the number of educators formally and informally discussing it. Most listed below have been around for more than a decade, however, and few new thinkers mentioned above are listed here.
Alan November [14] Seymour Papert Will Richardson John Sweller Don Krug Alex Jones George Siemens David Wiley David Wilson Bernard Luskin

Benefits
Educational technology is intended to improve education over what it would be without technology. Some of the claimed benefits are listed below: Easy-to-access course materials. Instructors can post the course material or important information on a course website, which means students can study at a time and location they prefer and can obtain the study material very quickly[15] Student motivation. Computer-based instruction can give instant feedback to students and explain correct answers. Moreover, a computer is patient and non-judgmental, which can give the student motivation to continue learning. According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used for instruction, students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based instruction and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based classes.[16] The American educator, Cassandra B. Whyte, researched and reported about the importance of locus of control and successful academic performance and by the late 1980s, she wrote of how important computer usage and information technology would become in the higher education experience of the future.[17][18] Wide participation. Learning material can be used for long distance learning and are accessible to a wider audience[19] Improved student writing. It is convenient for students to edit their written work on word processors, which can, in turn, improve the quality of their writing. According to some studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network with students they know[15]

Educational technology Subjects made easier to learn. Many different types of educational software are designed and developed to help children or teenagers to learn specific subjects. Examples include pre-school software, computer simulators, and graphics software[16] A structure that is more amenable to measurement and improvement of outcomes. With proper structuring it can become easier to monitor and maintain student work while also quickly gauging modifications to the instruction necessary to enhance student learning. Differentiated Instruction. Educational technology provides the means to focus on active student participation and to present differentiated questioning strategies. It broadens individualized instruction and promotes the development of personalized learning plans. Students are encouraged to use multimedia components and to incorporate the knowledge they gained in creative ways.[20] The use of internet in education has had a positive impact on the students, educators, as well as the educational system as a whole. Effective technologies use many evidence-based strategies (e.g., adaptive content, frequent testing, immediate feedback, etc.), as do effective teachers.[21] Studies done in "computer intensive" settings found increases in student centre, cooperative and higher order learning, students writing skills, problem solving, and using technology.[22] In addition, postie attitudes toward technology as a learning tool by parents, students and teachers. The Internet itself has unlocked a world of opportunity for students. Information and ideas that were previously out of reach are a click away. Students of all ages can connect, share, and learn on a global scale. Success at difficult technological tasks, as well as social networking such as Facebook can also lead to improvedself-esteem. Many students have different types of learning styles and using different types of technology is a great way to help all kinds of learners. Providing remedial instruction for low-achieving students, Providing enrichment activities for students who successfully complete the regular lesson before students who require more time to learn. Using computers or other forms of technology can give students practice on core content and skills while the teacher can work with others, conduct assessments, or perform other tasks.[23] Using technology in the classroom can allow teachers' to effectively organize and present lessons. Multimedia presentations can make the material more meaningful and engaging. "Technologys impact in schools has been significant, advancing how students learn, how teachers teach and how efficiently and effectively educational services can be delivered, said Carolyn April, director, industry analysis, CompTIA. With emerging technologies such as tablets and netbooks, interactive whiteboards and wireless solutions gaining ground in the classroom, the reliance on IT by the education market will only grow in the years ahead.[24] Using online resources such as Khan Academy or TED Talks can help students spend more time on specific aspects of what they may be learning in school, but at home. These online resources have added the opportunity to take learning outside of the classroom and into any atmosphere that has an internet connection. These online lessons allow for students who do not fit the learning styles that our educational system caters to use other resources to help them understand the things they are learning better. These tutorials can focus on small concepts of large ideas taught in class, or the other way around. Schools like MIT have even made their course materials free online so that anybody can access them. Although there are still some aspects of a classroom setting that are missed by using these resources, they are still helpful tools to buffer an already existing educational system.

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Criticism
Although technology in the classroom does have many benefits, there are clear drawbacks as well. Limited access to sufficient quantities of a technology, lack of training, the extra time required for the implementations of technology, and the apprehension associated with assessing the effectiveness of technology in the classroom are just a few of the reasons that technology is often not used extensively in the classroom. To understand educational technology one must also understand theories in human behavior as behavior is affected by technology. Media Psychology is the study of media, technology and how and why individuals, groups and societies behave the way they do. The first Ph.D program with a concentration in media psychology was started in 2002 at Fielding Graduate University by Bernard Luskin.[25] The Media Psychology division of APA, division 46 has a focus on media psychology. Media and the family is another emerging area affected by rapidly changing educational technology.[25] There are many benefits of using technology in the education system, however there are also negative aspects. Technology base educational videos and games are being integrated into the lives and classrooms of new generations. These videos and games are meant to be used as tools to help growing minds develop, and to increase knowledge and awareness. Videos such as Baby Einsteins line of infant DVDs are a topic of conflicting interest, according to the University of Washington study of infant vocabulary is slipping due to educational baby DVDs. Published in the Journal of Pediatrics, a 2007 University of Washington study on the vocabulary of babies surveyed over 1,000 parents in Washington and Minnesota. The study found that for every one hour that babies 816 months of age watched DVDs and Videos they knew 6-8 fewer of 90 common baby words than the babies that did not watch them. Andrew Meltzoff, Ph.D, a surveyor in this study states that the result makes sense, that if the baby's 'alert time' is spent in front of DVDs and TV, instead of with people speaking, the babies are not going to get the same linguistic experience. Dr. Dimitri Chistakis, another surveyor reported that the evidence is mounting that baby DVDs are of no value and may be harmful. Electronic devices such as cellphones and computers facilitate rapid access to a constant stream of sources, each of which may receive cursory attention. Michel Rich, an associate professor at Harvard Medical School and executive director of the center on Media and Child Health in Boston, said of the digital generation, "Their brains are rewarded not for staying on task, but for jumping to the next thing, and the side effects could linger: the worry is we're raising a generation of kids in front of screens whose brains are going to be wired differently."[citation needed] In addition, poorly designed technologies tend to produce low test scores and negative reactions from students.[citation needed] Many students who are at high risk for school failure have the potential to learn; but their academic achievement in the core areas of reading, mathematics and writing falls far short of their potential. There is growing evidence that the academic difficulties experienced by these students is cumulative in nature, and the gap between achievement and potential grows from childhood into adolescence. These young adults tend to drop out of school more frequently than do students without these difficulties, and they experience higher levels of unemployment and underemployment. As a group, they face a significant risk for lifelong problems.[26] "Students have always faced distractions and time-wasters. But computers and cellphones, and the they offer, pose a profound new challenge to focusing and learning. Researchers say the lure of these s , while it affects adults too, is particularly powerful for young people. The risk, they say, is that developing brains can become more easily habituated than adult brains to constantly switching tasks and less able to sustain attention."[27]

Digital Divide
One of the greatest barriers[citation needed] of integrating technology into the school system deals with the digital divide. The concept of the digital divide was originally defined as a gap between those who have access to digital technologies and those who do not.[28] This access is associated with age, gender, education, income, ethnicity, and geography.[28] The first deals with the onset of integrating technology into the curriculum and the gap between the digital haves and have nots.[29] In most cases, this form of the digital divide means that those who have access to a computer and the Internet are considered a digital have, while on the other hand, those who do not are considered a

Educational technology digital have not. In todays society, this is still a significant barrier to implementing technology into the curriculum because the socio-economic status of a school, and its students, will impact whether resources can be purchased and implemented in the school system. Schools that are able to provide technology within the classroom are able to expose their students to a new means of learning, while the students in lower socio-economic schools may miss out on these experiences. As more and more people have gone online and started using the Internet for an increasing number of activities, researchers have begun to reconsider the notion of the digital divide.[28] Some scholars offered a redefined understanding by seeing the digital divide as a complex and dynamic phenomenon that is essentially multifaced and includes technical access (the physical availability of technology) and social access (the mix of professional knowledge, economic resources, and technical skills required for effectual use of echnology).[28] This means that even if schools and students have access to technology, the ways in which teachers use and introduce it is significant to consider. This form of the digital divide is yet another barrier because it also goes hand-in-hand with the resources the schools have and the training teachers receive. If a teacher, for example, is not well equipped and confident in utilizing a form of technology, those students will miss out on gaining the valuable skills required for todays society. Another factor that plays into the digital divide, which makes it difficult to implement technology into the curriculum, is the generational digital divide. Herrington[30] recognizes that the generational divide is interpreted to mean that people on one side of the gap, including the youth, have more access and a greater ability to use new technologies than those on the other side like the adults who were born before the advent of the Internet. The generational digital divide is a common barrier because it challenges teachers to keep up with the ever-changing technology in the classroom. Even extending beyond the classroom, by the time an individual adopts a technology, a new one is developed, marketed, and requires a new adoption cycle.[31] Students, who have grown up in a digital environment, may be well acquainted with the on-going process of new technological innovation but may be lacking the guidance they need in order to use these technologies effectively. From the teachers perspective, this process could be an intimidating experience because something as foreign as the computer and Internet must first be learned and then taught to the students in a classroom setting. It is difficult to formulate a curriculum, which aims to integrate technology into the classroom, when the decision-makers are still in the process of learning about it themselves.

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Teacher Training
Similar to learning a new task or trade, special training is vital to ensuring the effective integration of classroom technology. The current school curriculum tends to guide teachers in training students to be autonomous problem solvers.[29] This has become a significant barrier to effective training because the traditional methods of teaching have clashed with what is expected in the present workplace. Todays students in the workplace are increasingly being asked to work in teams, drawing on different sets of expertise, and collaborating to solve problem.[29] These experiences are not highly centered on in the traditional classroom, but are twenty-first century skills that can be attained through the incorporation and engagement with technology.[32] Changes in instruction and use of technology can also promote a higher level of learning among students with different types of intelligence.[33] Please see the presentation by Ted Robinson where he discusses the ways in which schools kill creativity.[34] Therefore since technology is not the end goal of education, but rather a means by which it can be accomplished, educators must have a good grasp of the technology being used and its advantages over more traditional methods. If there is a lack in either of these areas, technology will be seen as a hindrance and not a benefit to the goals of teaching. Another major issue arises because of the evolving nature of technology. Teachers may find themselves acting as perpetual novices when it comes to learning about technology. This is because technology, including the Internet and its range of applications, is always in a state of change and teachers must attempt to keep current.[35] The ways in which teachers are taught to use technology is also outdated because the primary focus of training is on computer literacy, rather than the deeper, more essential understanding and mastery of technology for information processing,

Educational technology communication, and problem solving.[35] New resources have to be designed and distributed whenever the technological platform has been changed. However, finding quality materials to support classroom objectives after such changes is often difficult even after they exist in sufficient quantity and teachers must design these resources on their own. The study by Harris[35] notes that the use of random Professional Development days is not adequate enough in order to foster the much-needed skills required to teach and apply technology in the classroom. Learning, therefore, becomes and on-going process, which takes time and a strong commitment among the community of educators.[35] Teacher training faces another drawback when it comes to ones mindset on the integration of technology into the curriculum. The generational divide might also lead to a generational bias, whereby teachers do not feel the need to change the traditional education system because it has been successful in the past.[29] This does not necessarily mean it is the right way to teach for the current and future generations. Considering the fact that todays students are constantly exposed to the impacts of the digital era, learning styles, and the methods of collecting information has evolved. To illustrate this concept Jenkins[29] states, students often feel locked out of the worlds described in their textbooks through the depersonalized and abstract prose used to describe them, whereas games can construct worlds for players to move through and have some stake in the events unfolding. Even though technology can provide a more personalized, yet collaborative, and creative, yet informative, approach to learning, it may be difficult to motivate the use of these contemporary approaches among teachers who have been in the field for a number of years.

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Assessment
Research has shown that there is a great deal of apprehension associated with assessing the effectiveness of technology in the classroom and its development of information-age skills. This is because information-age skills, also commonly referred to as twenty-first century literacies, are relatively new to the field of education.[36] According to the New Media Consortium, these include the set of abilities and skills where aural, visual, and digital literacy overlap.[29] Jenkins modifies this definition by acknowledging them as building on the foundation of traditional literacy, research skills, technical skills and critical-analysis skills taught in the classroom.[29] Current school assessments are based on standardized tests and the ability to complete these uniform tests, regardless of ones preferred learning style. Many factors play into this observation including the strong impact of time. By using technology and learning through discovery, teachers may feel that they are not able to cover the material needed to meet the requirements of the curriculum.[30] Therefore, the traditional style of teaching, including the lecturing in front of the class, and a one-size-fits-all approach to testing is common in todays classrooms. This is a barrier because it prevents the full integration of technology into the curriculum, the ability to learn through inquiry, and the collaborative problem-solving skills, which prove to be essential traits needed in the twenty-first century.

Educational technology and the humanities

Research from the Alberta Initiative for School Improvement (AISI)[37] indicates that inquiry and project-based approaches, combined with a focus on curriculum, effectively supports the infusion of educational technologies into the learning and teaching process.

The advancement of education through technology

OpenCourseWare
In recent years, OpenCourseWare (OCW), an academic initiative that gives the public access to much of the same information used in undergraduate and graduate programs at institutions of higher education, has greatly improved the quality of educational material available for free on the Internet. The idea of OpenCourseWare gained prevalence in 2002 when MIT began distributing academic material from courses to the public for free.[38] Through the early 2000s, this idea began to gain popularity with other colleges and universities. As of 2008, there were close to 150

Educational technology collegiate institutions that had operational OpenCourseWare programs, or were in the process of planning such programs.[39] These institutions include Harvard, Princeton, Stanford, University of Pennsylvania, and University of Michigan.[40] Such programs are an example of how technology can allow more people to have access to information and resources that have originally only been accessible to students at prestigious universities.

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Technology in the classroom

There are various types of technologies currently used in traditional classrooms. Among these are: Computer in the classroom: Having a computer in the classroom is an asset to any teacher. With a computer in the classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present new material, illustrate how to use new programs, and show new websites.[41] Class website: An easy way to display your student's work is to create a web page designed for your class. Once a web page is designed, teachers can post homework assignments, student work, famous quotes, trivia games, and so much more. In today's society, children know how to use the computer and navigate their way through a website, so why not give them one where they can be a published author. Just be careful as most districts maintain strong policies to manage official websites for a school or classroom. Also, most school districts provide teacher webpages that can easily be viewed through the school district's website. Class blogs and wikis: There are a variety of Web 2.0 tools that are currently being implemented in the classroom. Blogs allow for students to maintain a running dialogue, such as a journal,thoughts, ideas, and assignments that also provide for student comment and reflection. Wikis are more group focused to allow multiple members of the group to edit a single document and create a truly collaborative and carefully edited finished product. Blogs allow the student to express their knowledge of the information learned in a way that they like. Blogging is something that students do for fun sometimes, so when they are assigned an assignment to do a blog they are eager to do it! If you are a teacher and need to find a way to get your students eager to learn, create, and inspire assign them a blog. They will love it. Wireless classroom microphones: Noisy classrooms are a daily occurrence, and with the help of microphones, students are able to hear their teachers more clearly. Children learn better when they hear the teacher clearly. The benefit for teachers is that they no longer lose their voices at the end of the day. Mobile devices: Mobile devices such as clickers or smartphone can be used to enhance the experience in the classroom by providing the possibility for professors to get feedback.[42] See also MLearning. Interactive Whiteboards: An interactive whiteboard that provides touch control of computer applications. These enhance the experience in the classroom by showing anything that can be on a computer screen. This not only aids in visual learning, but it is interactive so the students can draw, write, or manipulate images on the interactive whiteboard. Digital video-on-demand: Replacement of hard copy videos (DVD, VHS) with digital video accessed from a central server (e.g. SAFARI Montage). Digital video eliminates the need for in-classroom hardware (players) and allows teachers and students to access video clips immediately by not utilizing the public Internet. Online media: Streamed video websites can be used to enhance a classroom lesson (e.g. United Streaming, Teacher Tube, etc.) Online study tools: Tools that motivate studying by making studying more fun or individualized for the student (e.g. Study Cocoa [43]) Digital Games: The field of educational games and serious games has been growing significantly over the last few years. The digital games are being provided as tools for the classroom and have a lot of positive feedback including higher motivation for students.[44]

Educational technology There are many other tools being used depending on the local school board and funds available. These may include: digital cameras, video cameras, interactive whiteboard tools, document cameras, or LCD projectors. Podcasts: Podcasting is a relatively new invention that allows anybody to publish files to the Internet where individuals can subscribe and receive new files from people by a subscription. The primary benefit of podcasting for educators is quite simple. It enables teachers to reach students through a medium that is both "cool" and a part of their daily lives. For a technology that only requires a computer, microphone and internet connection, podcasting has the capacity of advancing a students education beyond the classroom. When students listen to the podcasts of other students as well as their own, they can quickly demonstrate their capacities to identify and define "quality." This can be a great tool for learning and developing literacy inside and outside the classroom. Podcasting can help sharpen students vocabulary, writing, editing, public speaking, and presentation skills. Students will also learn skills that will be valuable in the working world, such as communication, time management, and problem-solving. Although podcasts are a new phenomenon in classrooms, especially on college campuses, studies have shown the differences in effectiveness between a live lecture versus podcast are minor in terms of the education of the student.[45]

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Societies
Societies concerned with educational technology include: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE) http://www.aace.org/ Association for Educational Communications and Technology http://www.aect.org/newsite/ Association for Learning Technology http://www.alt.ac.uk/ International Society for Performance Improvement http://www.ispi.org/ Association for Learning Technology http://www.alt.ac.uk/

References
[1] [3] [4] [5] [6] Richey, R.C. (2008). Reflections on the 2008 AECT Definitions of the Field. TechTrends. 52(1) 24-25 Lowenthal, P. R., & Wilson, B. G. (2010). Labels do matter! A critique of AECTs redefinition of the field. TechTrends, 54(1), 38-46. Handbook of Human Performance Technology (Eds. Harold Stolovich, Erica Keeps, James Pershing) (3rd ed, 2006) Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc. Shurville, S., Browne, T., & Whitaker, M. (2009). Accommodating the newfound strategic importance of educational technologists within higher education: A critical literature review. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 26 (3), 201-231. [7] Geer, R., & Sweeney, T. (2012). Students voices about learning with technology. Journal of social sciences, 8 (2). 294-303 [8] Skinner, B.F. The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 1954, 24, 86-97., Teaching machines. Science, 1958, 128, 969-77. and others see http:/ / www. bfskinner. org/ f/ EpsteinBibliography. pdf [10] Craft, A. (2012). Childhood in a Digital Age: Creative Challenges for Educational Futures. London Review of Education, 10 (2), 173-190. [11] Forehand, M. (2010). Blooms Taxonomy. From Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology. Retrieved October 25, 2012, from http:/ / projects. coe. uga. edu/ epltt/ . [12] See http:/ / supportblogging. com/ Links+ to+ School+ Bloggers and http:/ / movingforward. wikispaces. com/ Blogs [13] Welcome to the Eddies! The Edublog Awards (http:/ / edublogawards. com/ ) [14] Professor Seymour Papert (http:/ / www. papert. org/ ) [15] Technology Impact on Learning (http:/ / www. nsba. org/ sbot/ toolkit/ tiol. html) [16] Technology's Impact (http:/ / www. electronic-school. com/ 0997f3. html) [17] Whyte,Cassandra Bolyard. (1980). "An Integrated Counseling and Learning Assistance Center." New Directions Sourcebook. Jossey-Bass, Inc. San Francisco, California. [18] Whyte, Cassandra B. (1989). Student Affairs - The Future", Journal of College Student Development, 10, (1), 86-89. [19] Technology Uses in Education (http:/ / www. nsba. org/ sbot/ toolkit/ tuie. html) [20] Smith, Grace and Stephanie Throne. Differentiating Instruction with Technology in the K-5 Classrooms. International Society for Technology in Education. 2004 [21] Ross, S., Morrison, G., & Lowther, D. (2010). Educational technology research past and present: balancing rigor and relavance to impact learning. Contemporary Educational Technology, 1(1).

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[22] An, Y. J., & Reigeluth, C. (2011). Creating Technology-Enhanced, Learner-Centered Classrooms: K12 Teachers Beliefs, Perceptions, Barriers, and Support Needs. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 28(2), 54-62. [23] Ross, S., Morrison, G., & Lowther, D. (2010). Educational technology research past and present: balancing rigor and relavance to impact learning. Contemporary Educational Technology, 1(1). [24] http:/ / www. comptia. org/ news/ pressreleases/ 11-06-28/ Making_the_Grade_Technology_Helps_Boosts_Student_Performance_Staff_Productivity_in_Nation%E2%80%99s_Schools_New_CompTIA_Study_Finds. aspx [25] Luskin, B. (1996). Media Psychology: A Field whose time is here. The California Psychologist, 15 (1), 14-18. [27] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 11/ 21/ technology/ 21brain. html [28] Wei, L. and Hindman, D. (2011). Does the Digital Divide Matter More? Comparing the Effects of New Media and Old Media Use on the Education-Based Knowledge Gap. Mass Communication and Society, 14 (1), 216-235. [29] Jenkins, H. (2009). Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. [30] Herrington, J., Oliver, R., Herrington, T., Sparrow, H. (2000). Towards a New Tradition of Online Instruction: Using Situated Learning Theory to Design Web-Based United. Paper presented as ASCILITE. Available at http:/ / www. ascilite. org. au/ conferences/ coffs00/ papers/ jan_herrington. pdf. [31] Straub, E. (2009). Understanding Technology Adoption: Theory and Future Directions for Informal Learning. Review of Educational Research, 79 (2), 625-649. [32] De Castell, S. (2011). Ludic Epistemology: What Game-Based Learning Can Teach Curriculum Studies. Journal of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies, 8 (2), 19-27. [33] Robinson, T. (2006). Schools Kill Creativity. TED Talks. [Video]. Retrieved on October 25, 2012 from http:/ / www. ted. com/ talks/ lang/ en/ ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity. html. [34] http:/ / www. ted. com/ talks/ lang/ en/ ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity. html [35] Harris, J., Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. (2009). Teachers Technological Pedagogical Integration Reframed. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 41 (4), 393-416. [36] Eisenberg, M. (2008). Information Literacy: Essential Skills for the Information Age. Journal of Library & Information Technology, 28 (2), 39-47. [37] AISI Technology Projects Research Review (http:/ / education. alberta. ca/ media/ 616853/ techprojectsreview. pdf) [38] "OpenCourseWare: An 'MIT Thing'?" 2006-11, 14(10):53-58 Searcher: The Magazine for Database Professionals [39] Iiyoshi, T., & Kumar, M. S. (2008).Opening up education: the collective advancement of education through open technology, open content, and open knowledge. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. [40] Lewin, T. (2012, May 2). Harvard and M.I.T. Team Up to Offer Free Online Courses. New York Times, p. .. Retrieved November 26, 2012, from http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2012/ 05/ 03/ education/ harvard-and-mit-team-up-to-offer-free-online-courses. html?_r=0 [41] Using Technology to Enhance the Classroom Environment (http:/ / www. thejournal. com/ articles/ 15769). THE Journal, 01 January 2002 [43] http:/ / cocoa. io

Further reading
Library resources
About Educational technology

Resources in your library (http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/ftl?st=wp&su=Educational+technology)

Mechling, L. C., Gast, D. L., & Krupa, K. (2007). Impact of SMART Board technology: An investigation of sight word reading and observational learning. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(10), 1869-1882. Hudson, H. (2011). The Digital Divide. Instructor, 121(2), 46-50 Technology in Education. (2011, September 1). In Education Week. Retrieved November 9, 2011, fromhttp://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/technology-in-education/ US Department of Education. Effects of Technology on Classrooms and Students. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Dec. 2011.<http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/EdReformStudies/EdTech/effectsstudents.html>. Sikorski, Joy. Family Magazine Group::Milestones-The Negative Impact of Baby DVDs (http://www. familymagazinegroup.com/milestones/story_The+Negativ+Impact+of+Baby+DVDs.html). Los Angeles Family Magazine::Your Essential Parenting Resource. Family Magazine Group, 2007.Web. 17 Mar. 2011.*Bednar, M. R., & Sweeder, J. J. (2005). Defining and applying idea technologies: A systematic, conceptual framework for teachers. Computers in the Schools, 22(3/4).

Educational technology Januszewski, Alan (2001). Educational Technology: The Development of a Concept. Libraries Unlimited. ISBN1-56308-749-9. Jonassen, D. (1997). Instructional design models for well-structured and ill-structured problem-solving learning outcomes. Educational Technology Research & Development, 45, 6594. Jonassen, D H (2006). Modeling with Technology: Mindtools for Conceptual Change. OH: Merrill/Prentice-Hall. Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., and Clark, R. E. (2006) Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist 41 (2) 75-86 (http://www.cogtech.usc.edu/publications/kirschner_Sweller_Clark. pdf) Kumar, K L (1997). Educational Technology: A Practical Textbook for Students, Teachers, Professionals and Trainers. New Delhi: New Age International. ISBN81-224-0833-8. Encyclopedia of Educational Technology (http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/), a comprehensive resource of articles about Educational Technology, published by the Department of Educational Technology, San Diego State University Looking Back to Look Ahead - Learning Through and From the Human Spirit (http://www.open.ac.uk/pbpl/ resources/details/detail.php?itemId=49d62232adc62) Geetha Narayanan's Keynote address at Symposium on Education and Technology in Schools in 2008, Bangalore (http://quest.eeaonline.org/india/test/images/india/Image/File/output/Geetha Keynote.pdf) Lipsitz, Lawrence, (Editor); Reisner, Trudi, The Computer and Education (http://books.google.com/ books?id=pFzxLUAnSS8C&printsec=frontcover), Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Educational Technology Publications, January 1973. Articles selected from Educational Technology magazine. L Low & M O'Connell, Learner-Centric Design of Digital Mobile Learning (https://olt.qut.edu.au/udf/ OLT2006/gen/static/papers/Low_OLT2006_paper.pdf), Queensland University of Technology, 2006. Professor Brian J. Ford, Absolute Zeno (http://www.brianjford.com/a-05-ZENO.HTM), Laboratory News p 16, January 2006. McKenzie, Jamie (2006). "Inspired Writing and Thinking" (http://fno.org/dec05/writing.html) McKenzie, Jamie (2007). "Digital Nativism, Digital Delusions, and Digital Deprivation" (http://fno.org/nov07/ nativism.html) McKenzie, Jamie (2008). "What Digital Age?" (http://fno.org/may08/digital.html) Mishra, P. & Koehler, M.J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for integrating technology in teacher knowledge (http://www.tcrecord.org/content.asp?contentid=12516). Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054. Monahan, Torin (2005). Globalization, Technological Change, and Public Education. New York: Routledge: ISBN 0-415-95103-8. Randolph, J. J. (2007). Multidisciplinary Methods in Educational Technology Research and Development (http:// justus.randolph.name/methods). Hameenlinna, Finland: HAMK. ISBN978-951-784-453-6. Retrieved 2008-06-10. Soni, S K (2004). An Information Resource on Educational Technology for: Technical & Vocational Education and Training (TVET). New Delhi: Sarup & Sons Publishers. ISBN81-7625-506-8. Scherer, M.J. (2004). Connecting to Learn: Educational and Assistive Technology for People with Disabilities. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (APA) Books: ISBN 1-55798-982-6. Shurville, S., Browne, H. and Whitaker, M. (2008). "Employing Educational Technologists: A Call for Evidenced Change" (http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/shurville.pdf). In Hello! Where are you in the landscape of educational technology? Proceedings ascilite Melbourne 2008. Skinner, B.F. (1968). The technology of teaching. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Library of Congress Card Number 68-12340 E 81290.

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Educational technology Suppes, Patrick, "The Uses of Computers in Education" (http://suppes-corpus.stanford.edu/article. html?id=67), Scientific American, v215 n3 p206-20 Sep 1966 Courts, B., & Tucker, J. (2012). Using Technology To Create A Dynamic Classroom Experience. Journal of College Teaching & Learning (TLC), 9(2), 121-128. Anderson, S., Groulx, J., & Maninger, R, (2011). Relationship among preservice teachers technology-related abilities, beliefs, and intentions to use technology in their future classroom. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 45(3). Milliot, Jim. "Book Industry Statistics" (http://www.parapublishing.com/sites/para/resources/statistics.cfm). Para Publishing - Welocme to Para Publishing. 1 Mar. 2008. Web. 14 Mar. 2011. Begley, Sharon. "The Science of Making Decisions" (http://www.newsweek.com/2011/02/27/i-can-t-think. html). Newsweek 27 Feb. 2011. Web. 14 Mar. 2011. Facts & Statistics Children & Adults Against Drugging America. (http://www.chadda.org/Page3.html) Home Page Children & Adults Against Drugging America. Web. 14 Mar. 2011. "The Power of the Internet for Learning: Moving from Promise to Pracitce" (http://www.eric.ed.goc/ ERICWebPortral/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED444603& ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED44603). ERIC Worlds Largest Digital Library of Education Literature. N/A, Dec. 2000. Web.14 Mar. 2011. "Gen Y's Are Not Yet Taking Flight on Twitter" (http://thepmn.org/pressreleases/060109). Welcome to the Participatory Marketing Network. 21 June 2009. Web. 14 Mar. 2011. Jacoy, Christine, and David DiBiase. Plagiarism by Adult Learners Online: A Case Study in Detection and Remediation. IRRODL The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. 2006. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. Ritchel, Matt. Growing up Digital, Wired for Distraction (http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/21/technology/ 21brain.html). The New York Times. 21 Nov. 2010. Cynthia Haven. The new literacy: Stanford study finds richness and complexity in students' writing (http://news. stanford.edu/pr/2009/pr-lunsford-writing-101209.html). Stanford News Service. October 12, 2009. Sample, Ian. "Oxford Scientist Calls for Research on Technology 'mind Change' | Science | The Guardian." Latest News, Comment and Reviews from the Guardian | Guardian.co.uk. 14 Dec. 2010. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.<http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2010/sep/14/oxford-scientist-brain-change>. Laster, Jill. "Students Retain Information in Print-Like Formats Better - Wired Campus - The Chronicle of Higher Education."Home - The Chronicle of Higher Education. 27 Mar. 2010. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.<http://chronicle.com/blogPost/Students-Retain-Print/22088/>. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-565207/ Modern-technology-changing-way-brains-work-says-neuroscientist.html

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Education theory
Education theory
Educational theory is speculative educational thought or a theory of education as something that guides, explains, or describes educational practice. In terms of speculative thought, its history began with classical Greek philosophers and sophists, and today it is a term for reflective theorizing about pedagogy, andragogy, curriculum, learning, and education policy, organization and leadership. Educational thought is informed by various strands of history, philosophy, sociology, critical theory, and psychology, among other disciplines. On the other hand, a theory of education can be "normative (or prescriptive) as in philosophy, or descriptive as in science."[] In the first case, a theory means a postulation about what ought to be. It provides the "goals, norms, and standards for conducting the process of education."[] In the second case, it means "an hypothesis or set of hypotheses that have been verified by observation and experiment."[] Whereas a normative educational theory provided by a philosopher might offer goals of education, descriptive "theory provides concrete data that will help realize more effectively the goals suggested by the philosopher."[] A descriptive theory of education is a conceptual scheme that ties together various "otherwise discrete particulars. . .For example, a cultural theory of education shows how the concept of culture can be used to organize and unify the variety of facts about how and what people learn."[1] Likewise, for example, there is the behaviorist theory of education that comes from educational psychology and the functionalist theory of education that comes from sociology of education.[2] In general, there are currently three main ways in which the term "theory" is used in education: the obverse of practicetheorizing is thinking and reflecting as opposed to doing; a generalizing or explanatory model of some kind, e.g., a specific learning theory like constructivism; a body of knowledgethese may or may not be associated with particular explanatory models. To theorize is to develop these bodies of knowledge.[3]

Educational thought
Educational thought is not necessarily concerned with the construction of theories as much as it is the "reflective examination of educational issues and problems from the perspective of diverse disciplines."[4]

Normative theories of education

Normative theories of education provide the norms, goals, and standards of education.[]

Educational philosophies
"Normative philosophies or theories of education may make use of the results of [philosophical thought] and of factual inquiries about human beings and the psychology of learning, but in any case they propound views about what education should be, what dispositions it should cultivate, why it ought to cultivate them, how and in whom it should do so, and what forms it should take. In a full-fledged philosophical normative theory of education, besides analysis of the sorts described, there will normally be propositions of the following kinds: 1. Basic normative premises about what is good or right; 2. Basic factual premises about humanity and the world; 3. Conclusions, based on these two kinds of premises, about the dispositions education should foster; 4. Further factual premises about such things as the psychology of learning and methods of teaching; and 5. Further conclusions about such things as the

Education theory methods that education should use."[] Examples of the purpose of schools include:[5] develop reasoning about perennial questions, master the methods of scientific inquiry, cultivate the intellect, create change agents, develop spirituality, and model a democratic society :[6] Common educational philosophies include: educational perennialism, educational progressivism, educational essentialism, critical pedagogy, Montessori education, Waldorf education, and democratic education.

214

Curriculum theory
Normative theories of curriculum aim to "describe, or set norms, for conditions surrounding many of the concepts and constructs" that define curriculum.[] These normative propositions are different than the ones above in that normative curriculum theory is not necessarily untestable.[] A central question asked by normative curriculum theory is: given a particular educational philosophy, what is worth knowing and why? Some examples are: a deep understanding of the Great Books, direct experiences driven by student interest, a superficial understanding of a wide range knowledge (e.g., Core knowledge), social and community problems and issues, knowledge and understanding specific to cultures and their achievements (e.g., African-Centered Education)

Descriptive theories of education

Descriptive theories of education provide descriptions or explanations of the processes of education.

Curriculum theory
Descriptive theories of curriculum explain how curricula "benefit or harm all publics it touches".[7][8] One descriptive concept from curriculum theory is that of the hidden curriculum, which is some of the outcomes or by-products of schools or of non-school settings, particularly those states which are learned but not openly intended.[9]

Instructional theory
Instructional theories focuses on the methods of instruction for teaching curricula. Theories include the methods of: autonomous learning, coyote teaching, inquiry-based instruction, lecture, maturationism, socratic method, outcome-based education, taking children seriously, transformative learning

The nature of the learner and of learning

Philosophical Anthropology Philosophical anthropology is the philosophical study of human nature. In terms of learning, examples of descriptive theories of the learner are: a mind, soul, and spirit capable of emulating the Absolute Mind (Idealism); an orderly, sensing, and rational being capable of understanding the world of things (Realism), a rational being with a soul modeled after God and who comes to know God through reason and revelation (Neo-Thomism), an evolving and active being capable of interacting with the environment (Pragmatism), a fundamentally free and individual being who is capable of being authentic through the making of and taking responsibility for choices (Existentialism).[10] Philosophical concepts for the process of education include Bildung [11] and paideia. Educational Psychology Educational psychology is an empirical science that provides descriptive theories of how people learn. Examples of theories of education in psychology are: constructivism, behaviorism, cognitivism, and motivational theory

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Sociology of education
The sociology of education is the study of how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes. It is most concerned with the public schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of higher, further, adult, and continuing education.[12] Examples of theories of education from sociology include: functionalism, conflict theory, social efficiency, and social mobility.

Educational anthropology
Educational anthropology is a sub-field of anthropology and is widely associated with the pioneering work of George Spindler. As the name would suggest, the focus of educational anthropology is obviously on education, although an anthropological approach to education tends to focus on the cultural aspects of education, including informal as well as formal education. As education involves understandings of who we are, it is not surprising that the single most recognized dictum of educational anthropology is that the field is centrally concerned with cultural transmission.[13] Cultural transmission involves the transfer of a sense of identity between generations, sometimes known as enculturation[14] and also transfer of identity between cultures, sometimes known as acculturation.[15] Accordingly thus it is also not surprising that educational anthropology has become increasingly focussed on ethnic identity and ethnic change.[16][17]

Organizational and leadership theory

Tracking

Educational theorists
Michael Apple Charles Beard Allan Bloom Theodore Brameld Harry Broudy Nicholas Burbules George Counts John Dewey Kieran Egan Paulo Freire Howard Gardner Henry Giroux Daniel A. Greenberg John Caldwell Holt Bell Hooks Robert Hutchins Ivan Illich David A. Kolb Jonathan Kozol Peter McLaren Richard Mitchell Maria Montessori A.S. Neill Michael Adrian Peters Harold Rugg Rudolf Steiner Max Stirner William Chandler Bagley

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References
[2] Webb, DL, A Metha, and KF Jordan (2010). Foundations of American Education, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill, pp. 77-80,192-193. [3] Thomas, G. (2007) Education and Theory: Strangers in Paradigms. Open University Press. [5] Webb, DL, A Metha, and KF Jordan (2010). Foundations of American Education, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill, pp. 55-91 [6] Barry, W. (2012). Is Modern American Public Education Promoting a Sane Society, in "International Journal of Science" 2nd Ed. ISSN 2225-7063, pp. 69-81, http:/ / issuu. com/ ijosc. net/ docs/ ijosc?mode=window& viewMode=doublePage [9] Martin, Jane. What Should We Do with a Hidden Curriculum When We Find One? The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 122139. [10] Webb, DL, A Metha, and KF Jordan (2010). Foundations of American Education, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill, pp. 55-62 [11] http:/ / www. eaea. org/ index. php?k=15098 [12] Gordon Marshall (ed) A Dictionary of Sociology (Article: Sociology of Education), Oxford University Press, 1998 [13] Comitas, L. and Dolgin, J. 1979. 'On Anthropology and Education: Retrospect and Prospect'. Anthropology and Education Quarterly. 9(1): 87-89 [14] Page, J.S. Education and Acculturation on Malaita: An Ethnography of Intraethnic and Interethnic Affinities'.The Journal of Intercultural Studies. 1988. #15/16:74-81. [15] Page, J.S. Education and Acculturation on Malaita: An Ethnography of Intraethnic and Interethnic Affinities'.The Journal of Intercultural Studies. 1988. #15/16:74-81, available on-line at http:/ / eprints. qut. edu. au/ archive/ 00003566/ [16] Dynneson, T.L. 1984. 'An Anthropological Approach to Learning and Teaching'. Social Education. 48(6): 410-418. [17] Schensul, J.J. 1985. 'Cultural Maintenance and Cultural Transformation: Educational Anthropology in the Eighties'. Education and Anthropology Quarterly. 15(1): 63-68.

External links
Educational Theory (http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/eps/Educational-Theory/) (Journal) Journal of Thought (http://www.journalofthought.com/) Paul H. Hanus (1920). "Education, Study of". Encyclopedia Americana.

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Economics
Economics of education
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Economists Journals Publications Categories Index Outline Business and economics portal

Education economics or the economics of education is the study of economic issues relating to education, including the demand for education and the financing and provision of education. From early works on the relationship between schooling and labor market outcomes for individuals, the field of the economics of education has grown rapidly to cover virtually all areas with linkages to education.

Demand for education

Liberal approaches
The dominant model of the demand for education is based on human capital theory. The central idea is that undertaking education is investment in the acquisition of skills and knowledge which will increase earnings, or provide long-term benefits such as an appreciation of literature (sometimes referred to as cultural capital).[1] An increase in human capital can follow technological progress as knowledgeable employees are in demand due to the need for their skills, whether it be in understanding the production process or in operating machines. Studies from 1958 attempted to calculate the returns from additional schooling (the percent increase in income acquired through an additional year of schooling). Later results attempted to allow for different returns across persons or by level of education.[2] Statistics have shown that countries with high enrollment/graduation rates have grown faster than countries without. The United States has been the world leader in educational advances, beginning with the high school movement (19101950). There also seems to be a correlation between gender differences in education with the level of growth; more development is observed in countries which have an equal distribution of the percentage of women versus men who graduated from high school. When looking at correlations in the data, education seems to generate economic growth; however, it could be that we have this causality relationship backwards. For example, if education is seen as a luxury good, it may be that richer households are seeking out educational attainment as a symbol of status, rather than the relationship of education leading to wealth. Educational advance is not the only variable for economic growth, though, as it only explains about 14% of the average annual increase in labor productivity over the period 1915-2005. From lack of a more significant correlation between formal educational achievement and productivity growth, some economists see reason to believe that in todays world many skills and capabilities come by way of learning outside of tradition education, or outside of

Economics of education schooling altogether.[3] An alternative model of the demand for education, commonly referred to as screening, is based on the economic theory of signalling. The central idea is that the successful completion of education is a signal of ability.[4]

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Marxist critique
Although Marx and Engels did not write widely about the social functions of education, their concepts and methods are theorized and criticized by the influence of Marx as education being used in reproduction of capitalist societies. Marx and Engels approached scholarship as "revolutionary scholarship" where education should serve as a propaganda for the struggle of the working class.[5] The classical Marxian paradigm sees education as serving the interest of capital and is seeking alternative modes of education that would prepare students and citizens for more progressive socialist mode of social organizations. Marx and Engels understood education and free time as essential to developing free individuals and creating many-sided human beings, thus for them education should become a more essential part of the life of people unlike capitalist society which is organized mainly around work and the production of commodities.[5]

Financing and provision

In most countries school education is predominantly financed and provided by governments. Public funding and provision also plays a major role in higher education. Although there is wide agreement on the principle that education, at least at school level, should be financed mainly by governments, there is considerable debate over the desirable extent of public provision of education. Supporters of public education argue that universal public provision promotes equality of opportunity and social cohesion. Opponents of public provision advocate alternatives such as vouchers.[6][7][8]

Education production function

An education production function is an application of the economic concept of a production function to the field of education. It relates various inputs affecting a students learning (schools, families, peers, neighborhoods, etc.) to measured outputs including subsequent labor market success, college attendance, graduation rates, and, most frequently, standardized test scores. The original study that eventually prompted interest in the idea of education production functions was by a sociologist, James S. Coleman. The Coleman Report, published in 1966, concluded that the marginal effect of various school inputs on student achievement was small compared to the impact of families and friends.[9] Later work, by Eric A. Hanushek, Richard Murnane, and other economists introduced the structure of "production" to the consideration of student learning outcomes. A large number of successive studies, increasingly involving economists, produced inconsistent results about the impact of school resources on student performance, leading to considerable controversy in policy discussions.[10][11] The interpretation of the various studies has been very controversial, in part because the findings have directly influenced policy debates. Two separate lines of study have been particularly widely debated. The overall question of whether added funds to schools are likely to produce higher achievement (the money doesnt matter debate) has entered into legislative debates and court consideration of school finance systems.[12][13][14] Additionally, policy discussions about class size reduction heightened academic study of the relationship of class size and achievement.[15][16]

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Notes
[1] Daniele Checchi, 2006. The Economics of Education: NYUMBANI Human Capital, Family Background and Inequality, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-79310-6 ISBN 978-0-521-79310-0 Description. (http:/ / www. cambridge. org/ catalogue/ catalogue. asp?isbn=9780521793100) [2] David Card "returns to schooling," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics , 2nd Edition. Abstract. (http:/ / www. dictionaryofeconomics. com/ article?id=pde2008_R000240) [3] Kling, Arnold and John Merrifield. 2009." Goldin and Katz and Education Policy Failings in Historical Perspective". Econ Journal Watch 6(1): 2-20. (http:/ / econjwatch. org/ articles/ goldin-and-katz-and-education-policy-failings-in-historical-perspective) [4] Johannes Hrner, 2008. "signalling and screening." The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition, Abstract. (http:/ / www. dictionaryofeconomics. com/ article?id=pde2008_S000129) [5] Douglas Kellner, Marxian Perspectives on Educational Philosophy: From Classical Marxism to Critical Pedagogy (http:/ / gseis. ucla. edu/ faculty/ kellner/ essays/ marxianperspectivesoneducation. pdf) [6] William A. Fischel, 2008. "educational finance," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract. (http:/ / www. dictionaryofeconomics. com/ article?id=pde2008_E000237& q=education finance& topicid=& result_number=3) [7] Caroline Hoxby, 2008. "school choice and competition," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition, Abstract. (http:/ / www. dictionaryofeconomics. com/ article?id=pde2008_V000064) [8] Daniele Checchi, 2006. The Economics of Education: Human Capital, Family Background and Inequality, ch. 5, "Education Financing." [9] Coleman, James S., Ernest Q. Campbell, Carol J. Hobson, James McPartland, Alexander M. Mood, Frederic D. Weinfeld, and Robert L. York. 1966. Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. [10] Eric A. Hanushek, 2008. "education production functions," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics , 2nd Edition. Abstract. (http:/ / www. dictionaryofeconomics. com/ article?id=pde2008_E000238) [11] Eric A. Hanushek 1986. "The Economics of Schooling: Production and Efficiency in Public Schools." Journal of Economic Literature 24,no.3 (September), p p.1141- (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2725865) 1177. [12] Gary Burtless, ed., 1996. Does Money Matter? The Effect of School Resources on Student Achievement and Adult Success. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution. Description (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=N3UIwF9P1WUC& dq=Burtless,+ Gary,+ ed. + 1996. + "Does+ Money+ Matter?"& lr=& source=gbs_navlinks_s) and scroll to chapter preview links. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=N3UIwF9P1WUC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_v2_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q& f=false) [13] Greenwald, Rob, Larry V. Hedges, and Richard D. Laine. 1996. "The Effect of School Resources on Student Achievement." Review of Educational Research, 66(3), pp. 361-396. [14] Eric A. Hanushek, 1996. "A More Complete Picture of School Resource Policies." Review of Educational Research, 66(3), p p. 397 (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 1170529)-409. [15] Lawrence Mishel, and Richard Rothstein, eds., 2002. The Class Size Debate. Link. (http:/ / edpro. stanford. edu/ hanushek/ admin/ pages/ files/ uploads/ classsizedebate. full volume. pdf) Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute. [16] Ehrenberg, Ronald G., Dominic J. Brewer, Adam Gamoran, and J. Douglas Willms, 2001. "Class size and student achievement," Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2(1), pp. 1-30.

References
Roland Bnabou, 1996."Heterogeneity, Stratification, and Growth: Macroeconomic Implications of Community Structure and School Finance," American Economic Review,86(3) p p. 584- (http://www.jstor.org/pss/ 2118213) 609. Mark Blaug, 1985. "Where Are We Now in the Economics of Education?" Economics of Education Review, 4(1), pp.1728. Abstract. (http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini. jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ316734&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no& accno=EJ316734) Clive R. Belfield, ed., 2006.Modern Classics In The Economics Of Education, Elgar. Description. (http://www. e-elgar.co.uk/bookentry_main.lasso?id=3730) Eric A. Hanushek, 1986. "The economics of schooling: Production and efficiency in public schools." Journal of Economic Literature 24, no. 3 (September): 1141-1177. Eric A. Hanushek, 1992. "The Trade-off between Child Quantity and Quality," Journal of Political Economy, 100(1), p p. 84 (http://www.jstor.org/pss/2138807)-117. Stephen A. Hoenack, 1996. "The Economics of Education in Developing Countries: An Assessment of the State of the Art," Economics of Education Review, 15(4), pp.327338. Abstract. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VB9-3VWC4WP-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search& _sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&

Economics of education md5=75ba2e9ff909d9d3cb1b07b06f72ea3b) Caroline M. Hoxby, 1999. "The Productivity of Schools and Other Local Public Goods Producers," Journal of Public Economics, 74(1), pp.130 Abstract. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6V76-3X3BRVD-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c& _acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=6d79f5e032b5872fb6dcd8557d92c815) _____, 2000. "Does Competition among Public Schools Benefit Students and Taxpayers?" American Economic Review, 90(5), p p. 1209- (http://www.jstor.org/pss/2677848) 1238. Geraint Johnes and Jill Johnes, ed., 2004. International Handbook on the Economics of Education, Elgar. Chapter titles. (http://www.e-elgar-publicpolicy.com/bookentry_main.lasso?id=2847) George Psacharopoulos and Harry A. Patrinos, 2004. "Returns to Investment in Education: A Further Update," Education Economics, 12(2), pp.111134. Abstract. (http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ title~content=g713619096~db=all) Steven G. Rivkin, Eric A. Hanushek, and John F. Kain, 2005. "Teachers, Schools, and Academic Achievement," Econometrica, 73(2), pp.417458. Abstract. (http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118684632/ abstract) Sherwin Rosen, 1987. "human capital," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp.68190.

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Selected entries on education from The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2008), 2nd Edition: "education in developing countries" by Paul Glewwe. Abstract. (http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/ article?id=pde2008_E000248&q=education&topicid=&result_number=2) "human capital, fertility and growth" by Oded Galor. Abstract. (http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/ article?id=pde2008_H000166&q=education&topicid=&result_number=27) "intergenerational transmission" by Lance Lochner. Abstract. (http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/ article?id=pde2008_F000317&q=intergenerational transmission&topicid=&result_number=1) "local public finance" by John M. Quigley. Abstract. (http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/ article?id=pde2008_L000130) "population health, economic implications of" by David Canning and David E. Bloom. Abstract. (http://www. dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_E000259&q=education&topicid=&result_number=12)

External links
Economics of Education Review Description (http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription. cws_home/743/description#description) & links (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/02727757) to article titles. Education Economics Aims & Scope (http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/09645292.asp) & links (http:// www.informaworld.com/smpp/1593114066-41842684/title~content=t713415403~db=all) to article titles. World Bank, "Economics of Education" (http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/ EXTEDUCATION/ 0,,contentMDK:20264769~menuPK:613701~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:282386,00.html)

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History
History of education

School of Aristotle, fresco by Gustav Spangenberg.

Educational research

Disciplines

Evaluation Organization Psychology Technology History Philosophy International education School counseling School psychology Special education Teacher education Curricular domains

Arts Business Early childhood Language Literacy Mathematics Science Social science Technology Vocational Methods

History of education

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Case study Conversation analysis Discourse analysis Factor analysis Factorial experiment Focus group Meta-analysis Multivariate statistics Participant observation

Presumably every generation, since the beginning of human existence, somehow passed on its stock of values, traditions, methods and skills to the next generation.[1] The passing on of culture is also known as enculturation and the learning of social values and behaviours is socialization. The history of the curricula of such education reflects history itself, the history of knowledge, beliefs, skills and cultures of humanity.[2][3] As the customs and knowledge of ancient civilizations became more complex, many skills were passed down from a person skilled at the job - for example in animal husbandry, farming, fishing, food preparation, construction, military skills. Oral traditions were central in societies without written texts.[4] Literacy in preindustrial societies was associated with civil administration, law, long distance trade or commerce, and religion.[5] A formal schooling in literacy was provided to an elite group either at religious institutions or at the palaces of the rich and powerful. Providing literacy to most children has been a development of the last 150 or 200 years, or even last 50 years in some Third World countries. Schools for the young have historically been supplemented with advanced training, especially in Europe and China, for priests, bureaucrats and businessmen. For most craftsmen skills were learned during an apprenticeshipas for example most lawyers and physicians before the mid-19th century.

Education in prehistory
Most of human history lies in pre-history, the period before the use of writing, and before written history. In pre-literate societies, education was achieved through demonstration and copying as the young learned from their elders. Rural communities had few resources to expend on education, and there was a lack of commercially available products for schools. At later stages they received instruction of a more structured and formal nature, imparted by people not necessarily related, in the context of initiation, religion or ritual.[6][7][8] Some forms of traditional knowledge were expressed through stories, legends, folklore, rituals, and songs, without the need for a writing system. Tools to aid this process include poetic devices such as rhyme and alliteration. These methods are illustrative of orality. The stories thus preserved are also referred to as part of an oral tradition.[citation needed] Before the development of writing, it is probable that there were already epic poems, hymns to gods and incantations (such as those later found written in the ancient library at Ninevah, and the Vedas), and other oral literature (for example, see ancient literature). In ancient India, the Vedas were learnt by repetition of various forms of recitation.[9] By means of memorization, they were passed down through many generations. Education in ancient civilization The development of writing Starting in about 3500 BC, various writing systems developed in ancient civilizations around the world. In Egypt fully developed hieroglyphs were in use at Abydos as early as 3400 BC.[10] Later, the world's oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 BC from a hieroglyphic prototype. One hieroglyphic script was used on stone monuments,[11] other cursive scripts were used for writing in ink on papyrus,[11] a flexible, paper-like material, made from the stems of reeds that grow in marshes and beside rivers such as the River Nile The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script in around the 11th century BC, which in turn borrowed ideas from Egyptian hieroglyphics. This script was adapted by the Greeks. A variant of the early

History of education Greek alphabet gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include the Cyrillic script, used to write Russian, among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script and also that of Arabic are descended. In China, the early oracle bone script has survived on tens of thousands of oracle bones dating from around 1400-1200 BC in the Shang Dynasty. Out of more than 2500 written characters in use in China in about 1200 BC, as many as 1400 are identifiable as the source of later standard Chinese characters.[12] Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the one to be deciphered the most, is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century BC, and writing was in continuous use until shortly after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century. Other surfaces used for early writing include wax-covered writing boards (used, as well as clay tablets, by the Assyrians), sheets or strips of bark from trees (in Indonesia, Tibet and the Americas),[13] the thick palm-like leaves of a particular tree, the leaves then punctured with a hole and stacked together like the pages of a book (these writings in India and South east Asia include Buddhist scriptures and Sanskrit literature),[14] parchment, made of goatskin that had been soaked and scraped to remove hair, which was used from at least the 2nd century BC, vellum, made from calfskin, and wax tablets which could be wiped clean to provide a fresh surface (in Roman times). Ethiopia has its own ancient alphabet. According to the beliefs of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Ethiopic or Geez is one of the ancient alphabets and languages. The first human to use the alphabet is believed to be Henoch of the Old Testament. Henoch supposedly wrote the Book of Henoch in Ethiopic around c. 3350 BC. In the Ethiopian Orthodox view, the Book of Enoch ( ) was written in Ethiopic by Enoch, considered the oldest book in any human language. The original forms of the letters themselves were said to have been invented by the even earlier ancestral figure, Henos. others claim that Ethiopic is a Sabean alphabet. still Others claim that the classic Ethiopic with its seven vowel expansions was in existence before 3000 BC. It is thought by some that it was during the Axumite Kingdom of around 340 AD that the alphabet gained the vowel forms and started to be written from left to right.

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History of Formal education in ancient civilizations

In many early civilizations, education was associated with wealth and the maintenance of authority, or with prevailing philosophies, beliefs, or religion. The Middle East In what became Mesopotamia, the early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus only a limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its reading and writing. Only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals such as scribes, physicians, and temple administrators, were schooled.[15] Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed to learn a trade.[16] Girls stayed at home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Later, when a syllabic script became more widespread, more of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Later still in Babylonian times there were libraries in most towns and temples; an old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." There arose a whole social class of scribes, mostly employed in agriculture, but some as personal secretaries or lawyers.[17] Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated. The Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia is among the earliest known works

History of education of literary fiction. The earliest Sumerian versions of the epic date from as early as the Third Dynasty of Ur (2150-2000 BC) (Dalley 1989: 41-42). Ashurbanipal (685 c. 627 BC), a king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, was proud of his scribal education. His youthful scholarly pursuits included oil divination, mathematics, reading and writing as well as the usual horsemanship, hunting, chariotry, soldierliness, craftsmanship, and royal decorum. During his reign he collected cuneiform texts from all over Mesopotamia, and especially Babylonia, in the library in Nineveh, the first systematically organized library in the ancient Middle East,[18] which survives in part today. In ancient Egypt, literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status. The rate of literacy in Pharaonic Egypt during most periods from the third to first millennium BC has been estimated at not more than one percent,[19] or between one half of one percent and one percent.[20] In ancient Israel the Torah (the fundamental religious text) includes commands to read, learn, teach and write the Torah, thus requiring literacy and study. In 64 AD the high priest caused schools to be opened .[21] Emphasis was placed on developing good memory skills in addition to comprehension oral repetition. For details of the subjects taught, see History of education in ancient Israel and Judah. Although girls were not provided with formal education in the yeshivah, they were required to know a large part of the subject areas to prepare them to maintain the home after marriage, and to educate the children before the age of seven. Despite this schooling system, it would seem that many children did not learn to read and write, because it has been estimated that "at least ninety percent of the Jewish population of Roman Palestine [in the first centuries AD] could merely write their own name or not write and read at all",[22] or that the literacy rate was about 3 percent.[23] Indian Subcontinent In ancient India, during the Vedic period from about 1500 BC to 600 BC, most education was based on the Veda (hymns, formulas, and incantations, recited or chanted by priests of a pre-Hindu tradition) and later Hindu texts and scriptures. Vedic education included: proper pronunciation and recitation of the Veda, the rules of sacrifice, grammar and derivation, composition, versification and meter, understanding of secrets of nature, reasoning including logic, the sciences, and the skills necessary for an occupation.[24] Some medical knowledge existed and was taught. There is mention in the Veda of herbal medicines for various conditions or diseases, including fever, cough, baldness, snake bite and others.[24] Education, at first freely available in Vedic society, became over time more discriminatory as the caste system, originally based on occupation, evolved, with the brahman (priests) being the most privileged of the castes.[24] The oldest of the Upanishads - another part of Hindu scriptures - date from around 500 BC. These texts encouraged an exploratory learning process where teachers and students were co-travellers in a search for truth. The teaching methods used reasoning and questioning. Nothing was labeled as the final answer.[24] The Gurukul system of education supported traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery. Education was free, but students from well-to-do families paid "Gurudakshina," a voluntary contribution after the completion of their studies. At the Gurukuls, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, Philosophy, Literature, Warfare, Statecraft, Medicine, Astrology and History. The corpus of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as technical scientific, philosophical and generally Hindu religious texts, though many central texts of Buddhism and Jainism have also been composed in Sanskrit. Two epic poems formed part of ancient Indian education. The Mahabharata, part of which may date back to the 8th century BC,[] discusses human goals (purpose, pleasure, duty, and liberation), attempting to explain the relationship

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History of education of the individual to society and the world (the nature of the 'Self') and the workings of karma. The other epic poem, Ramayana, is shorter, although it has 24,000 verses. It is thought to have been compiled between about 400 BC and 200 AD. The epic explores themes of human existence and the concept of dharma.[] An early center of learning in India dating back to the 5th century BC was Taxila (also known as Takshashila), which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments.[25] It was an important Vedic/Hindu[26] and Buddhist[27] centre of learning from the 6th century BC[28] to the 5th century AD.[29][30]'' China During the Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC to 256 BC), there were five national schools in the capital city, Pi Yong (an imperial school, located in a central location) and four other schools for the aristocrats and nobility, including Shang Xiang. The schools mainly taught the Six Arts: rites, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics. According to the Book of Rituals, at age twelve, boys learned arts related to ritual (i.e. music and dance) and when older, archery and chariot driving. Girls learned ritual, correct deportment, silk production and weaving.[31][32] It was during the Zhou Dynasty that the origins of native Chinese philosophy also developed. Confucius (551 BC 479 BC) founder of Confucianism, was a Chinese philosopher who made a great impact on later generations of Chinese, and on the curriculum of the Chinese educational system for much of the following 2000 years. During the Han Dynasty (206 BC- 221 AD), boys were thought ready at age seven to start learning basic skills in reading, writing and calculation.[31] In 124 BC, the Emperor Wudi established the Imperial Academy, the curriculum of which was the Five Classics of Confucius. By the end of the Han Dynasty (220 AD) the Academy enrolled more than 30,000 students, boys between the ages of fourteen and seventeen years. However education through this period was a luxury.[32] Later, during the Ch'in dynasty (246-207 BC), a hierarchy of officials was set up to provide central control over the outlying areas of the empire. To enter this hierarchy, both literacy and knowledge of the increasing body of philosophy was required: "....the content of the educational process was designed not to engender functionally specific skills but rather to produce morally enlightened and cultivated generalists".[33] The Nine rank system was a civil service nomination system during the Three Kingdoms (220-280 AD) and the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589 AD) in China. Theoretically, local government authorities were given the task of selecting talented candidates, then categorizing them into nine grades depending on their abilities. In practice, however, only the rich and powerful would be selected. The Nine Rank System was eventually superseded by the Imperial examination system for the civil service in the Sui Dynasty (581-618 AD) Greece and Rome In the city-states of ancient Greece, most education was private, except in Sparta. For example, in Athens, during the 5th and 4th century BC, aside from two years military training, the state played little part in schooling.[34][35] Anyone could open a school and decide the curriculum. Parents could choose a school offering the subjects they wanted their children to learn, at a monthly fee they could afford.[34] Most parents, even the poor, sent their sons to schools for at least a few years, and if they could afford it from around the age of seven until fourteen, learning gymnastics (including athletics, sport and wrestling), music (including poetry, drama and history) and literacy.[34][35] Girls rarely received formal education. At writing school, the youngest students learned the alphabet by song, then later by copying the shapes of letters with a stylus on a waxed wooden tablet. After some schooling, the sons of poor or middle-class families often learnt a trade by apprenticeship, whether with their father or another tradesman.[34] By around 350 BC, it was common for children at schools in Athens to also study various arts such as drawing, painting, and sculpture. The richest students continued their education by studying with sophists, from whom they could learn subjects such as rhetoric, mathematics, geography, natural history, politics, and logic.[34][35] Some of Athens' greatest schools of higher education included the Lyceum (the so-called Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle of Stageira) and the Platonic Academy (founded by Plato of Athens). The education system of the wealthy ancient

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History of education Greeks is also called Paideia. In the subsequent Roman empire, Greek was the primary language of science. Advanced scientific research and teaching was mainly carried on in the Hellenistic side of the Roman empire, in Greek. The education system in the Greek city-state of Sparta was entirely different, designed to create warriors with complete obedience, courage, and physical perfection. At the age of seven, boys were taken away from their homes to live in school dormitories or military barracks. There they were taught sports, endurance and fighting, and little else, with harsh discipline. Most of the population was illiterate.[34][35] The first schools in Ancient Rome arose by the middle of the 4th century BC.[36] These schools were concerned with the basic socialization and rudimentary education of young Roman children. The literacy rate in the 3rd century BC has been estimated as around one percent to two percent.[37] We have very few primary sources or accounts of Roman educational process until the 2nd century BC,[36] during which there was a proliferation of private schools in Rome.[37] At the height of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, the Roman educational system gradually found its final form. Formal schools were established, which served paying students (very little in the way of free public education as we know it can be found).[38] Normally, both boys and girls were educated, though not necessarily together.[38] In a system much like the one that predominates in the modern world, the Roman education system that developed arranged schools in tiers. The educator Quintilian recognized the importance of starting education as early as possible, noting that memory not only exists even in small children, but is specially retentive at that age.[39] A Roman student would progress through schools just as a student today might go from elementary school to middle school, then to high school, and finally college. Progression depended more on ability than age[38] with great emphasis being placed upon a students ingenium or inborn gift for learning,[40] and a more tacit emphasis on a students ability to afford high-level education. Only the Roman elite would expect a complete formal education. A tradesman or farmer would expect to pick up most of his vocational skills on the job. Higher education in Rome was more of a status symbol than a practical concern. It has been argued that literacy rates in the Greco-Roman world were seldom more than 20 percent; averaging perhaps not much above 10 percent in the Roman empire, though with wide regional variations, probably never rising above 5 percent in the western provinces,[41] and that the literate in classical Greece did not much exceed 5 percent of the population.[42] The argument for these claims is that ancient governments did not invest in public education.

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Formal education in the Middle Ages (500-1600 AD)

Europe

History of education

228

During the Early Middle Ages, the monasteries of the Roman Catholic Church were the centres of education and literacy, preserving the Church's selection from Latin learning and maintaining the art of writing. Prior to their formal establishment, many medieval universities were run for hundreds of years as Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools (Scholae monasticae), in which monks taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the early 6th century.[43] The first medieval institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology.[1] These universities evolved from much older Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools, and it is difficult to define the date on which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generalia for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide.

The Abbey of Cluny was one of the most influential

Ireland became known as the island of saints and scholars. Monasteries were built all over Ireland and these became centres of great learning (see Celtic Church). Northumbria was famed as a centre of religious learning and arts. Initially the kingdom was evangelized by monks from the Celtic Church, which led to a flowering of monastic life, and Northumbria played an important role in the formation of Insular art, a unique style combining Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, Byzantine and other elements. After the Synod of Whitby in 664 AD, Roman church practices officially replaced the Celtic ones but the influence of the Anglo-Celtic style continued, the most famous examples of this being the Lindisfarne Gospels. The Venerable Bede (673-735) wrote his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731) in a Northumbrian monastery, and much of it focuses on the kingdom.[44] During the reign of Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 814 AD, whose empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Romans, there was a flowering of literature, art, and architecture known as the Carolingian Renaissance. Brought into contact with the culture and learning of other countries through his vast conquests, Charlemagne greatly increased the provision of monastic schools and scriptoria (centres for book-copying) in Francia. Most of the surviving works of classical Latin were copied and preserved by Carolingian scholars. Charlemagne took a serious interest in scholarship, promoting the liberal arts at the court, ordering that his children and grandchildren be well-educated, and even studying himself under the tutelage of Paul the Deacon, from whom he learned grammar, Alcuin, with whom he studied rhetoric, dialect and astronomy (he was particularly interested in the movements of the stars), and Einhard, who assisted him in his studies of arithmetic. The English monk Alcuin was invited to Charlemagne's court at Aachen, and brought with him the precise classical Latin education that was available in the monasteries of Northumbria.[45] The return of this Latin proficiency to the kingdom of the Franks is regarded as an important step in the development of mediaeval Latin. Charlemagne's chancery made use of a type of script currently known as Carolingian minuscule, providing a common writing style that allowed for communication across most of Europe. After the decline of the Carolingian dynasty, the rise of the Saxon Dynasty in Germany was accompanied by the Ottonian Renaissance.

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Cathedral schools and monasteries remained important throughout the Middle Ages; at the Third Lateran Council of 1179 the Church mandated that priests provide the opportunity of a free education to their flocks, and the 12th and 13th century renascence known as the Scholastic Movement was spread through the monasteries. These however ceased to be the sole sources of education in the 11th century when universities, which grew out of the monasticism began to be established in major European cities. Literacy became available to a wider class of people, and there were major advances in art, sculpture, music and architecture.[46] Sculpture, paintings and stained glass windows were vital educational media through which Biblical themes and the lives of the saints were taught to illiterate viewers.[47]

Islamic world

During the 6th and 7th centuries, the Academy of Gundishapur, originally the intellectual center of the Sassanid empire and subsequently a Muslim centre of learning, offered training in medicine, philosophy, theology and science. The faculty were versed not only in the Zoroastrian and Persian traditions, but in Greek and Indian learning as well. The House of Wisdom in Bagdad was a library, translation and educational centre from the 9th to 13th centuries. Works on astrology, mathematics, agriculture, medicine, and philosophy were translated. Drawing on Persian, Indian and Greek textsincluding those of Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Euclid, Plotinus, Galen, Sushruta, Charaka, Aryabhata and Brahmaguptathe scholars accumulated a great collection of knowledge in the world, and built on it through their own discoveries. The House was an unrivalled centre for the study of humanities and for sciences, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, zoology and geography. Baghdad was known as the world's richest city and centre for intellectual development of the time, and had a population of over a million, the largest in its time.[48] The Islamic mosque school (Madrasah) taught the Quran in Arabic and did not at all resemble the medieval European universities.[49][50] In the 9th century, Bimaristan medical schools were formed in the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be a practicing Doctor of Medicine.[] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975, was a Jami'ah ("university" in Arabic) which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees, had a Madrasah and theological seminary, and taught Islamic law, Islamic jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy and logic in Islamic philosophy.[] Under the Ottoman Empire, the towns of Bursa and Edirne became major centers of learning.[citation needed] In the 15th and 16th centuries, the town of Timbuktu in the West African nation of Mali became an Islamic centre of learning with students coming from as far away as the Middle East. The town was home to the prestigious Sankore University and other madrasas. The primary focus of these schools was the teaching of the Qur'an, although broader instruction in fields such as logic, astronomy, and history also took place. Over time, there was a great accumulation of manuscripts in the area and an estimated 100,000 or more manuscripts, some of them dated from pre-Islamic times and 12th century, are kept by the great families from the town.[51] Their contents are didactic, especially in the subjects of astronomy, music, and botany. More than 18,000 manuscripts have been collected by the Ahmed Baba centre.[52]

Cambridge and many other universities were founded at this time.

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China
Although there are more than 40,000 Chinese characters in written Chinese, many are rarely used. Studies have shown that full literacy in the Chinese language requires a knowledge of only between three and four thousand characters.[53] In China, three oral texts were used to teach children by rote memorization the written characters of their language and the basics of Confucian thought. The Thousand Character Classic, a Chinese poem originating in the 6th century, was used for more than a millennium as a primer for teaching Chinese characters to children. The poem is composed of 250 phrases of four characters each, thus containing exactly one thousand unique characters, and was sung in the same way that children learning the Latin alphabet may use the "alphabet song". Later, children also learn the Hundred Family Surnames, a rhyming poem in lines of eight characters composed in the early Song Dynasty[54] (i.e. in about the 11th century) which actually listed more than four hundred of the common surnames in ancient China. From around the 13th century until the latter part of the 19th century, the Three Character Classic, which is an embodiment of Confucian thought suitable for teaching to young children, served as a child's first formal education at home. The text is written in triplets of characters for easy memorization. With illiteracy common for most people at the time, the oral tradition of reciting the classic ensured its popularity and survival through the centuries. With the short and simple text arranged in three-character verses, children learned many common characters, grammar structures, elements of Chinese history and the basis of Confucian morality. After learning Chinese characters, students wishing to ascend in the social hierarchy needed to study the Chinese classic texts. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire. In 605 AD, during the Sui Dynasty, for the first time, an examination system was explicitly instituted for a category of local talents. The merit-based imperial examination system for evaluating and selecting officials gave rise to schools that taught the Chinese classic texts and continued in use for 1,300 years, until the end the Qing Dynasty, being abolished in 1911 in favour of Western education methods. The core of the curriculum for the imperial civil service examinations from the mid-12th century onwards was the Four Books, representing a foundational introduction to Confucianism. Theoretically, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination, although under some dynasties members of the merchant class were excluded. In reality, since the process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly (if tutors were hired), most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land-owning gentry. However, there are vast numbers of examples in Chinese history in which individuals moved from a low social status to political prominence through success in imperial examination. Under some dynasties the imperial examinations were abolished and official posts were simply sold, which increased corruption and reduced morale. In the period preceding 10401050 AD, prefectural schools had been neglected by the state and left to the devices of wealthy patrons who provided private finances.[55] The chancellor of China at that time, Fan Zhongyan, issued an edict that would have used a combination of government funding and private financing to restore and rebuild all prefectural schools that had fallen into disuse and abandoned.[55] He also attempted to restore all county-level schools in the same manner, but did not designate where funds for the effort would be formally acquired and the decree was not taken seriously until a later period.[55] Fan's trend of government funding for education set in motion the movement of public schools that eclipsed private academies, which would not be officially reversed until the mid-13th century.[55]

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India
The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher education at Nalanda, Takshashila University, Ujjain, & Vikramshila Universities. Amongst the subjects taught were Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, mathematics, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, Buddhism, Hinduism, Arthashastra (Economics & Politics), Law, and Medicine. Each university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its peak.[56] Nalanda was a Buddhist center of learning founded in Bihar, India around the 5th century and conferred academic degree titles to its graduates, while also offering post-graduate courses. It has been called "one of the first great universities in recorded history."[57] Vikramala University, another important center of Buddhist learning in India, was established by King Dharmapala (783 to 820) in response to a supposed decline in the quality of scholarship at Nland.[58] Indigenous education was widespread in India in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country.[59] The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students representative of all classes of society.

Japan
The history of education in Japan dates back at least to the 6th century, when Chinese learning was introduced at the Yamato court. Foreign civilizations have often provided new ideas for the development of Japan's own culture. Chinese teachings and ideas flowed into Japan from the sixth to the 9th century. Along with the introduction of Buddhism came the Chinese system of writing and its literary tradition, and Confucianism. By the 9th century, Heian-kyo (today's Kyoto), the imperial capital, had five institutions of higher learning, and during the remainder of the Heian period, other schools were established by the nobility and the imperial court. During the medieval period (1185-1600), Zen Buddhist monasteries were especially important centers of learning, and the Ashikaga School, Ashikaga Gakko, flourished in the 15th century as a center of higher learning.

Central and South American civilizations

Aztec Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political and military dominance over large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the Late post-Classic period in Mesoamerican chronology. Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents, but supervised by the authorities of their calplli. Part of this education involved learning a collection of sayings, called huhuetltolli ("sayings of the old"), that embodied the Aztecs' ideals. Judged by their language, most of the huhuetlatolli seemed to have evolved over several centuries, predating the Aztecs and most likely adopted from other Nahua cultures. At 15, all boys and girls went to school. The Mexica, one of the Aztec groups, were one of the first people in the world to have mandatory education for nearly all children, regardless of gender, rank, or station[citation needed]. There were two types of schools: the telpochcalli, for practical and military studies, and the calmecac, for advanced learning in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas. The two institutions seem to be common to the Nahua people, leading some experts to suggest that they are older than the Aztec culture. Aztec teachers (tlatimine) propounded a spartan regime of education with the purpose of forming a stoical people. Girls were educated in the crafts of home and child raising. They were not taught to read or write. All women were taught to be involved in religion; there are paintings of women presiding over religious ceremonies, but there are no

History of education references to female priests. Inca Inca education during the time of the Inca Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries was divided into two principal spheres: education for the upper classes and education for the general population. The royal classes and a few specially chosen individuals from the provinces of the Empire were formally educated by the Amautas (wise men), while the general population learned knowledge and skills from their immediate forbears. The Amautas constituted a special class of wise men similar to the bards of Great Britain. They included illustrious philosophers, poets, and priests who kept the oral histories of the Incas alive by imparting the knowledge of their culture, history, customs and traditions throughout the kingdom. Considered the most highly educated and respected men in the Empire, the Amautas were largely entrusted with educating those of royal blood, as well as other young members of conquered cultures specially chosen to administer the regions. Thus, education throughout the territories of the Incas was socially discriminatory, most people not receiving the formal education that royalty received. The official language of the empire was Quechua, although dozens if not hundreds of local languages were spoken. The Amautas did ensure that the general population learn Quechua as the language of the Empire, much in the same way the Romans promoted Latin throughout Europe; however, this was done more for political reasons than educational ones.

232

After the 15th century

Europe
Europe overview Modern systems of education in Europe derive their origins from the schools of the High Middle Ages. Most schools during this era were founded upon religious principles with the primary purpose of training the clergy. Many of the earliest universities, such as the University of Paris founded in 1160, had a Christian basis. In addition to this, a number of secular universities existed, such as the University of Bologna, founded in 1088. Free education for the poor was officially Primary School in "open air". Teacher with class, mandated by the Church in 1179 when it decreed that every cathedral from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842. must assign a master to teach boys too poor to pay the regular fee;[60] parishes and monasteries also established free schools teaching at least basic literary skills. With few exceptions, priests and brothers taught locally, and their salaries were frequently subsidized by towns. Private, independent schools reappeared in medieval Europe during this time, but they, too, were religious in nature and mission.[61] The curriculum was usually based around the trivium and to a lesser extent quadrivium (the seven Artes Liberales or Liberal arts) and was conducted in Latin, the lingua franca of educated Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance.[62] In northern Europe this clerical education was largely superseded by forms of elementary schooling following the Reformation. In Scotland, for instance, the national Church of Scotland set out a programme for spiritual reform in January 1561 setting the principle of a school teacher for every parish church and free education for the poor. This was provided for by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland, passed in 1633, which introduced a tax to pay for this programme. Although few countries of the period had such extensive systems of education, the period between the 16th and 18th centuries saw education become significantly more widespread. In Central Europe, the 17th century scientist and educator John Amos Comenius promulgated a reformed system of universal education that was widely used in Europe.

History of education This growth resulted in increased government interest in education. In the 1760s, for instance, Ivan Betskoy was appointed by the Russian Tsarina, Catherine II, as educational advisor. He proposed to educate young Russians of both sexes in state boarding schools, aimed at creating "a new race of men". Betskoy set forth a number of arguments for general education of children rather than specialized one: "in regenerating our subjects by an education founded on these principles, we will create... new citizens." Some of his ideas were implemented in the Smolny Institute that he established for noble girls in Saint Petersburg. Betskoy's work in Russia was soon followed by the Polish establishment in 1773 of a Commission of National Education (Polish: Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, Lithuanian: Nacionaline Edukacine Komisija). The commission functioned as the first government Ministry of Education in a European country. Meanwhile, there was an increasing academic interest in education and the first attempts to create what might be considered academic rationales for teaching methods. This led, in the 1770s, to the establishment of the first chair of pedagogy at the University of Halle in Germany. Contributions to the study of education elsewhere in Europe included the work of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi in Switzerland and Joseph Lancaster in Britain. Under the guidance of Wilhelm von Humboldt a new university was founded in Berlin in 1810 which became the model for many research universities. Herbart developed a system of pedagogy widely used in German-speaking areas. In the late 19th century, most of West, Central, and parts of East Europe began to provide elementary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic, partly because politicians believed that education was needed for orderly political behavior. As more people became literate, they realized that most secondary education was only open to those who could afford it. Having created primary education, the major nations had to give further attention to secondary education by the time of World War 1.[63] In the 20th century, new directions in education included, in Italy, Maria Montessori's Montessori schools; and in Germany, Rudolf Steiner's development of Waldorf education. France While the French trace the development of their educational system to Charlemagne, the modern era of French education begins at the end of the 19th century. Jules Ferry, a lawyer holding the office of Minister of Public Instruction in the 1880s, is widely credited for creating the modern Republican school (l'cole rpublicaine) by requiring all children under the age of 15boys and girlsto attend. He also made public instruction free of charge and secular (laque). United Kingdom England See History of education in England Scotland See History of education in Scotland

233

Japan
Japan isolated itself from 1600 under the Tokugawa regime (16001867). In 1600 very few common people were literate. By the period's end, learning had become widespread. Tokugawa education left a valuable legacy: an increasingly literate populace, a meritocratic ideology, and an emphasis on discipline and competent performance. Traditional Samurai curricula for elites stressed morality and the martial arts. Confucian classics were memorized, and reading and recitation them were common methods of study. Arithmetic and calligraphy were also studied. Education of commoners was generally practically oriented, providing basic 3-Rs, calligraphy and use of the abacus.

History of education Much of this education was conducted in so-called temple schools (terakoya), derived from earlier Buddhist schools. These schools were no longer religious institutions, nor were they, by 1867, predominantly located in temples. By the end of the Tokugawa period, there were more than 11,000 such schools, attended by 750,000 students. Teaching techniques included reading from various textbooks, memorizing, abacus, and repeatedly copying Chinese characters and Japanese script. By the 1860s, 40-50% of Japanese boys, and 15% of the girls, had some schooling outside the home. These rates were comparable to major European nations at the time (apart from Germany, which had compulsory schooling).[64] Under subsequent Meiji leadership, this foundation would facilitate Japan's rapid transition from feudal society to modern nation which paid very close attention to Western science, technology and educational methods. . Meiji reforms After 1868 reformers set Japan on a rapid course of modernization, with a public education system like that of Western Europe. Missions like the Iwakura mission were sent abroad to study the education systems of leading Western countries. They returned with the ideas of decentralization, local school boards, and teacher autonomy. Elementary school enrollments climbed from about 40 or 50 percent of the school-age population in the 1870s to more than 90 percent by 1900, despite strong public protest, especially against school fees. A modern concept of childhood emerged in Japan after 1850 as part of its engagement with the West. Meiji era leaders decided the nation-state had the primary role in mobilizing individuals - and children - in service of the state. The Western-style school became the agent to reach that goal. By the 1890s, schools were generating new sensibilities regarding childhood.[65] After 1890 Japan had numerous reformers, child experts, magazine editors, and well-educated mothers who bought into the new sensibility. They taught the upper middle class a model of childhood that included children having their own space where they read children's books, played with educational toys and, especially, devoted enormous time to school homework. These ideas rapidly disseminated through all social classes[66][67] After 1870 school textbooks based on Confucianism were replaced by westernized texts. However by the 1890s, a reaction set in and a more authoritarian approach was imposed. Traditional Confucian and Shinto precepts were again stressed, especially those concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state, the pursuit of learning, and morality. These ideals, embodied in the 1890 Imperial Rescript on Education, along with highly centralized government control over education, largely guided Japanese education until 1945, when they were massively repudiated.[68]

234

India
Education was widespread for elite young men in the 18th century, with a schools in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The current system of education, with its western style and content, was introduced and founded by the British during the British Raj, following recommendations by Lord Macaulay. Traditional structures were not recognized by the British government and have been on the decline since. Public education expenditures in the late 19th and early 20th centuries varied dramatically across regions with the western and southern provinces spending three to four times as much as the eastern provinces. Much of the inter-regional differential was due to historical differences in land taxes, the major source of revenue.[69] Lord Curzon, the Viceroy 1899-1905, made mass education a high priority after finding that no more than 20% of India's children attended school. His reforms centered on literacy training and on restructuring of the university systems. They stressed ungraded curricula, modern textbooks, and new examination systems. Curzon's plans for technical education laid the foundations which were acted upon by later governments.[70]

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Norway
Organized education in Norway dates as far back as medieval times. Shortly after Norway became an archdiocese in 1152, cathedral schools were constructed to educate priests in Trondheim, Oslo, Bergen and Hamar. After the reformation of Norway in 1537, (Norway entered a personal union with Denmark in 1536) the cathedral schools were turned into Latin schools, and it was made mandatory for all market towns to have such a school. In 1736 training in reading was made compulsory for all children, but was not effective until some years later. In 1827, Norway introduced the folkeskole, a primary school which became mandatory for 7 years in 1889 and 9 years in 1969. In the 1970s and 1980s, the folkeskole was abolished, and the grunnskole was introduced.

New Zealand
Education began with provision made by the provincial government, the missionary Christian churches and private education. The first act of parliament for education was passed in 1877, and sought to establish a standard for primary education. It was compulsory for children to attend school until the age of 14 years.

Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union

In Imperial Russia, according to the 1897 Population Census, literate people made up 28.4 percent of the population. During the 8th Party Congress of 1919, the creation of the new Socialist system of education was proclaimed the major aim of the Soviet government. The abolition of illiteracy became the primary task in the Russian SFSR. In accordance with the Sovnarkom decree of December 26, 1919, signed by its head Vladimir Lenin, the new policy of likbez, was introduced. The new system of universal compulsory education was established for children. Millions of illiterate adult people all over the country, including residents of small towns and villages, were enrolled in special literacy schools. Komsomol members and Young Pioneer detachments played an important role in the education of illiterate people in villages. The most active phase of likbez lasted until 1939. In 1926, the literacy rate was 56.6 percent of the population. By 1937, according to census data, the literacy rate was 86% for men and 65% for women, making a total literacy rate of 75%.[71]

Mental Calculations. In the school of S.Rachinsky by Nikolay Bogdanov-Belsky. 1895.

An important aspect of the early campaign for literacy and education was the policy of "indigenization" (korenizatsiya). This policy, which lasted essentially from the mid-1920s to the late 1930s, promoted the development and use of non-Russian languages in the government, the media, and education. Intended to counter the historical practices of Russification, it had as another practical goal assuring native-language education as the quickest way to increase educational levels of future generations. A huge network of so-called "national schools" was established by the 1930s, and this network continued to grow in enrollments throughout the Soviet era. Language policy changed over time, perhaps marked first of all in the government's mandating in 1938 the teaching of Russian as a required subject of study in every non-Russian school, and then especially beginning in the latter 1950s a growing conversion of non-Russian schools to Russian as the main medium of instruction.

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Africa
Until at least 1900 AD, in most African countries south of the Sahara, children received traditional informal education on matters such as artistic performances, ceremonies, rituals, games, festivals, dancing, singing, and drawing. Boys and girls were taught separately to help prepare each sex for their adult roles. Every member of the community had a hand in contributing to the educational upbringing of the child. The high point of the African educational experience was the ritual passage ceremony from childhood to adulthood. Nowadays, many sub-Saharan African countries have low rates of participation in formal education. Schools often lack basic facilities, and African universities may suffer from overcrowding and the difficulties of retaining staff attracted overseas by higher pay and better conditions. Africa has more than 40 million children. According to UNESCO's Regional overview on sub-Saharan Africa, in 2000 only 58% of children were enrolled in primary schools, the lowest enrollment rate of any region. The USAID Center reports as of 2005, forty percent of school-aged children in Africa do not attend primary school.

Recent world-wide trends

Nowadays some kind of education is compulsory to all people in most countries. Due to population growth and the proliferation of compulsory education, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far.[72] Illiteracy and the percentage of populations World map indicating Education Index (2007/2008 Human Development Report) without any schooling have decreased in the past several decades. For example, the percentage of population without any schooling decreased from 36% in 1960 to 25% in 2000. Among developing countries, illiteracy and percentages without schooling in 2000 stood at about half the 1970 figures. Among developed countries, figures about illiteracy rates differ widely. Often it is said that they decreased from 6% to 1%. Illiteracy rates in less economically developed countries (LEDCs) surpassed those of more economically developed countries (MEDCs) by a factor of 10 in 1970, and by a factor of about 20 in 2000. Illiteracy decreased greatly in LEDCs, and virtually disappeared in MEDCs. Percentages without any schooling showed similar patterns. Percentages of the population with no schooling varied greatly among LEDCs in 2000, from less than 10% to over 65%. MEDCs had much less variation, ranging from less than 2% to 17%.

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Notes
[1] Kendall D, Murray J, Linden R "Sociology In Our Times" (http:/ / www. sociologyinourtimes3e. nelson. com/ chapter16/ tutorial_chap16. html) Third Canadian Edition, 2004, Nelson Education Ltd. [2] Hailman, W. N. "Twelve lectures on the history of pedagogy, delivered before the Cincinnati teachers' association" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ twelvelectureson00hailrich/ twelvelectureson00hailrich_djvu. txt), 1874, Wilson, Hinkle & Co., Cincinnati, at Chapter 1, page 12 "In its widest sense, the history of education would be the history of the development of the human race." [3] Compayre, Gabriel; Payne, W. H., "History of Pedagogy (1899)", translated by W. H. Payne, 2003, Kessinger Publishing; ISBN 0-7661-5486-6; [originally published in French as "Histoire De La Pdagogie", by Gabriel Compayr; first published in English in 1885]; at Introduction, page ix."What would a complete history of education not include? It would embrace, in its vast developments, the entire record of the intellectual and moral culture of mankind at all periods and in all countries." (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historypedagogy02compgoog/ historypedagogy02compgoog_djvu. txt) [4] Walter J. Ong. Orality and Literacy, pp. 92-93. [5] Foster, Philip; Purves, Alan: "Literacy and Society with particular reference to the non western world" in "Handbook of Reading Research" by Rebecca Barr, P. David Pearson, Michael L. Kamil, Peter Mosenthal 2002, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; see page 30. (Originally published: New York : Longman, c1984-c1991) [6] Hughes, Paul; More, Arthur J. "Aboriginal Ways of Learning and Learning Styles" (http:/ / www. aare. edu. au/ 97pap/ hughp518. htm), Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education Brisbane, December 4, 1997 [7] Adeyemi Michael B; Adeyinka, Augustus A "Some key issues in African traditional education" (http:/ / starfsfolk. khi. is/ allyson/ africa/ traditional-education. pdf), McGill Journal of Education; Spring 2002; 37, 2; at pages 229 and 233-235. [8] Akinnaso, F. Niyi "Schooling, Language, and Knowledge in Literate and Nonliterate Societies" an article on pages 339-386 of "Cultures of Scholarship" 1998, The University of Michigan Press: see particularly pages 349-351 [9] Mookerji, Radha Kumud "Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist" 1990, (there are previous and subsequent editions) ISBN :8120804236 [10] Fischer, Steven Roger, "A History of Writing", 2004, Reaktion Books, ISBN 1-86189-167-9, ISBN 978-1-86189-167-9, at page 36 [11] Fischer, Steven Roger, "A History of Writing", 2004, Reaktion Books, ISBN 1-86189-167-9, at pp. 34, 35, 44 [12] Fischer, Steven Roger, "A History of Writing", 2004, Reaktion Books, ISBN 1-86189-167-9, ISBN 978-1-86189-167-9, at pages 168-170 [13] Article at Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections (http:/ / rmc. library. cornell. edu/ Paper-exhibit/ batak. html) [14] Article at Cornell University Library, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections (http:/ / rmc. library. cornell. edu/ Paper-exhibit/ palmleaf. html) [15] Thomason, Allison Karmel, "Luxury and Legitimation: Royal Collecting in Ancient Mesopotamia", 2005, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., ISBN 0-7546-0238-9, ISBN 978-0-7546-0238-5, at page 25. [17] Fischer, Steven Roger, "A History of Writing", 2004, Reaktion Books, ISBN 1-86189-167-9, at page 50 [18] Ashurbanipal (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9009855/ Ashurbanipal), from the Encyclopdia Britannica [19] Baines, John "Literacy and ancient Egyptian society", 1983, Man (New Series), 18 (3), 572-599 [20] Hopkins K "Conquest by book", 1991, at page 135 in JH Humphrey (ed.) "Literacy in the Roman World" (Journal of Roman Archeology, Supplementary Series No 3, pp133-158), Universsity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI [21] Compayre, Gabriel; Payne, W. H., "History of Pedagogy (1899)", Translated by W. H. Payne, 2003, Kessinger Publishing; ISBN 0-7661-5486-6; at page 9. [22] Hezser, Catherine " Jewish Literacy in Roman Palestine (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zlrxbYml2ioC)", 2001, Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism; 81. Tuebingen: Mohr-Siebeck, at page 503 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zlrxbYml2ioC& pg=PA503& dq="at+ least+ ninety+ percent+ of+ the+ Jewish+ population+ of+ Roman+ Palestine+ could+ merely+ write+ their+ own+ name+ or+ not+ write+ and+ read+ at+ all"& hl=en& ei=zAnNTofeIMav8QPOgonhDw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q="at least ninety percent of the Jewish population of Roman Palestine could merely write their own name or not write and read at all"& f=false). [23] Bar-Ilan, M. "Illiteracy in the Land of Israel in the First Centuries C.E." (http:/ / faculty. biu. ac. il/ ~barilm/ illitera. html) in S. Fishbane, S. Schoenfeld and A. Goldschlaeger (eds.), "Essays in the Social Scientific Study of Judaism and Jewish Society", II, New York: Ktav, 1992, pp. 46-61. [24] Gupta, Amita "Going to School in South Asia", 2007, Greenwood Publishing Group; ISBN 0-313-33553-2, ISBN 978-0-313-33553-2; at page 73-76 [25] Hartmut Scharfe (2002). Education in Ancient India. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-12556-6. [27] UNESCO World Heritage List. 1980. Taxila: Brief Description (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 139). Retrieved 13 January 2007 [28] "History of Education", Encyclopdia Britannica, 2007. [29] "Nalanda" (2007). Encarta. [30] Joseph Needham (2004), Within the Four Seas: The Dialogue of East and West, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-36166-4: [31] Hardy, Grant; Kinney, Anne B; "The Establishment of the Han Empire and Imperial China", 2005, Greenwood Publishing Group; ISBN 0-313-32588-X, 9780313325885; at pp. 74-75

History of education
[32] Kinney, Anne B; "Representations of Childhood and Youth in Early China", 2004, Stanford University Press, ISBN 0-8047-4731-8, ISBN 978-0-8047-4731-8 at pp. 14-15 [33] Foster, Philip; Purves, Alan: "Literacy and Society with particular reference to the non western world" in "Handbook of Reading Research" by Rebecca Barr, P. David Pearson, Michael L. Kamil, Peter Mosenthal 2002, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002; Originally published: New York : Longman, c1984-c1991; at page 30. [34] Coulson, Joseph: "Market Education: The Unknown History", 1999, Transaction Publishers; ISBN 1-56000-408-8, ISBN 978-1-56000-408-0; at pages 40-47 [35] Cordasco, Francesco: "A Brief History of Education: A Handbook of Information on Greek, Roman, Medieval, Renaissance, and Modern Educational Practice", 1976, Rowman & Littlefield; ISBN 0-8226-0067-6, ISBN 978-0-8226-0067-1; at pp. 5, 6, & 9 [36] Michael Chiappetta, Historiography and Roman Education, History of Education Journal 4, no. 4 (1953): 149-156. [37] Harris W.V. "Ancient literacy", 1989, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., at page 158 [38] Oxford Classical Dictionary, Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Third Edition. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 [39] Quintilian, Quintilian on Education, translated by William M. Smail (New York: Teachers College Press, 1966). [40] Yun Lee Too, Education in Greek and Roman antiquity (Boston: Brill, 2001). [41] Harris W.V. "Ancient literacy", 1989, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. [42] Scragg D. G.; "Textual and Material Culture in Anglo-Saxon England", 2003, DS Brewer, ISBN 0-85991-773-8, ISBN 978-0-85991-773-5, at page 185: "The numbers of the literate .... even in classical Greece did not much exceed 5 percent of the population", citing Harris W. V.; "Ancient Literacy", 1989, Cambridge, at page 328 [43] Rich, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 0-87249-376-8, pp. 126-7, 282-98 [44] Goffart, Walter. The Narrators of Barbarian History (A.D. 550-800): Jordanes, Gregory of Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon (Princeton University Press, 1988) pp. 238ff. [45] Eleanor S. Duckett, Alcuin, Friend of Charlemagne: His World and his Work (1965) [47] Stanley E. Porter, Dictionary of biblical criticism and interpretation (2007) p 223 [48] George Modelski, World Cities: 3000 to 2000, Washington DC: FAROS 2000, 2003. ISBN 2-00-309499-4 . See also Evolutionary World Politics Homepage (http:/ / faculty. washington. edu/ modelski/ ). [49] Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R. "Madrasa." Encyclopaedia of Islam, (2nd ed. 2010) [50] George Makdisi: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", in: Studia Islamica, Vol. 32 (1970), S. 255-264 (264) [51] Un patrimoine inestimable en danger : les manuscrits trouvs Tombouctou, par Jean-Michel Djian dans [[Le Monde diplomatique (http:/ / www. monde-diplomatique. fr/ 2004/ 08/ DJIAN/ 11470)] d'aot 2004.] [52] Reclaiming the Ancient Manuscripts of Timbuktu (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2003/ 05/ 0522_030527_timbuktu. html) [54] K. S. Tom. [1989] (1989). Echoes from Old China: Life, Legends and Lore of the Middle Kingdom. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1285-9 [55] Yuan, Zheng. "Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment," History of Education Quarterly (Volume 34, Number 2; Summer 1994): 193213; at pages 196-201. [57] "Really Old School," Garten, Jeffrey E. New York Times, December 9, 2006. [59] Pankaj Goyal, "Education in Pre-British India" (http:/ / www. infinityfoundation. com/ mandala/ t_es/ t_es_goyal_education. htm) [61] John M. Jeep, Medieval Germany: an encyclopedia (2001) p. 308 [62] Arthur A. Tilley, Medieval France: A Companion to French Studies (2010) p. 213 [63] Donald Kagan, Steven Ozment, Frank M Turner (2007). Western Heritage: Since 1300 (AP Edition). Pearson Education, Inc.. ISBN 0-13-173292-7. [64] Bryon K. Marshall, "Universal Social Dilemmas and Japanese Educational History: The Writings of R. P. Dore, History of Education Quarterly, (1972) 12#1 pp 97-106 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 367151) [65] Brian Platt, "Japanese Childhood, Modern Childhood: The Nation-State, the School, and 19th-Century Globalization," Journal of Social History, (2005) 38#4 pp 965-985 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 3790485) [66] Kathleen S. Uno, Passages to Modernity: Motherhood, Childhood, and Social Reform in Early 20th century Japan (1999) [67] Mark Jones, Children as Treasures: Childhood and the Middle Class in Early 20th century Japan (2010) [68] David S. Nivison and Arthur F. Wright, eds. Confucianism in action (1959) p. 302 [69] Latika Chaudhary, "Land revenues, schools and literacy: A historical examination of public and private funding of education," Indian Economic & Social History Review, AprilJune 2010, Vol. 47 Issue 2, pp 179-204 [70] V. C. Bhutani, "Curzon'S Educational Reform in India," Journal of Indian History, 1973, Vol. 51 Issue 151, pp 65-92 [71] Fitzpatrick, S. (1994). Stalin's peasants: resistance and survival in the Russian village after collectivization. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 225-6 & fn. 78 p. 363. . [72] Robinson, K.: Schools Kill Creativity (http:/ / www. ted. com/ talks/ ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity. html). TED Talks, 2006, Monterey, CA, USA.

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Further reading
Cook, T. G. The History of Education in Europe (1974) Cubberley, Ellwood. The history of education (1920) online (http://books.google.com/ books?id=fbEVAAAAIAAJ) Lee, Thomas H. C. Education in traditional China: a history (2000) Parkerson Donald H., and Jo Ann Parkerson. Transitions in American education: a social history of teaching (2001) Peterson, Penelope et al. eds. International Encyclopedia of Education (3rd ed. 8 vol 2010) comprehensive coverage for every nation Sharma, Ram Nath. History of education in India (1996) Thelin, John R. A History of American Higher Education (2011) Whitehead, Barbara J. Women's education in early modern Europe: a history, 1500-1800 (1999)

External links
Famous Educators and Notable Contributions (http://www.juliantrubin.com/schooldirectory/ educationresources.html) James Sullivan (1920). "Education, History of". Encyclopedia Americana.

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Philosophy
Philosophy of education
Philosophy of education can refer to either the academic field of applied philosophy or to one of any educational philosophies that promote a specific type or vision of education, and/or which examine the definition, goals and meaning of education. As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study of education and its problems...its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy".[] "The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline."[] As such, it is both part of the field of education and a field of applied philosophy, drawing from fields of metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and the philosophical approaches (speculative, prescriptive, and/or analytic) to address questions in and about pedagogy, education policy, and curriculum, as well as the process of learning, to name a few.[1] For example, it might study what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between educational theory and practice. Instead of being taught in philosophy departments, philosophy of education is usually housed in departments or colleges of education, similar to how philosophy of law is generally taught in law schools.[] The multiple ways of conceiving education coupled with the multiple fields and approaches of philosophy make philosophy of education not only a very diverse field but also one that is not easily defined. Although there is overlap, philosophy of education should not be conflated with educational theory, which is not defined specifically by the application of philosophy to questions in education. Philosophy of education also should not be confused with philosophy education, the practice of teaching and learning the subject of philosophy. Philosophy of education can also be understood not as an academic discipline but as a normative educational theory that unifies pedagogy, curriculum, learning theory, and the purpose of education and is grounded in specific metaphysical, epistemological, and axiological assumptions. These theories are also called educational philosophies. For example, a teacher might be said to follow a perennialist educational philosophy or to follow a perennialist philosophy of education.

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Philosophy of Education
Idealism
Plato Date: 424/423 BC - 348/347 BC Plato's educational philosophy was grounded in his vision of the ideal Republic, wherein the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. He advocated removing children from their mothers' care and raising them as wards of the state, with great care being taken to differentiate children suitable to the various castes, the highest receiving the most education, so that they could act as guardians of the city and care for the less able. Education would be holistic, including facts, skills, physical discipline, and music and art, which he considered the highest form of endeavor. Plato believed that talent was distributed non-genetically and thus must be found in children born in any social class. He builds on this by insisting that those suitably gifted are to be trained by the state so that they may be qualified to assume the role of a ruling class. What this Inscribed herma of Plato. (Berlin, Altes establishes is essentially a system of selective public education Museum). premised on the assumption that an educated minority of the population are, by virtue of their education (and inborn educability), sufficient for healthy governance. Plato's writings contain some of the following ideas: Elementary education would be confined to the guardian class till the age of 18, followed by two years of compulsory military training and then by higher education for those who qualified. While elementary education made the soul responsive to the environment, higher education helped the soul to search for truth which illuminated it. Both boys and girls receive the same kind of education. Elementary education consisted of music and gymnastics, designed to train and blend gentle and fierce qualities in the individual and create a harmonious person. At the age of 20, a selection was made. The best one would take an advanced course in mathematics, geometry, astronomy and harmonics. The first course in the scheme of higher education would last for ten years. It would be for those who had a flair for science. At the age of 30 there would be another selection; those who qualified would study dialectics and metaphysics, logic and philosophy for the next five years. They would study the idea of good and first principles of being. After accepting junior positions in the army for 15 years, a man would have completed his theoretical and practical education by the age of 50. Immanuel Kant Date: 17241804 Immanuel Kant believed that education differs from training in that the former involves thinking whereas the latter does not. In addition to educating reason, of central importance to him was the development of character and teaching of moral maxims. Kant was a proponent of public education and of learning by doing.[2] Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Date: 17701831

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Realism
Aristotle Date: 384 BC - 322 BC Only fragments of Aristotle's treatise On Education are still in existence. We thus know of his philosophy of education primarily through brief passages in other works. Aristotle considered human nature, habit and reason to be equally important forces to be cultivated in education.[3] Thus, for example, he considered repetition to be a key tool to develop good habits. The teacher was to lead the student systematically; this differs, for example, from Socrates' emphasis on questioning his listeners to bring out their own ideas (though the comparison is perhaps incongruous since Socrates was dealing with adults).

Bust of Aristotle. Roman copy after a Greek bronze original by Lysippos from 330 B.C.

Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the theoretical and practical aspects of subjects taught. Subjects he explicitly mentions as being important included reading, writing and mathematics; music; physical education; literature and history; and a wide range of sciences. He also mentioned the importance of play. One of education's primary missions for Aristotle, perhaps its most important, was to produce good and virtuous citizens for the polis. All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind have been convinced that the fate of empires depends on the education of youth. [4] Avicenna Date: 980 AD - 1037 AD In the medieval Islamic world, an elementary school was known as a maktab, which dates back to at least the 10th century. Like madrasahs (which referred to higher education), a maktab was often attached to a mosque. In the 11th century, Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna in the West), wrote a chapter dealing with the maktab entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the Training and Upbringing of Children", as a guide to teachers working at maktab schools. He wrote that children can learn better if taught in classes instead of individual tuition from private tutors, and he gave a number of reasons for why this is the case, citing the value of competition and emulation among pupils as well as the usefulness of group discussions and debates. Ibn Sina described the curriculum of a maktab school in some detail, describing the curricula for two stages of education in a maktab school.[] Ibn Sina wrote that children should be sent to a maktab school from the age of 6 and be taught primary education until they reach the age of 14. During which time, he wrote that they should be taught the Qur'an, Islamic metaphysics, language, literature, Islamic ethics, and manual skills (which could refer to a variety of practical skills).[] Ibn Sina refers to the secondary education stage of maktab schooling as the period of specialization, when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be given a choice to choose and specialize in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills, literature, preaching, medicine, geometry, trade and commerce, craftsmanship, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future career. He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the student's emotional development and chosen subjects need to be taken into account.[5] The empiricist theory of 'tabula rasa' was also developed by Ibn Sina. He argued that the "human intellect at birth is rather like a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know" and that knowledge is attained through "empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal

Philosophy of education concepts" which is developed through a "syllogistic method of reasoning; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts." He further argued that the intellect itself "possesses levels of development from the material intellect (al-aql al-hayulani), that potentiality that can acquire knowledge to the active intellect (al-aql al-fail), the state of the human intellect in conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge."[6] Ibn Tufail Date: c. 1105 - 1185 In the 12th century, the Andalusian-Arabian philosopher and novelist Ibn Tufail (known as "Abubacer" or "Ebn Tophail" in the West) demonstrated the empiricist theory of 'tabula rasa' as a thought experiment through his Arabic philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqzan, in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a desert island, through experience alone. The Latin translation of his philosophical novel, Philosophus Autodidactus, published by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671, had an influence on John Locke's formulation of tabula rasa in "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding".[7] John Locke Date: 1632-1704 Locke's Some Thoughts Concerning Education is an outline on how to educate this mind: he expresses the belief that education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet", with the statement, "I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education."[8] Locke also wrote that "the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences."[9] He argued that the "associations of ideas" that one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the self: they are, put differently, what first mark the tabula rasa. In his Essay, in which is introduced both of these concepts, Locke warns against, for example, letting "a foolish maid" convince a child that "goblins and sprites" are associated with the night for "darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other."[10] "Associationism", as this theory would come to be called, exerted a powerful influence over eighteenth-century thought, particularly educational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the development of psychology and other new disciplines with David Hartley's attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his Observations on Man (1749).

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Philosophy of education Jean-Jacques Rousseau Date: 1712-1778 Rousseau, though he paid his respects to Plato's philosophy, rejected it as impractical due to the decayed state of society. Rousseau also had a different theory of human development; where Plato held that people are born with skills appropriate to different castes (though he did not regard these skills as being inherited), Rousseau held that there was one developmental process common to all humans. This was an intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary behavioral manifestation was curiosity. This differed from Locke's 'tabula rasa' in that it was an active process deriving from the child's nature, which drove the child to learn and adapt to its surroundings. Rousseau wrote in his book Emile that all children are perfectly designed organisms, ready to learn from their surroundings so as to grow into virtuous adults, but due to the malign influence of corrupt society, they often fail to do so. Rousseau advocated an educational method which consisted of removing the child from societyfor example, to a country homeand alternately conditioning him through changes to his environment and setting traps and puzzles for him to solve or overcome.

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau by Maurice Quentin de La Tour

Rousseau was unusual in that he recognized and addressed the potential of a problem of legitimation for teaching. He advocated that adults always be truthful with children, and in particular that they never hide the fact that the basis for their authority in teaching was purely one of physical coercion: "I'm bigger than you." Once children reached the age of reason, at about 12, they would be engaged as free individuals in the ongoing process of their own. He once said that a child should grow up without adult interference and that the child must be guided to suffer from the experience of the natural consequences of his own acts or behaviour. When he experiences the consequences of his own acts, he advises himself. "Rousseau divides development into five stages (a book is devoted to each). Education in the first two stages seeks to the senses: only when mile is about 12 does the tutor begin to work to develop his mind. Later, in Book 5, Rousseau examines the education of Sophie (whom mile is to marry). Here he sets out what he sees as the essential differences that flow from sex. 'The man should be strong and active; the woman should be weak and passive' (Everyman edn: 322). From this difference comes a contrasting education. They are not to be brought up in ignorance and kept to housework: Nature means them to think, to will, to love to cultivate their minds as well as their persons; she puts these weapons in their hands to make up for their lack of strength and to enable them to direct the strength of men. They should learn many things, but only such things as suitable' (Everyman edn.: 327)." mile [11] Mortimer Jerome Adler Date: 1902-2001 Mortimer Jerome Adler was an American philosopher, educator, and popular author. As a philosopher he worked within the Aristotelian and Thomistic traditions. He lived for the longest stretches in New York City, Chicago, San Francisco, and San Mateo, California. He worked for Columbia University, the University of Chicago, Encyclopdia Britannica, and Adler's own Institute for Philosophical Research. Adler was married twice and had four children.[12] Adler was a proponent of educational perennialism.

Philosophy of education Harry S. Broudy Date: 1905-1998 Broudy's philosophical views were based on the tradition of classical realism, dealing with truth, goodness, and beauty. However he was also influenced by the modern philosophy existentialism and instrumentalism. In his textbook Building a Philosophy of Education he has two major ideas that are the main points to his philosophical outlook: The first is truth and the second is universal structures to be found in humanity's struggle for education and the good life. Broudy also studied issues on society's demands on school. He thought education would be a link to unify the diverse society and urged the society to put more trust and a commitment to the schools and a good education.

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Scholasticism
Thomas Aquinas Date: c. 1225 - 1274 See Religious perennialism John Milton Date: 1608-1674 The objective of medieval education was an overtly religious one, primarily concerned with uncovering transcendental truths that would lead a person back to God through a life of moral and religious choice (Kreeft 15). The vehicle by which these truths were uncovered was dialectic: To the medieval mind, debate was a fine art, a serious science, and a fascinating entertainment, much more than it is to the modern mind, because the medievals believed, like Socrates, that dialectic could uncover truth. Thus a scholastic disputation was not a personal contest in cleverness, nor was it sharing opinions; it was a shared journey of discovery (Kreeft 14-15).

Thomas Aquinas by Carlo Crivelli, 1476)

Pragmatism
John Dewey Date: 1859-1952 In Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education, Dewey stated that education, in its broadest sense, is the means of the "social continuity of life" given the "primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the constituent members in a social group". Education is therefore a necessity, for "the life of the group goes on."[13] Dewey was a proponent of Educational Progressivism and was a relentless campaigner for reform of education, pointing out that the authoritarian, strict, pre-ordained knowledge approach of modern traditional education was too concerned with delivering knowledge, and not enough with understanding students' actual experiences.[14]

Philosophy of education William James Date: 18421910 William Heard Kilpatrick Date: 1871-1965 William Heard Kilpatrick was a US American philosopher of education and a colleague and a successor of John Dewey. He was a major figure in the progressive education movement of the early 20th century. Kilpatrick developed the Project Method for early childhood education, which was a form of Progressive Education organized curriculum and classroom activities around a subject's central theme. He believed that the role of a teacher should be that of a "guide" as opposed to an authoritarian figure. Kilpatrick believed that children should direct their own learning according to their interests and should be allowed to explore their environment, experiencing their learning through the natural senses.[] Proponents of Progressive Education and the Project Method reject traditional schooling that focuses on memorization, rote learning, strictly organized classrooms (desks in rows; students always seated), and typical forms of assessment. Nel Noddings Date: 1929 Noddings' first sole-authored book Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (1984) followed close on the 1982 publication of Carol Gilligans ground-breaking work in the ethics of care In a Different Voice. While her work on ethics continued, with the publication of Women and Evil (1989) and later works on moral education, most of her later publications have been on the philosophy of education and educational theory. Her most significant works in these areas have been Educating for Intelligent Belief or Unbelief (1993) and Philosophy of Education (1995). Richard Rorty Date: 19312007

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Analytic Philosophy
Richard Stanley Peters Date: 1919-

Existentialism
Karl Jaspers Date: 1883-1969 Martin Buber Date:1878-1965 Maxine Greene Date: ? -

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Critical Theory
Paulo Freire Date: 1921-1997 A Brazilian committed to the cause of educating the impoverished peasants of his nation and collaborating with them in the pursuit of their liberation from what he regarded as "oppression," Freire is best known for his attack on what he called the "banking concept of education," in which the student was viewed as an empty account to be filled by the teacher. Freire also suggests that a deep reciprocity be inserted into our notions of teacher and student; he comes close to suggesting that the teacher-student dichotomy be completely abolished, instead promoting the roles of the participants in the classroom as the teacher-student (a teacher who learns) and the student-teacher (a learner who teaches). In its early, strong form this kind of classroom has sometimes been criticizedWikipedia:Avoid weasel words on the grounds that it can mask rather than overcome the teacher's authority. Aspects of the Freirian philosophy have been highly influential in academic debates over "participatory development" and development more generally. Freire's emphasis on what he describes as "emancipation" through interactive participation has been used as a rationale for the participatory focus of development, as it is held that 'participation' in any form can lead to empowerment of poor or marginalised groups. Freire was a proponent of critical pedagogy. "He participated in the import of European doctrines and ideas into Brazil, assimilated them to the needs of a specific socio-economic situation, and thus expanded and refocused them in a thought-provoking way"[15]
Paulo Freire

Postmodernism
Martin Heidegger Date:1889-1976 Heidegger's philosophizing about education was primarily related to higher education. He believed that teaching and research in the university should be unified and aim towards testing and interrogating the "ontological assumptions presuppositions which implicitly guide research in each domain of knowledge."[16] Hans-Georg Gadamer Date:1900-2002 Jean-Franois Lyotard Date:1924-1998 Michel Foucault Date: 1926-1984

Normative Educational Philosophies

"Normative philosophies or theories of education may make use of the results of [philosophical thought] and of factual inquiries about human beings and the psychology of learning, but in any case they propound views about what education should be, what dispositions it should cultivate, why it ought to cultivate them, how and in whom it

Philosophy of education should do so, and what forms it should take. In a full-fledged philosophical normative theory of education, besides analysis of the sorts described, there will normally be propositions of the following kinds: 1. Basic normative premises about what is good or right; 2. Basic factual premises about humanity and the world; 3. Conclusions, based on these two kinds of premises, about the dispositions education should foster; 4. Further factual premises about such things as the psychology of learning and methods of teaching; and 5. Further conclusions about such things as the methods that education should use."[]

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Perennialism
Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that one deems to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics. The focus is primarily on teaching reasoning and wisdom rather than facts, the liberal arts rather than vocational training. Allan Bloom Date: 1930-1992 Bloom, a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, argued for a traditional Great Books-based liberal education in his lengthy essay The Closing of the American Mind.

Progressivism
Educational progressivism is the belief that education must be based on the principle that humans are social animals who learn best in real-life activities with other people. Progressivists, like proponents of most educational theories, claim to rely on the best available scientific theories of learning. Most progressive educators believe that children learn as if they were scientists, following a process similar to John Dewey's model of learning: 1) Become aware of the problem. 2) Define the problem. 3) Propose hypotheses to solve it. 4) Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one's past experience. 5) Test the likeliest solution.[17] Jean Piaget Date: 1896-1980 Jean Piaget was a Swiss developmental psychologist known for his epistemological studies with children. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology". Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that "only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual."[18] Piaget created the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva in 1955 and directed it until 1980. According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing."[19] Jean Piaget described himself as an epistemologist, interested in the process of the qualitative development of knowledge. As he says in the introduction of his book "Genetic Epistemology" (ISBN 978-0-393-00596-7): "What the genetic epistemology proposes is discovering the roots of the different varieties of knowledge, since its elementary forms, following to the next levels, including also the scientific knowledge."

Alexander Sutherland Neill

Philosophy of education Jerome Bruner Date: 1915Another important contributor to the inquiry method in education is Bruner. His books The Process of Education and Toward a Theory of Instruction are landmarks in conceptualizing learning and curriculum development. He argued that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. This notion was an underpinning for his concept of the spiral curriculum which posited the idea that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas, building on them until the student had grasped the full formal concept. He emphasized intuition as a neglected but essential feature of productive thinking. He felt that interest in the material being learned was the best stimulus for learning rather than external motivation such as grades. Bruner developed the concept of discovery learning which promoted learning as a process of constructing new ideas based on current or past knowledge. Students are encouraged to discover facts and relationships and continually build on what they already know.

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Essentialism
Educational essentialism is an educational philosophy whose adherents believe that children should learn the traditional basic subjects and that these should be learned thoroughly and rigorously. An essentialist program normally teaches children progressively, from less complex skills to more complex. William Chandler Bagley Date: 1874-1946 William Chandler Bagley taught in elementary schools before becoming a professor of education at the University of Illinois, where he served as the Director of the School of Education from 1908 until 1917. He was a professor of education at Teachers College, Columbia, from 1917 to 1940. An opponent of pragmatism and progressive education, Bagley insisted on the value of knowledge for its own sake, not merely as an instrument, and he criticized his colleagues for their failure to emphasize systematic study of academic subjects. Bagley was a proponent of educational essentialism.

Social Reconstructionism and Critical Pedagogy

Critical pedagogy is an "educational movement, guided by passion and principle, to help students develop consciousness of freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and connect knowledge to power and the ability to take constructive action." Based in Marxist theory, critical pedagogy draws on radical democracy, anarchism, feminism, and other movements for social justice. George Counts Date: 18891974

Philosophy of education Maria Montessori Date: 1870-1952 The Montessori method arose from Dr. Maria Montessori's discovery of what she referred to as "the child's true normal nature" in 1907,[20] which happened in the process of her experimental observation of young children given freedom in an environment prepared with materials designed for their self-directed learning activity.[21] The method itself aims to duplicate this experimental observation of children to bring about, sustain and support their true natural way of being.[22]

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Waldorf
Waldorf education (also known as Steiner or Steiner-Waldorf education) is a humanistic approach to pedagogy based upon the educational philosophy of the Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy. Learning is interdisciplinary, integrating Maria Montessori and Samuel Sidney McClure practical, artistic, and conceptual elements. The approach emphasizes the role of the imagination in learning, developing thinking that includes a creative as well as an analytic component. The educational philosophy's overarching goals are to provide young people the basis on which to develop into free, morally responsible and integrated individuals, and to help every child fulfill his or her unique destiny, the existence of which anthroposophy posits. Schools and teachers are given considerable freedom to define curricula within collegial structures. Rudolf Steiner Date: 1861-1925 Steiner founded a holistic educational impulse on the basis of his spiritual philosophy (anthroposophy). Now known as Steiner or Waldorf education, his pedagogy emphasizes a balanced development of cognitive, affective/artistic, and practical skills (head, heart, and hands). Schools are normally self-administered by faculty; emphasis is placed upon giving individual teachers the freedom to develop creative methods. Steiner's theory of child development divides education into three discrete developmental stages predating but with close similarities to the stages of development described by Piaget. Early childhood education occurs through imitation; teachers provide practical activities and a healthy environment. Steiner believed that young children should meet only goodness. Elementary education is strongly arts-based, centered on the teacher's creative authority; the elementary school-age child should meet beauty. Secondary education seeks to develop the judgment, intellect, and practical idealism; the adolescent should meet truth.

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Democratic Education
Democratic education is a theory of learning and school governance in which students and staff participate freely and equally in a school democracy. In a democratic school, there is typically shared decision-making among students and staff on matters concerning living, working, and learning together. A. S. Neill Date: 1883-1973 Neill founded Summerhill School, the oldest existing democratic school in Suffolk, England in 1921. He wrote a number of books that now define much of contemporary democratic education philosophy. Neill believed that the happiness of the child should be the paramount consideration in decisions about the child's upbringing, and that this happiness grew from a sense of personal freedom. He felt that deprivation of this sense of freedom during childhood, and the consequent unhappiness experienced by the repressed child, was responsible for many of the psychological disorders of adulthood.

Classical Education
The Classical education movement advocates a form of education based in the traditions of Western culture, with a particular focus on education as understood and taught in the Middle Ages. The term "classical education" has been used in English for several centuries, with each era modifying the definition and adding its own selection of topics. By the end of the 18th century, in addition to the trivium and quadrivium of the Middle Ages, the definition of a classical education embraced study of literature, poetry, drama, philosophy, history, art, and languages. In the 20th and 21st centuries it is used to refer to a broad-based study of the liberal arts and sciences, as opposed to a practical or pre-professional program. Classical Education can be described as rigorous and systematic, separating children and their learning into three rigid categories, Grammar, Dialectic, and Rhetoric. Charlotte Mason Date: 1842-1923 Mason was a British educator who invested her life in improving the quality of children's education. Her ideas led to a method used by some homeschoolers. Mason's philosophy of education is probably best summarized by the principles given at the beginning of each of her books. Two key mottos taken from those principles are "Education is an atmosphere, a discipline, a life" and "Education is the science of relations." She believed that children were born persons and should be respected as such; they should also be taught the Way of the Will and the Way of Reason. Her motto for students was "I am, I can, I ought, I will." Charlotte Mason believed that children should be introduced to subjects through living books, not through the use of "compendiums, abstracts, or selections." She used abridged books only when the content was deemed inappropriate for children. She preferred that parents or teachers read aloud those texts (such as Plutarch and the Old Testament), making omissions only where necessary.

Unschooling
Unschooling is a range of educational philosophies and practices centered on allowing children to learn through their natural life experiences, including child directed play, game play, household responsibilities, work experience, and social interaction, rather than through a more traditional school curriculum. Unschooling encourages exploration of activities led by the children themselves, facilitated by the adults. Unschooling differs from conventional schooling principally in the thesis that standard curricula and conventional grading methods, as well as other features of traditional schooling, are counterproductive to the goal of maximizing the education of each child.

Philosophy of education John Holt In 1964 Holt published his first book, How Children Fail, asserting that the academic failure of schoolchildren was not despite the efforts of the schools, but actually because of the schools. Not surprisingly, How Children Fail ignited a firestorm of controversy. Holt was catapulted into the American national consciousness to the extent that he made appearances on major TV talk shows, wrote book reviews for Life magazine, and was a guest on the To Tell The Truth TV game show.[23] In his follow-up work, How Children Learn, published in 1967, Holt tried to elucidate the learning process of children and why he believed school short circuits that process. Contemplative education Contemplative education focuses on bringing spiritual awareness into the pedagogical process. Contemplative approaches may be used in the classroom, especially in tertiary or (often in modified form) in secondary education. Parker Palmer is a recent pioneer in contemplative methods. The Center for Contemplative Mind in Society founded a branch focusing on education, The Association for Contemplative Mind in Higher Education. Contemplative methods may also be used by teachers in their preparation; Waldorf education was one of the pioneers of the latter approach. In this case, inspiration for enriching the content, format, or teaching methods may be sought through various practices, such as consciously reviewing the previous day's activities; actively holding the students in consciousness; and contemplating inspiring pedagogical texts. Zigler suggested that only through focusing on their own spiritual development could teachers positively impact the spiritual development of students.[24]

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Professional organizations and associations

Organisation Nationality Comment INPE is dedicated to fostering dialogue amongst philosophers of education around the world. It sponsors an international conference every other year.[citation needed]

International Network Worldwide of Philosophers of Education Philosophy of Education Society USA

PES is the national society for philosophy of education in the United States of America. This site provides information about PES, its services, history, and publications, and links to online resources relevant to the philosophy of education.[citation needed] PESGB promotes the study, teaching and application of philosophy of education. It has an international membership. The site provides: a guide to the Society's activities and details about the Journal of Philosophy of Education and IMPACT.[citation needed]

Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain Philosophy of Education Society of Australasia Canadian Philosophy of Education Society

UK

Australasia

Canada

CPES is devoted to philosophical inquiry into educational issues and their relevance for developing educative, caring, and just teachers, schools, and communities. The society welcomes inquiries about membership from professionals and graduate students who share these interests.[citation needed] The Nordic Society for Philosophy of Education is a society consisting of Nordic philosophers of education with the purpose of fostering dialogue among philosophers of education within and beyond the Nordic countries, and to coordinate, facilitate and support exchange of ideas, information and experiences.[citation needed] This Society is a professional association of philosophers of education which holds annual meetings in the Midwest region of the United States of America and sponsors a discussion forum and a Graduate Student Competition. Affiliate of the American Philosophical Association.[citation
needed]

The Nordic Society for Philosophy of Education

The Nordic countries: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden USA

Society for the Philosophical Study of Education

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Ohio Valley Philosophy of Education Society John Dewey Society

USA, Ohio Valley

OVPES is a professional association of philosophers of education. We host an annual conference in the Ohio Valley region of the United States of America and sponsor a refereed journal: Philosophical Studies in Education.[citation needed] The John Dewey Society exists to keep alive John Dewey's commitment to the use of critical and reflective intelligence in the search for solutions to crucial problems in education and culture. This study place exists for persons who wish to engage in philosophy and education because both have value for them, quite apart from their professional responsibilities. We think networked digital information resources will enable people to reverse this ever-narrowing professionalism.[citation needed] This site is maintained at the Institute for Learning Technologies, Teachers College, Columbia University.[citation needed]

USA

StudyPlace for Philosophy of Education

USA, Columbia University

Center for Dewey Studies

USA, Southern Illinois The Center for Dewey Studies at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale was established in University 1961 as the "Dewey Project." By virtue of its publications and research, the Center has become the international focal point for research on John Dewey's life and work. Unknown the International Society for the Philosophy of Music Education (ISPME) is founded on both educational and professional objectives: "devoted to the specific interests of philosophy of music education in elementary through secondary schools, colleges and universities, in private studios, [25] places of worship, and all the other places and ways in which music is taught and learned." The Spencer Foundation provides funding for investigations that promise to yield new knowledge about education in the United States or abroad. The Foundation funds research grants that range in size from smaller grants that can be completed within a year, to larger, multi-year endeavours. The Humanities Research Network is designed to encourage new ways of thinking about the overlapping domains of knowledge which are represented by the arts, humanities, social sciences, other related fields like law, and matauranga Mori, and new relationships among their practitioners.[citation needed]

International Society for Philosophy of Music Education

The Spencer Foundation

USA

Humanities Research Network

New Zealand

References
[3] http:/ / www. infed. org/ thinkers/ et-arist. htm [4] http:/ / www. ibe. unesco. org/ fileadmin/ user_upload/ archive/ publications/ ThinkersPdf/ aristote. pdf [6] Sajjad H. Rizvi (2006), Avicenna/Ibn Sina (CA. 980-1037) (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ a/ avicenna. htm), Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy [7] G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-262, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09459-8. [8] Locke, John. Some Thoughts Concerning Education and Of the Conduct of the Understanding. Eds. Ruth W. Grant and Nathan Tarcov. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., Inc. (1996), p. 10. [9] Locke, Some Thoughts, 10. [10] Locke, Essay, 357. [11] http:/ / www. infed. org/ thinkers/ et-rous. htmIn [12] William Grimes, "Mortimer Adler, 98, Dies; Helped Create Study of Classics," New York Times, June 29, 2001 (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9C07E6D71739F93AA15755C0A9679C8B63& sec=& spon=& pagewanted=all) [14] Neil, J. (2005) John Dewey, the Modern Father of Experiential Education (http:/ / wilderdom. com/ experiential/ ExperientialDewey. html). Wilderdom.com. Retrieved 6/12/07. [15] http:/ / www. ibe. unesco. org/ fileadmin/ user_upload/ archive/ publications/ ThinkersPdf/ freiree. PDF [17] http:/ / books. google. com. ar/ books?hl=es& lr=& id=VPsXv7PhC5YC& oi=fnd& pg=PA59& dq=educational+ progressivism& ots=2ly7d8JYz3& sig=xtT_G96TsF-4RMa9t1XuxyKbv7w#v=onepage& q=educational%20progressivism& f=false [18] "International Bureau of Education - Directors" <http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9059885>. [19] (in An Exposition of Constructivism: Why Some Like it Radical, 1990) [20] Maria Montessori: Her Life And Work, E.M. Standing, p. 174, Publ. Plume, 1998, http:/ / www. penguinputnam. com [21] The Montessori Method, Maria Montessori, pp. 7981, Publ. Random House, 1988, http:/ / www. randomhouse. com [22] Discovery of the Child, Maria Montessori, p.46, Publ. Ballantine Books, 1972, http:/ / www. randomhouse. com [23] The Old Schoolhouse Meets Up with Patrick Farenga About the Legacy of John Holt, http:/ / www. thehomeschoolmagazine. com/ How_To_Homeschool/ articles/ articles. php?aid=97

Philosophy of education

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Further reading
Classic and Contemporary Readings in the Philosophy of Education, by Steven M. Cahn, 1997, ISBN 978-0-07-009619-6 A Companion to the Philosophy of Education (Blackwell Companions to Philosophy), ed. by Randall Curren, Paperback edition, 2006, ISBN 1-4051-4051-8 The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Education, ed. by Nigel Blake, Paul Smeyers, Richard Smith, and Paul Standish, Paperback edition, 2003, ISBN 0-631-22119-0 Philosophy of Education (Westview Press, Dimension of Philosophy Series), by Nel Noddings, Paperback edition, 1995, ISBN 0-8133-8430-3 The quarterly review of comparative education: Aristotle (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ archive/publications/ThinkersPdf/aristote.pdf) Andre Kraak,Michael Young Education in Retrospect: Policy And Implementation Since 1990 (http://books. google.com.ar/books?hl=es&lr=&id=VPsXv7PhC5YC&oi=fnd&pg=PA59&dq=educational+ progressivism&ots=2ly7d8JYz3&sig=xtT_G96TsF-4RMa9t1XuxyKbv7w#v=onepage&q=educational progressivism&f=false) Freire, UNESCO publication (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/publications/ ThinkersPdf/freiree.PDF)

External links
"Philosophy of Education". In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ education-philosophy/) Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Education (http://www.vusst.hr/ENCYCLOPAEDIA/main.htm) Thinkers of Education. UNESCO-International Bureau of Education website (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/ services/publications/thinkers-on-education.html) International Society for Philosophy of Music Education (http://www2.siba.fi/ispme_symposium/index. php?id=1&la=fi) International Network of Philosophers of Education (http://www.ucm.es/info/inpe/) Philosophy of Education Society (http://philosophyofeducation.org/) Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain (http://www.philosophy-of-education.org/default.asp) Philosophy of Education Society of Australia (http://www.pesa.org.au/) Canadian Philosophy of Education Society (CPES) (http://www.philosophyofeducation.ca/) The Nordic Society for Philosophy of Education (http://www.nfpf.net/network/philosophy-of-education/) Society for the Philosophical Study of Education (http://webs.csu.edu/~amakedon/mpes/ MPES_RightFrame_HomePage.html) The Ohio Valley Philosophy of Education Society (http://ovpes.org/) Humanities Research Network; Te Whatunga Rangahau Aronu (http://www.humanitiesresearch.net/)

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Psychology
Educational psychology
Psychology

Outline History Subfields

Basic types

Abnormal Biological Cognitive Comparative Cultural Differential Developmental Evolutionary Experimental Mathematical Personality Positive Quantitative Social

Applied psychology

Applied behavior analysis Clinical Community Consumer Educational Environmental Forensic Health Industrial and organizational Legal Military Occupational health Political Religion School Sport

Educational psychology

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Lists

Disciplines Organizations Psychologists Psychotherapies Publications Research methods Theories Timeline Topics Psychology portal

Educational research

Disciplines

Evaluation Organization Psychology Technology History Philosophy International education School counseling School psychology Special education Teacher education Curricular domains

Arts Business Early childhood Language Literacy Mathematics Science Social science Technology Vocational Methods

Educational psychology

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Case study Conversation analysis Discourse analysis Factor analysis Factorial experiment Focus group Meta-analysis Multivariate statistics Participant observation

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities. Researchers and theorists are likely to be identified in the US and Canada as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. This distinction is, however, not made in the UK, where the generic term for practitioners is "educational psychologist." Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks.[1]

Social, moral and cognitive development

To understand the characteristics of learners in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age, educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development. Often represented as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities (cognition), social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge. For example, educational psychologists have conducted research on the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget's theory of development, according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and An abacus provides concrete experiences for examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from learning abstract concepts. concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.[2] Piaget proposed a developmental theory of moral reasoning in which children progress from a nave understanding of morality based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by Kohlberg into a stage theory of moral development. There is evidence that

Educational psychology the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For example, other factors such as modeling (as described by the social cognitive theory of morality) are required to explain bullying. Rudolf Steiner's model of child development interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development[3] in developmental stages similar to those later described by Piaget.[4] Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development of epistemological beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms of gradual changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity.[5]

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Senses of seriousness and of fantasy

A child must learn to develop a sense of seriousness, an ability to distinguish degrees of seriousness as it relates to transgressions and expenditure of time; for example, a child must learn to distinguish between levels of seriousness in admonitions such as between "don't fidget" and "don't forget to look both ways when crossing the street," which have the same linguistic and normative structure, but different levels of seriousness.[6][7]

Individual differences and disabilities

Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges that result from predisposition, learning and development. These manifest as individual differences in intelligence, creativity, cognitive style, motivation and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disability, dyslexia, and speech disorder. Less common disabilities include mental retardation, hearing impairment, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and blindness.[2]

An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test

Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since Plato, intelligence testing is an invention of educational psychology, and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single factor known as general intelligence,[8] multiple factors (e.g., Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences[9]), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC[10] are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as phonological awareness. In addition to basic abilities, the individual's personality traits are also important, with people higher in conscientiousness and hope attaining superior academic achievements, even after controlling for intelligence and past performance.[11]

Learning and cognition

Two fundamental assumptions that underlie formal education systems are that students (a) retain knowledge and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can apply them in situations outside the classroom. But are these assumptions accurate? Research has found that, even when students report not using the knowledge acquired in school, a considerable portion is retained for many years and long-term retention is strongly dependent on the initial level of mastery.[12] One study found that university students who took a child development course and attained high grades showed, when tested ten years later, average retention scores of about 30%, whereas those who obtained moderate or lower grades showed average retention scores of about 20%.[13] There is much less consensus on the crucial question

Educational psychology of how much knowledge acquired in school transfers to tasks encountered outside formal educational settings, and how such transfer occurs.[14] Some psychologists claim that research evidence for this type of far transfer is scarce,[15][16] while others claim there is abundant evidence of far transfer in specific domains.[17] Several perspectives have been established within which the theories of learning used in educational psychology are formed and contested. These include behaviorism, cognitivism, social cognitive theory, and constructivism. This section summarizes how educational psychology has researched and applied theories within each of these perspectives.

259

Behavioral perspective
Applied behavior analysis, a set of techniques based on the behavioral principles of operant conditioning, is effective in a range of educational settings.[18] For example, teachers can alter student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items.[19][20] Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education has been criticized by proponents of self-determination theory, who claim that praise and other rewards undermine intrinsic motivation. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior.[21] But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation.[22][23] Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of applied behavior analysis, including pivotal response therapy which is used to treat autism spectrum disorders.

Cognitive perspective
Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations and emotions. Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by Allan Paivio's dual coding theory. Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and cognitive load theory to explain how people learn from multimedia presentations.[24] The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within education.[26] For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure).[25] Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using mnemonics for immediate and delayed retention of information.[27]

Problem solving, regarded by many cognitive psychologists as fundamental to learning, is an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a schema retrieved from long-term memory. A problem students run into while reading is called "activation." This is when the student's representations of the text are present during working memory. This causes the student to read through the material without absorbing the information and being able to retain it. When working memory is absent from the readers representations of the working memory they experience something called "deactivation." When deactivation occurs, the student has an understanding of the material and is able to retain information. If deactivation occurs during the first reading, the reader does not need to undergo deactivation in the second reading. The reader will only need to reread to get a "gist" of the text to spark

Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis and [25] Glover demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings (massed).

Educational psychology their memory. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.[28] The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of analogical thinking to problem solving.

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Developmental perspective
Developmental psychology, and especially the psychology of cognitive development, opens a special perspective for educational psychology. This is so because education and the psychology of cognitive development converge on a number of crucial assumptions. First, the psychology of cognitive development defines human cognitive competence at successive phases of development. Education aims to help students acquire knowledge and develop skills which are compatible with their understanding and problem-solving capabilities at different ages. Thus, knowing the students' level on a developmental sequence provides information on the kind and level of knowledge they can assimilate, which, in turn, can be used as a frame for organizing the subject matter to be taught at different school grades. This is the reason why Piaget's theory of cognitive development was so influential for education, especially mathematics and science education.[29] In the same direction, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development suggest that in addition to the concerns above, sequencing of concepts and skills in teaching must take account of the processing and working memory capacities that characterize successive age levels.[30][31] Second, the psychology of cognitive development involves understanding how cognitive change takes place and recognizing the factors and processes which enable cognitive competence to develop. Education also capitalizes on cognitive change, because the construction of knowledge presupposes effective teaching methods that would move the student from a lower to a higher level of understanding. Mechanisms such as reflection on actual or mental actions vis--vis alternative solutions to problems, tagging new concepts or solutions to symbols that help one recall and mentally manipulate them are just a few examples of how mechanisms of cognitive development may be used to facilitate learning.[31][32] Finally, the psychology of cognitive development is concerned with individual differences in the organization of cognitive processes and abilities, in their rate of change, and in their mechanisms of change. The principles underlying intra- and inter-individual differences could be educationally useful, because knowing how students differ in regard to the various dimensions of cognitive development, such as processing and representational capacity, self-understanding and self-regulation, and the various domains of understanding, such as mathematical, scientific, or verbal abilities, would enable the teacher to cater for the needs of the different students so that no one is left behind.[33][34]

Social cognitive perspective

Social cognitive theory is a highly influential fusion of behavioral, cognitive and social elements that was initially developed by educational psychologist Albert Bandura. In its earlier, neo-behavioral incarnation called social learning theory, Bandura emphasized the process of observational learning in which a learner's behavior changes as a result of observing others' behavior and its consequences. The theory identified several factors that determine whether observing a model will affect behavioral or cognitive change. These factors include the learner's developmental status, the perceived prestige and competence of the model, the consequences received by the model, the relevance of the model's behaviors and consequences to the learner's goals, and the learner's self-efficacy. The concept of self-efficacy, which played an important role in later developments of the theory, refers to the learner's belief in his or her ability to perform the modeled behavior. An experiment by Schunk and Hanson,[35] that studied grade 2 students who had previously experienced difficulty in learning subtraction, illustrates the type of research stimulated by social learning theory. One group of students observed a subtraction demonstration by a teacher and then participated in an instructional program on subtraction. A second group observed other grade 2 students performing the same subtraction procedures and then participated in

Educational psychology the same instructional program. The students who observed peer models scored higher on a subtraction post-test and also reported greater confidence in their subtraction ability. The results were interpreted as supporting the hypothesis that perceived similarity of the model to the learner increases self-efficacy, leading to more effective learning of modeled behaviors. It is supposed that peer modeling is particularly effective for students who have low self-efficacy. Over the last decade, much research activity in educational psychology has focused on developing theories of self-regulated learning (SRL) and metacognition. These theories work from the central premise that effective learners are active agents who construct knowledge by setting goals, analyzing tasks, planning strategies and monitoring their understanding. Research has indicated that learners who are better at goal-setting and self-monitoring tend to have greater intrinsic task interest and self-efficacy;[36] and that teaching learning strategies can increase academic achievement.[37]

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Constructivist perspective
Constructivism is a category of learning theory in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior "knowing" and experience of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's theory of cognitive development, from social constructivism. A dominant influence on the latter type is Lev Vygotsky's work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional scaffolding, in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.[38]

Motivation
Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the volition or will that students bring to a task, their level of interest and intrinsic motivation, the personally held goals that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure. As intrinsic motivation deals with activities that act as their own rewards, extrinsic motivation deals with motivations that are brought on by consequences or punishments. A form of attribution theory developed by Bernard Weiner[39] describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of shame and embarrassment and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of guilt and consequently increase effort and show improved performance. The self-determination theory (SDT) was developed by psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. SDT focuses on the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in driving human behavior and posits inherent growth and development tendencies. It emphasizes the degree to which an individuals behavior is self-motivated and self-determined. When applied to the realm of education, the self-determination theory is concerned primarily with promoting in students an interest in learning, a value of education, and a confidence in their own capacities and attributes.[40] Motivational theories also explain how learners' goals affect the way they engage with academic tasks.[41] Those who have mastery goals strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have performance approach goals strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have performance avoidance goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, creativity and intrinsic motivation. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative

Educational psychology outcomes such as poor concentration while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing and test anxiety. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing. Locus of control is a salient factor in the successful academic performance of students. During the 1970s and '80s, Cassandra B. Whyte did significant educational research studying locus of control as related to the academic achievement of students pursuing higher education coursework. Much of her educational research and publications focused upon the theories of Julian B. Rotter in regard to the importance of internal control and successful academic performance.[42] Whyte reported that individuals who perceive and believe that their hard work may lead to more successful academic outcomes, instead of depending on luck or fate, persist and achieve academically at a higher level. Therefore, it is important to provide education and counseling in this regard.[43]

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Research methodology
The research methods used in educational psychology tend to be drawn from psychology and other social sciences. There is also a history of significant methodological innovation by educational psychologists, and psychologists investigating educational problems. Research methods address problems in both research design and data analysis. Research design informs the planning of experiments and observational studies to ensure that their results have internal, external and ecological validity. Data analysis encompasses methods for processing both quantitive (numerical) and qualitative (non-numerical) research data. Although, historically, the use of quantitative methods was often considered an essential mark of scholarship, modern educational psychology research uses both quantitative and qualitative methods.[42]

Quantitative methods
Perhaps first among the important methodological innovations of educational psychology was the development and application of factor analysis by Charles Spearman. Factor analysis is mentioned here as one example of the many multivariate statistical methods used by educational psychologists. Factor analysis is used to summarize relationships among a large set of variables or test questions, develop theories about mental constructs such as self-efficacy or anxiety, and assess the reliability and validity of test scores.[44] Over 100 years after its introduction by Spearman, factor analysis has become a research staple figuring prominently in educational psychology journals.

Test scores and other educational variables often approximate a normal distribution.

Because educational assessment is fundamental to most quantitative research in the field, educational psychologists have made significant contributions to the field of psychometrics. For example, alpha, the widely used measure of test reliability was developed by educational psychologist Lee Cronbach. The reliability of assessments are routinely reported in quantitative educational research. Although, originally, educational measurement methods were built on classical test theory, item response theory and Rasch models are now used extensively in educational measurement worldwide. These models afford advantages over classical test theory, including the capacity to produce standard errors of measurement for each score or pattern of scores on assessments and the capacity to handle missing responses. Meta-analysis, the combination of individual research results to produce a quantitative literature review, is another methodological innovation with a close association to educational psychology. In a meta-analysis, effect sizes that represent, for example, the differences between treatment groups in a set of similar experiments, are averaged to obtain a single aggregate value representing the best estimate of the effect of treatment.[45] Several decades after Pearson's work with early versions of meta-analysis, Glass[46] published the first application of modern meta-analytic

Educational psychology techniques and triggered their broad application across the social and biomedical sciences. Today, meta-analysis is among the most common types of literature review found in educational psychology research. Other quantitative research issues associated with educational psychology include the use of nested research designs (e.g., a student nested within a classroom, which is nested within a school, which is nested within a district, etc.) and the use of longitudinal statistical models to measure change.

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Qualitative methods
Qualitative methods are used in educational studies whose purpose is to describe events, processes and situations of theoretical significance. The qualitative methods used in educational psychology often derive from anthropology, sociology or sociolinguistics. For example, the anthropological method of ethnography has been used to describe teaching and learning in classrooms. In studies of this type, the researcher may gather detailed field notes as a participant observer or passive observer. Later, the notes and other data may be categorized and interpreted by methods such as grounded theory. Triangulation, the practice of cross-checking findings with multiple data sources, is highly valued in qualitative research. Case studies are forms of qualitative research focusing on a single person, organization, event, or other entity. In one case study,[47] researchers conducted a 150-minute, semi-structured interview with a 20-year-old woman who had a history of suicidal thinking between the ages of 14 to 18. They analyzed an audio-recording of the interview to understand the roles of cognitive development, identity formation and social attachment in ending her suicidal thinking. Qualitative analysis is most often applied to verbal data from sources such as conversations, interviews, focus groups, and personal journals. Qualitative methods are thus, typically, approaches to gathering, processing and reporting verbal data. One of the most commonly used methods for qualitative research in educational psychology is protocol analysis.[48] In this method the research participant is asked to think aloud while performing a task, such as solving a math problem. In protocol analysis the verbal data is thought to indicate which information the subject is attending to, but is explicitly not interpreted as an explanation or justification for behavior. In contrast, the method of verbal analysis[49] does admit learners' explanations as a way to reveal their mental model or misconceptions (e.g., of the laws of motion). The most fundamental operations in both protocol and verbal analysis are segmenting (isolating) and categorizing sections of verbal data. Conversation analysis and discourse analysis, sociolinguistic methods that focus more specifically on the structure of conversational interchange (e.g., between a teacher and student), have been used to assess the process of conceptual change in science learning.[50] Qualitative methods are also used to analyze information in a variety of media, such as students' drawings and concept maps, video-recorded interactions, and computer log records.

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Applications in instructional design and technology

Instructional design, the systematic design of materials, activities and interactive environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology theories and research. For example, in defining learning goals or objectives, instructional designers often use a taxonomy of educational objectives created by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues.[51] Bloom also researched mastery learning, an instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives. Bloom[52] discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is highly effective, producing learning outcomes Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives: [51] far exceeding those normally achieved in classroom instruction. categories in the cognitive domain Gagn, another psychologist, had earlier developed an influential method of task analysis in which a terminal learning goal is expanded into a hierarchy of learning objectives[53] connected by prerequisite relations. Intelligent tutoring system Educational technology John R. Anderson Cognitive tutor Cooperative learning Collaborative learning Problem-based learning Computer-supported collaborative learning William Winn Constructive alignment

Applications in teaching
Research on classroom management and pedagogy is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to create positive teacherstudent and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counseling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems.[55] In addition, motivation in educational psychology can have several impacting effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter: [56] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Provide direction towards goals Enhance cognitive processing abilities and performance Direct behavior toward particular goals Lead to increased effort and energy Increase initiation of and persistence in activities

A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation of students from low income [54] families.

Educational psychology Introductory educational psychology is a commonly required area of study in most North American teacher education programs. When taught in that context, its content varies, but it typically emphasizes learning theories (especially cognitively oriented ones), issues about motivation, assessment of students' learning, and classroom management. A developing Wikibook about educational psychology gives more detail about the educational psychology topics that are typically presented in preservice teacher education. Special education Lesson plan

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History
Before 1890
Modern educational psychologists are not the first to analyze educational processes. Philosophers of education such as Juan Vives, Johann Pestalozzi, Friedrich Froebel, and Johann Herbart had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the beginnings of psychology in the late 1800s. Juan Vives (1492-1540) proposed induction as the method of study and believed in the direct observation and investigation of the study of nature.[57] He was one of the first to emphasize that the location of the school is important to learning.[58] He suggested that the school should be located away from disturbing noises; the air quality should be good and there should be plenty of food for the students and teachers.[58] Vives emphasized the importance of understanding individual differences of the students and suggested practice as an important tool for learning.[58] He also supported the education of women.[57] Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827) emphasized the child rather than the content of the school.[59] He spoke out against the method of rote memorization as the method for learning and suggested direct observation as a better way of learning.[59] He used object teaching, which means when teaching the teacher should proceed gradually from the concrete objects to the abstract and complex material.[57] He believed that the relationship between the teacher and the child was important in providing a basis for the education of the child.[59] He also was interested in the education of poor children. He was the first to establish an elementary school. Friedrich Froebel (1782-1853) is the founder of the kindergarten movement, which combined work and play to teach children responsibility and cooperation.[59] Johann Herbart (1776-1841) is considered the father of educational psychology.[60] He believed that learning was influenced by interest in the subject and the teacher.[60] He thought that teachers should consider the students existing mental sets, what they already know, when presenting new information or material.[60] Herbart came up with what is now known as the formal steps. They are 5 steps that teachers should use are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Review material that has already been learned by the teacher[60] Prepare the student for new material by giving them an overview of what they are learning next[60] Present the new material.[60] Relate the new material to the old material that has already been learned.[60] Show how the student can apply the new material and show the material they will learn next.[60]

1890-1920
The period of 1890-1920 is considered the golden era of educational psychology where aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the scientific methods of observation and experimentation to educational problems. From 1840 to 1920 37 million people immigrated to the United States.[57] This created an expansion of elementary schools and secondary schools. The increase in immigration also provided educational psychologists the opportunity to use intelligence testing to screen immigrants at Ellis Island.[57] Darwinism influenced the beliefs of the prominent educational psychologists.[57] Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. The pioneering American psychologist William James commented that:

Educational psychology Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application, by using its originality.[61] James is the father of psychology in America but he also made contributions to educational psychology. In his famous series of lectures Talks to Teachers on Psychology, published in 1899 and now regarded as the first educational psychology textbook, James defines education as "the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior.[61] He states that teachers should train the pupil to behavior[61] so that he fits into the social and physical world. Teachers should also realize the importance of habit and instinct. They should present information that is clear and interesting and relate this new information and material to things the student already knows about.[61] He also addresses important issues such as attention, memory, and association of ideas. Alfred Binet published Mental Fatigue in 1898, in which he attempted to apply the experimental method to educational psychology.[57] In this experimental method he advocated for two types of experiments, experiments done in the lab and experiments done in the classroom. In 1904 he was appointed the Minister of Public Education.[57] This is when he began to look for a way to distinguish children with developmental disabilities.[57] Binet strongly supported special education programs because he believed that abnormality could be cured.[57] The Binet-Simon test was the first intelligence test and was the first to distinguish between normal children and those with developmental disabilities.[57] Binet believed that it was important to study individual differences between age groups and children of the same age.[57] He also believed that it was important for teachers to take into account individual students strengths and also the needs of the classroom as a whole when teaching and creating a good learning environment.[57] He also believed that it was important to train teachers in observation so that they would be able to see individual differences among children and adjust the curriculum to the students.[57] Binet also emphasized that practice of material was important. In 1916 Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon so that the average score was always 100.[60] The test became known as the Stanford-Binet and was one of the most widely used tests of intelligence. Terman, unlike Binet, was interested in using intelligence test to identify gifted children who had high intelligence.[57] In his longitudinal study of gifted children, who became known as the Termites, Terman found that gifted children become gifted adults.[60] Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) supported the scientific movement in education. He based teaching practices on empirical evidence and measurement.[57] Thorndike developed the theory of instrumental conditioning or the law of effect. The law of effect states that associations are strengthened when it is followed by something pleasing and associations are weakened when followed by something not pleasing. He also found that learning is done a little at a time or in increments, learning is an automatic process and all the principles of learning apply to all mammals. Thorndikes research with Robert Woodworth on the theory of transfer found that learning one subject will only influence your ability to learn another subject if the subjects are similar.[57] This discovery led to less emphasis on learning the classics because they found that studying the classics does not contribute to overall general intelligence.[57] Thorndike was one of the first to say that individual differences in cognitive tasks were due to how many stimulus response patterns a person had rather than a general intellectual ability.[57] He contributed word dictionaries that were scientifically based to determine the words and definitions used.[57] The dictionaries were the first to take into consideration the users maturity level.[57] He also integrated pictures and easier pronunciation guide into each of the definitions.[57] Thorndike contributed arithmetic books based on learning theory. He made all the problems more realistic and relevant to what was being studied, not just to improve the general intelligence.[57] He developed test that were standardized to measure performance in school related subjects.[57] His biggest contribution to testing was the CAVD intelligence test which used a mulitdimensional approach to intelligence and the first to use a ratio scale.[57] His later work was on programmed instruction, mastery learning and computer-based learning: If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print.[62]

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Educational psychology John Dewey (1859-1952) had a major influence on the development of progressive education in the United States. He believed that the classroom should prepare children to be good citizens and facilitate creative intelligence.[57] He pushed for the creation of practical class that could be applied outside of a school setting.[57] He also thought that education should be student-oriented not subject-oriented. For Dewey education was social that helped bring together generations of people. He states that students learn by doing. He believed in an active mind that was able to be educated through observation and problem solving and inquiry. In his 1910 book How We Think he emphasizes that material should be provided in way that is stimulating and interesting to the student and it encourages original thoughts and problem solving.[63] He also stated that material should be relative to the students own experience.[63] "The material furnished by way of information should be relevant to a question that is vital in the students own experience"[63] Jean Piaget (1896-1980) developed the theory of cognitive development.[57] The theory stated that intelligence developed in four different stages. The stages are the sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years old, the preoperational state from 2 years old to 7 years old, the concrete operational stage from 7 years old to 10 years old, and formal operational stage from 11 years old and up.[57] He also believed that learning was constrained to the childs cognitive development. Piaget influenced educational psychology because he was the first to believe that cognitive development was important and something that should be paid attention to in education.[57] Most of the research on Piagetian theory was mainly tested and done by American educational psychologists

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1920-Present
The amount of people receiving a high school and college education increased dramatically from 1920 to 1960.[57] Because of very little jobs available to the teens coming out of eighth grade there was an increase in high school attendance in the 1930s .[57] The progressive movement in the United State took off at this time and led to the idea of progressive education. John Flanagan, an educational psychologist, developed tests for combat trainees and instructions in combat training.[57] In 1954 the work of Kenneth Clark and his wife on the effects of segregation on black and white children was influential in the Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education.[60] From the 1960s to present day educational psychology has switched from a behaviorist perspective to a more cognitive based perspective because of the influence and development of cognitive psychology at this time.[57] Jerome Bruner was the first to apply the cognitive approaches in educational psychology.[57] He was the one who introduced the ideas of Jean Piaget into educational psychology. He advocated for discovery learning where teachers create a problem solving environment that allows the student to question, explore and experiment.[57] In his book The Process of Education Bruner stated that the structure of the material and the cognitive abilities of the person are important in learning.[57] He emphasized the importance of the subject matter. He also believed that how the subject was structured was important for the students understanding of the subject and it is the goal of the teacher to structure the subject in a way that was easy for the student to understand.[57] In the early 1960s Bruner went to Africa to teach math and science to schoolchildren, which influenced his view as schooling as a cultural institution. Bruner was also influential in the development of MACOS, Man a Course of Study, which was an educational program that combined anthropology and science.[57] The program explored human evolution and social behavior. He also helped with the development of the head start program. He was interested in the influence of culture on education and looked at the impact of poverty on educational development.[57] Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) spent over 50 years at the University of Chicago where he worked in the department of education.[57] He believed that all students can learn. He developed taxonomy of educational objectives.[57] The objectives were divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive domain deals with how we think.[64] It is divided into categories that are on a continuum from easiest to more complex.[64] The categories are knowledge or recall, comprehension application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.[64] The affective domain deals with emotions and has 5 categories.[64] The categories are receiving phenomenon, responding to that phenomenon, valuing, organization, and internalizing values.[64] The psychomotor domain deals with the

Educational psychology development of motor skills, movement and coordination and has 7 categories, that also goes from simplest to complex.[64] The 7 categories of the psychomotor domain are perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination.[64] The taxonomy provided broad educational objectives that could be used to help expand the curriculum to match the ideas in the taxonomy.[57] The taxonomy is considered to have a greater influence internationally than in the United States. Internationally, the taxonomy is used in every aspect of education from training of the teachers to the development of testing material.[57] Bloom believed in communicating clear learning goals and promoting an active student. He thought that teachers should provide feedback to the students on their strengths and weaknesses.[57] Bloom also did research on college students and their problem solving processes. He found that they differ in understanding the basis of the problem and the ideas in the problem. He also found that students differ in process of problem solving in their approach and attitude toward the problem.[57] Nathaniel Gage is important in educational psychology because he did research to improve teaching and understand the processes involved in teaching.[57] In 1963 he was the editor of the Handbook of Research on Teaching, which became an influential book in educational psychology. The handbook helped set up research on teaching and made research on teaching important to educational psychology.[57] He also was influential in the founding of the Stanford Center for Research and Development in teaching, which not only contributed important research on teaching but also influenced the teaching of important educational psychologists.[57]

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Careers in educational psychology

Education and training
A person may be considered an educational psychologist after completing a graduate degree in educational psychology or a closely related field. Universities establish educational psychology graduate programs in either psychology departments or, more commonly, faculties of education. Educational psychologists work in a variety of settings. Some work in university settings where they carry out research on the cognitive and social processes of human development, learning and education. Educational psychologists may also work as consultants in designing and creating educational materials, classroom programs and online courses. Educational psychologists who work in k12 school settings (closely related are school psychologists in the US and Canada) are trained at the master's and doctoral levels. In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher consultation, and crisis intervention. However, school psychologists are generally more individual-oriented towards students. In the UK, status as a Chartered Educational Psychologist is gained by completing: an undergraduate degree in psychology permitting registration with the British Psychological Society two or three years experience working with children, young people and their families. a three-year professional doctorate in educational psychology. The previous requirement to train and work for two years as a teacher has now been abandoned.

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Professional Organizations
Holding membership among Division 15 of the American Psychological Association[65] and/or multiple divisions of the American Educational Research Association[66] is common among educational psychologists. These organizations each host 1-2 conferences each year and provide peer-reviewed journals of current research in the field.

Employment outlook
Employment for psychologists in the United States is expected to grow faster than most occupations through the year 2014, with anticipated growth of 1826%. One in four psychologists are employed in educational settings. In the United States, the median salary for psychologists in primary and secondary schools is US$58,360 as of May 2004.[67] In recent decades the participation of women as professional researchers in North American educational psychology has risen dramatically.[68] The percentage of female authors of peer-reviewed journal articles doubled from 1976 (24%) to 1995 (51%), and has since remained constant. Female membership on educational psychology journal editorial boards increased from 17% in 1976 to 47% in 2004. Over the same period, the proportion of chief editor positions held by women increased from 22% to 70%.

Research journals
There are several peer-reviewed research journals in educational psychology tracked by Journal Citation Reports. The most highly cited journals related to educational psychology are currently Child Development, Educational Psychologist, and Journal of Educational Psychology.

Videos
The Psychology of Educational Quality- Transformational Quality (TQ) Theory [69]

Further reading
Barry, W.J. (2012). Challenging the Status Quo Meaning of Educational Quality: Introducing Transformational Quality (TQ) Theory. Educational Journal of Living Theories. 4, 1-29. http://ejolts.net/node/191

References
[1] Lucas, J.L.; Blazek, M.A. & Riley, A.B. (2005). The lack of representation of educational psychology and school psychology in introductory psychology textbooks. Educational Psychology, 25, 34751. [2] Woolfolk, A.E.; Winne, P.H. & Perry, N.E. (2006). Educational Psychology (3rd Canadian ed.). Toronto, Canada: Pearson. [3] Woods, Ashley and Woods, Steiner Schools in England, University of West of England, Bristol: Research Report RR645 (http:/ / www. dfes. gov. uk/ research/ data/ uploadfiles/ RR645. pdf), section 1.5, "Findings from the survey and case studies" [4] Carrie Y. Nordlund, "Art Experiences in Waldorf Education," Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, May 2006 [5] Cano, F. (2005). Epistemological beliefs and approaches to learning: Their change through secondary school and their influence on academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 20321. [6] Tisak, M.; Turiel E. Variation in Seriousness of Transgressions and Children's Moral and Conventional Concepts, Developmental Psychology, Volume 24, Issue 3, May 1988, pp. 35257 [7] Peters, K.M.; Blumberg, F.C. (2004) "regarding the seriousness... their ability to understand the realityfantasy distinction," Preschoolers' Moral Judgments: Distinctions Between Realistic and Cartoon-Fantasy Transgressions, Proceedings of the 2004 conference on Interaction design and children: building a community [8] Spearman, C. (1904) "General intelligence" objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 20193. [9] Gardner, Howard. (1983) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books. [10] Wechsler, D. (1949). The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. New York: Psychological Corp. [11] Day, L.; Hanson, K.; Maltby, J.; Proctor, C.L. & Wood, A.M. (in press). Hope uniquely predicts objective academic achievement above intelligence, personality, and previous academic achievement. (http:/ / personalpages. manchester. ac. uk/ staff/ alex. wood/ hope_education.

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[18] Alberto, P. & Troutman, A. (2003) Applied behavior analysis for teachers (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Prentice-Hall-Merrill. [19] McGoey, K.E. & DuPaul, G.J. (2000) Token reinforcement and response cost procedures: Reducing the disruptive behavior of preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Quarterly, 15, 33043. [20] Theodore, L.A.; Bray, M.A.; Kehle, T.J. & Jenson, W.R. (2001) Randomization of group contingencies and reinforcers to reduce classroom disruptive behavior. Journal of School Psychology, 39, 26777. [21] Lepper, M. R.; Greene, D. & Nisbett, R.E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the "overjustification" hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 12937. [22] Cameron, J.; Pierce, W.D.; Banko, K.M. & Gear, A. (2005). Achievement-based rewards and intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive mediators. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 64155. [23] Pierce, W.D. & Cameron, J. (2002). A summary of the effects of reward contingencies on interest and performance. The Behavior Analyst Today, 3, 22226. ABO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [24] Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [25] Krug, D.; Davis, T.B.; Glover, J.A. (1990). Massed versus distributed repeated reading: A case of forgetting helping recall? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 36671. [26] Dempster, F.N. (1989). Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 30930. [27] Carney, R.N. & Levin, J.R. (2000). Fading mnemonic memories: Here's looking anew, again! Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 499508. [28] Kalyuga, S.; Chandler, P.; Tuovinen, J. & Sweller, J. (2001). When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 57988. [29] Furth, H.G. & Wachs, H. (1975). Thinking goes to school: Piaget's theory in practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press [30] Demetriou, A. & Valanides, N. (1998). A three level of theory of the developing mind: Basic principles and implications for instruction and assessment. In R.J. Sternberg & W.M. Williams (Eds.), Intelligence, instruction, and assessment (pp. 14999). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. [31] Demetriou, A.; Spanoudis, G. & Mouyi, A. (2010). A Three-level Model of the Developing Mind: Functional and Neuronal Substantiation. In M. Ferrari and L. Vuletic (Eds.), The Developmental Relations between Mind, Brain, and Education: Essays in honor of Robbie Case. New York: Springer. [32] Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press. [33] Case, R. (1992). The role of central conceptual structures in the development of children's mathematical and scientific thought. In A. Demetriou, M. Shayer, & A. Efklides (Eds.), Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development: Implications and applications to education (pp. 5265). London: Routledge. [34] Demetriou, A.; Spanoudis, G. & Mouyi, A. (2010). A Three-level Model of the Developing Mind: Functional and Neuronal Substantiation. In M. Ferrari and L. Vuletic (Eds.), The Developmental Relations between Mind, Brain, and Education: Essays in honor of Robbie Case. New York: Springer [35] Schunk, D.H. & Hanson, A.R. (1985). Peer models: Influence on children's self-efficacy and achievement behavior. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 31322. [36] Zimmerman, B.J. (1998). Developing self-fulfilling cycles of academic regulation: An analysis of exemplary instructional models. In D.H. Schunk & B.J. Zimmerman (Eds.) Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice (pp. 119). New York: Guilford. [37] Hattie, J.; Biggs, J. & Purdie, N. (1996). Effects of learning skills interventions on student learning: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 66, 99136. [38] Seifert, Kelvin & Sutton, Rosemary. Educational Psychology: Second Edition (http:/ / www. saylor. org/ site/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2011/ 04/ Educational-Psychology. pdf). Global Text Project, 2009, pp. 33-37. [39] Weiner, B. (2000). Interpersonal and intrapersonal theories of motivation from an attributional perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 12, 114. [41] Elliot, A.J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34, 16989. [42] Whyte, C. (1980). An Integrated Counseling and Learning Assistance Center. New Directions Sourcebook. Jossey-Bass, Inc. San Francisco. [43] Whyte, C. (1978). Effective Counseling Methods for High-Risk College Freshmen. Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance, 6 (4), 198200. [44] Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychological Association.

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[45] Lipsey, M.W. & Wilson, D.B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. London: Sage. [46] Glass, G.V. (1976). Primary, secondary, and meta-analysis of research. Educational Researcher, 5, 38. [47] Everall, R.D.; Bostik, K.E. & Paulson, B.L. (2005). I'm sick of being me: Developmental themes in a suicidal adolescent. Adolescence, 40, 693708. [48] Ericsson, K.A. & Simon, H. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. [49] Chi, M.T.H. (1997). Quantifying qualitative analyses of verbal data: A practical guide. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6, 271315. [50] Pea, R.D. (1993). Learning scientific concepts through material and social activities: Conversational analysis meets conceptual change. Educational Psychologist, 28, 26577. [51] Anderson, L.W. & Krathwohl, D.R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, USA: Addison-Wesley Longman. [52] Bloom, B.S. (1984). The two sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13 (6), 416. [53] Gronlund, N.E. (2000). How to write and use instructional objectives (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Merrill. [54] Finn, J.D.; Gerber, S.B.; Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 21433. [55] Emmer, E.T. & Stough, L.M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36, 10312. [57] Zimmerman, B.J. & Schunk, D.H. (Eds.) (2003). Educational psychology: A century of contributions. Mahwah, NJ, US: Erlbaum. [58] Vives, J, & Watson, F. (1913). On education : a translation of the de tradendis disciplinis of juan luis vives . Cambridge : The University Press. [59] Glover, J, & Ronning, R. (Ed.). (1987). Historical foundations of educational psychology. New York, NY: Plenum Press. [60] Hergenhahn, B.R. (2009). An introduction to the history of psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. [61] James, W. (1983). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's ideals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1899) [62] Thorndike, E.L. (1912). Education: A first book. New York: MacMillan. [63] Dewey J. (1910). How we think. New York D.C. Heath & Co. [64] Clark, D. (n.d.). Bloom's taxonomy of learning domains. Retrieved from http:/ / www. nwlink. com/ ~donclark/ hrd/ bloom. html [67] Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational Outlook Handbook. 200607 Edition. Psychologists. retrieved from http:/ / www. bls. gov/ oco/ ocos056. htm on June 30, 2006. [68] Evans, J.; Hsieh, P.P. & Robinson, D.H. (2005). Women's Involvement in educational psychology journals from 1976 to 2004. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 26371. [69] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=S7HVfxq4l-8

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External links
Educational Psychology Resources (http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/educational.shtml) by Athabasca University Division 15 of the American Psychological Association (http://www.apa.org/about/division/div15.html) Psychology of Education Section of the British Psychological Society (http://www.bps.org.uk/education/ education_home.cfm) School Psychology on the Web (http://www.schoolpsychology.net/) Explorations in Learning & Instructional Design: Theory Into Practice Database (http://www. instructionaldesign.org/) Classics in the History of Psychology (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/index.htm) The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (http://www.apa.org/science/standards.html)

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Sociology
Sociology of education
Sociology

Outline

Theory History Positivism Antipositivism Functionalism Conflict theories Middle-range Mathematical Critical theory Socialization Structure and agency Research methods

Quantitative Qualitative Historical Computational Ethnographic Network-analytic Topics Subfields Anomie Cities Class Crime Culture Deviance Demography Education Economy Environment Family

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The sociology of education is the study of how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes. It is most concerned with the public schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of higher, further, adult, and continuing education.[1] Education has often been seen as a fundamentally optimistic human endeavour characterised by aspirations for progress and betterment.[2] It is understood by many to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and social status.[3] Education is perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potential.[2] It is also perceived as one of the best means of achieving greater social equality.[3] Many would say that the purpose of education should be to develop every individual to their full potential and give them a chance to achieve as much in life as their natural abilities allow (meritocracy). Few would argue that any education system accomplishes this goal perfectly. Some take a particularly negative view, arguing that the education system is designed with the intention of causing the social reproduction of inequality.

History
A systematic sociology of education began with mile Durkheim's work on moral education as a basis for organic solidarity and that by Max Weber, on the Chinese literati as an instrument of political control. It was after World War II, however, that the subject received renewed interest around the world: from technological functionalism in the US, egalitarian reform of opportunity in Europe, and human-capital theory in economics. These all implied that, with industrialization, the need for a technologically skilled labour force undermines class distinctions and other ascriptive systems of stratification, and that education promotes social mobility. However, statistical and field research across numerous societies showed a persistent link between an individual's social class and achievement, and suggested that education could only achieve limited social mobility.[1] Sociological studies showed how

Sociology of education schooling patterns reflected, rather than challenged, class stratification and racial and sexual discrimination.[1] After the general collapse of functionalism from the late 1960s onwards, the idea of education as an unmitigated good was even more profoundly challenged. Neo-Marxists argued that school education simply produced a docile labour-force essential to late-capitalist class relations.

274

Theoretical perspectives
The sociology of education contains a number of theories. Some of the main theories are presented below.

Political arithmetic
The Political Arithmetic tradition within the sociology of education began with Hogben (1938)[4] and denotes a tradition of politically critical quantitative research dealing with social inequalities, especially those generated by social stratification (Heath 2000).[5] Important works in this tradition have been (Glass 1954),[6] (Floud, et al. 1956)[7] and (Halsey, et al. 1980).[8] All of these works were concerned with the way in which school structures were implicated in social class inequalities in Britain. More recent work in this tradition has broadened its focus to include gender,[9][10] ethnic differentials [11] and international differences.[12] While researchers in this tradition have engaged with sociological theories such as Rational Choice Theory [13] and Cultural Reproduction Theory,[14] the political arithmetic tradition has tended to remain rather sceptical of grand theory and very much concerned with empirical evidence and social policy. The political arithmetic tradition was attacked by the New Sociology of Education of the 1970s [15] which rejected quantitative research methods. This heralded a period of methodological division within the sociology of education. However, the political arithmetic tradition, while rooted in quantitative methods, has increasingly engaged with mixed methods approaches [16] Political arithmetic is the philosophical insights that govern the pluralistic society like India. Politics of Education has emerged as one of potential human knowledge where politics play significant role in social inequalities and stratificatis. The Politics of Education Association at Florida State University, and the Center for Policy Research at New Delhi( India) are bright examples where a number of studies carried out on the social policy. India, though popular being the largest democracy of the world,political arithmetic has paralyzed the entire education system. Equity and equality continue to grow in Indian context, educated Indian society is more stratified than ever before. It is not the wrong approaches that are being employed to examine the political arithmetic in sociology of Indian education rather the diversities within the nation is the major concern.Political parties use public votes as the simplest and cheapest means for their survival. Political arithmetic in India has never allowed to education to be defined the way it ought to be. The ex-prime minister of India and the erstwhile Union Minister of HRD, Mr.P.V.Narasimharao's authored book on "Politics of Education"(1967)illustrates the political arithmetic of Indian education System.

Structural functionalism
Structural functionalists believe that society leans towards social equilibrium and social order. They see society like a human body, in which institutions such as education are like important organs that keep the society/body healthy and well.[17] Social health means the same as social order, and is guaranteed when nearly everyone accepts the general moral values of their society. Hence structural functionalists believe the aim of key institutions, such as education, is to socialize children and teenagers. Socialization is the process by which the new generation learns the knowledge, attitudes and values that they will need as productive citizens. Although this aim is stated in the formal curriculum,[18] it is mainly achieved through "the hidden curriculum",[19] a subtler, but nonetheless powerful, indoctrination of the norms and values of the wider society. Students learn these values because their behavior at school is regulated (Durkheim in [3]) until they gradually internalize and accept them. Education must, however perform another function. As various jobs become vacant, they must be filled with the appropriate people. Therefore the other purpose of education is to sort and rank individuals for placement in the labor market [Munro, 1997]. Those

Sociology of education with high achievement will be trained for the most important jobs and in reward, be given the highest incomes. Those who achieve the least, will be given the least demanding (intellectually at any rate, if not physically) jobs, and hence the least income. According to Sennet and Cobb however, to believe that ability alone decides who is rewarded is to be deceived.[3] Meighan agrees, stating that large numbers of capable students from working-class backgrounds fail to achieve satisfactory standards in school and therefore fail to obtain the status they deserve.[20] Jacob believes this is because the middle class cultural experiences that are provided at school may be contrary to the experiences working-class children receive at home.[21] In other words, working class children are not adequately prepared to cope at school. They are therefore cooled out[22] from school with the least qualifications, hence they get the least desirable jobs, and so remain working class. Sargent confirms this cycle, arguing that schooling supports continuity, which in turn supports social order.[3] Talcott Parsons believed that this process, whereby some students were identified and labelled educational failures, was a necessary activity which one part of the social system, education, performed for the whole.[20] Yet the structural functionalist perspective maintains that this social order, this continuity, is what most people desire.[17] The weakness of this perspective thus becomes evident.[citation needed] Why would the working class wish to stay working class? Such an inconsistency demonstrates that another perspective may be useful.

275

Education and social reproduction

The perspective of conflict theory, contrary to the structural functionalist perspective, believes that society is full of vying social groups with different aspirations, different access to life chances and gain different social rewards.[23] Relations in society, in this view, are mainly based on exploitation, oppression, domination and subordination.[3][24] Many teachers assume that students will have particular middle class experiences at home, and for some children this assumption isnt necessarily true.[21] Some children are expected to help their parents after school and carry considerable domestic responsibilities in their often single-parent home.[25] The demands of this domestic labour often make it difficult for them to find time to do all their homework and thus affects their academic performance. Where teachers have softened the formality of regular study and integrated students preferred working methods into the curriculum, they noted that particular students displayed strengths they had not been aware of before.[25] However few teachers deviate from the traditional curriculum, and the curriculum conveys what constitutes knowledge as determined by the state - and those in power [Young in [3]]. This knowledge isnt very meaningful to many of the students, who see it as pointless.[21] Wilson & Wyn state that the students realise there is little or no direct link between the subjects they are doing and their perceived future in the labour market.[25] Anti-school values displayed by these children are often derived from their consciousness of their real interests. Sargent believes that for working class students, striving to succeed and absorbing the school's middle class values, is accepting their inferior social position as much as if they were determined to fail.[3] Fitzgerald states that irrespective of their academic ability or desire to learn, students from poor families have relatively little chance of securing success.[26] On the other hand, for middle and especially upper-class children, maintaining their superior position in society requires little effort. The federal government subsidises independent private schools enabling the rich to obtain good education by paying for it.[3] With this good education, rich children perform better, achieve higher and obtain greater rewards. In this way, the continuation of privilege and wealth for the elite is made possible in continuum. Conflict theorists believe this social reproduction continues to occur because the whole education system is overlain with ideology provided by the dominant group. In effect, they perpetuate the myth that education is available to all to provide a means of achieving wealth and status. Anyone who fails to achieve this goal, according to the myth, has only themself to blame.[3] Wright agrees, stating that the effect of the myth is tostop them from seeing that their personal troubles are part of major social issues.[3] The duplicity is so successful that many parents endure appalling jobs for many years, believing that this sacrifice will enable their children to have opportunities in life that they did not have themselves.[25] These people who are poor and disadvantaged are victims of a societal confidence trick.

Sociology of education They have been encouraged to believe that a major goal of schooling is to strengthen equality while, in reality, schools reflect societys intention to maintain the previous unequal distribution of status and power [Fitzgerald, cited in [3]]. This perspective has been criticised[citation needed] as deterministic and pessimistic. It should be recognised however that it is a model, an aspect of reality which is an important part of the picture.

276

Structure and agency

Bourdieu and cultural capital This theory of social reproduction has been significantly theorised by Pierre Bourdieu. However Bourdieu as a social theorist has always been concerned with the dichotomy between the objective and subjective, or to put it another way, between structure and agency. Bourdieu has therefore built his theoretical framework around the important concepts of habitus, field and cultural capital. These concepts are based on the idea that objective structures determine individuals' chances, through the mechanism of the habitus, where individuals internalise these structures. However, the habitus is also formed by, for example, an individual's position in various fields, their family and their everyday experiences. Therefore one's class position does not determine one's life chances, although it does play an important part, alongside other factors. Bourdieu used the idea of cultural capital to explore the differences in outcomes for students from different classes in the French educational system. He explored the tension between the conservative reproduction and the innovative production of knowledge and experience.[27] He found that this tension is intensified by considerations of which particular cultural past and present is to be conserved and reproduced in schools. Bourdieu argues that it is the culture of the dominant groups, and therefore their cultural capital, which is embodied in schools, and that this leads to social reproduction.[27] The cultural capital of the dominant group, in the form of practices and relation to culture, is assumed by the school to be the natural and only proper type of cultural capital and is therefore legitimated. It demands uniformly of all its students that they should have what it does not give [Bourdieu [28]]. This legitimate cultural capital allows students who possess it to gain educational capital in the form of qualifications. Those lower-class students are therefore disadvantaged. To gain qualifications they must acquire legitimate cultural capital, by exchanging their own (usually working-class) cultural capital.[29] This exchange is not a straight forward one, due to the class ethos of the lower-class students. Class ethos is described as the particular dispositions towards, and subjective expectations of, school and culture. It is in part determined by the objective chances of that class.[30] This means that not only do children find success harder in school due to the fact that they must learn a new way of being, or relating to the world, and especially, a new way of relating to and using language, but they must also act against their instincts and expectations. The subjective expectations influenced by the objective structures found in the school, perpetuate social reproduction by encouraging less-privileged students to eliminate themselves from the system, so that fewer and fewer are to be found as one journeys through the levels of the system. The process of social reproduction is neither perfect nor complete,[27] but still, only a small number of less-privileged students achieve success. For the majority of these students who do succeed at school, they have had to internalise the values of the dominant classes and use them as their own, to the detriment of their original habitus and cultural values. Therefore Bourdieu's perspective reveals how objective structures play an important role in determining individual achievement in school, but allows for the exercise of an individual's agency to overcome these barriers, although this choice is not without its penalties.

Sociology of education

277

Educational sociologists around the world

Asia
Ka Ho Mok Gerard A. Postiglione [31] Takehiko Kariya [32]

Europe
Basil Bernstein Pierre Bourdieu Jean Floud A. H. Halsey Stephen Gorard Anthony F. Heath Stephen Ball

North America
James S. Coleman Michael Apple Charles Bidwell Henry Giroux John W. Meyer Stephen Raudenbush James Rosenbaum

Australia
Raewyn Connell (creator of 'southern theory') Karl Maton (creator of 'Legitimation Code Theory')

Russia
Konstantinovsky David L'vovich Shubkin Vladimir Nikolaevich

References
[1] Gordon Marshall (ed) A Dictionary of Sociology (Article: Sociology of Education), Oxford University Press, 1998 [2] Schofield, K. (1999). The Purposes of Education, Queensland State Education: 2010 (http:/ / www. aspa. asn. au/ Papers/ eqfinalc. PDF) Accessed 2002, Oct 28. [3] Sargent, M. (1994) The New Sociology for Australians (3rd Ed), Longman Chesire, Melbourne [4] Hogben, L. (1938) Political Arithmetic: a symposium of population studies, London: Allen & Unwin. [5] Heath, A. (2000) The Political Arithmetic Tradition in the Sociology of Education, Oxford Review of Education 26(3-4): 313-331. [6] Glass, D. V. (1954) Social Mobility in Britain, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. [7] Floud, J., Halsey, A. H. and Martin, F. (1956) Social class and educational opportunity: Heinemann. [8] Halsey, A. H., Heath, A. F. and Ridge, J. M. (1980) Origins and destinations : family, class, and education in modern Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press [9] Gorard, S., Salisbury, J. and Rees, G. (1999) Reappraising the apparent underachievement of boys at school, Gender and Education 11(4): 441-454. [10] Sullivan, A., Heath, A. F. and Rothon, C. (2011) Equalisation or inflation? Social class and gender differentials in England and Wales, Oxford Review of Education 37(2): 215-240.

Sociology of education
[11] Heath, A. F. and Cheung, S.-Y. (eds) (2007) Unequal Chances: ethnic minoroties in western labour markets, Oxford: Oxford University Press. [12] Heath, A. F. and Sullivan, A. (2011) Introduction: The democratisation of upper-secondary education?, Oxford Review of Education 37(2): 123-138. [13] Breen, R. and Goldthorpe, J. (1997) Explaining Educational Differentials: Towards a Rational Action Theory, Rationality and Society 9(3): 275-305. [14] Sullivan, A. (2001) Cultural Capital and Educational Attainment, Sociology 35(4): 893-912. [15] M. F. D. Young (ed) Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, London: Macmillan. [16] Ogg, T., Zimdars, A. and Heath, A. F. (2009) Schooling effects on degree performance: a comparison of the predictive validity of aptitude testing and secondary school grades at Oxford University, British Educational Research Journal 35(5): 781-807. [17] Bessant, J. and Watts, R. (2002) Sociology Australia (2nd ed), Allen & Unwin, Sydney [18] NSW Board of Studies, K-6 HSIE Syllabus (NSW Australia) (http:/ / www. boardofstudies. nsw. edu. au) [19] Harper, G. (1997) Society, culture, socialization and the individual in Stafford, C. and Furze, B. (eds) Society and Change (2nd ed), Macmillan Education Australia, Melbourne [20] Meighan, R. & Siraj-Blatchford, I. (1997) A Sociology of Educating (3rd Ed), Cassell, London [21] Jacob, A. (2001) Research links poverty and literacy, ABC Radio Transcript (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ pm/ stories/ s433501. htm) [22] Foster, L. E. (1987) Australian Education: A Sociological Perspective(2nd Ed), Prentice Hall, Sydney [23] Furze, B. and Healy, P. (1997) Understanding society and change in Stafford, C. and Furze, B. (eds) Society and Change (2nd Ed), Macmillan Education Australia, Melbourne [24] Connell, R. W. and White, V., (1989) Child poverty and educational action in Edgar, D., Keane, D. & McDonald, P. (eds), Child Poverty, Allen & Unwin, Sydney [25] Wilson, B. and Wyn, J. (1987) Shaping Futures: Youth Action for Livelihood, Allen & Unwin, Hong Kong [26] Henry, M., Knight, J., Lingard, R. and Taylor, S. (1988) Understanding Schooling: An Introductory Sociology of Australian Education, Routledge, Sydney [27] Harker, R., (1990) Education and Cultural Capital in Harker, R., Mahar, C., & Wilkes, C., (eds) (1990) An Introduction to the Work of Pierre Bourdieu: the practice of theory, Macmillan Press, London [28] Swartz, D., Pierre Bourdieu: The Cultural Transmission of Social Inequality in Robbins, D., (2000) Pierre Bourdieu Volume II, Sage Publications, London, pp.207-217 [29] Harker, R., (1984) On Reproduction, Habitus and Education in Robbins, D., (2000) Pierre Bourdieu Volume II, Sage Publications, London, pp.164-176 [30] Gorder, K., (1980) Understanding School Knowledge: a critical appraisal of Basil Bernstein and Pierre Bourdieu in Robbins, D., (2000) Pierre Bourdieu Volume II, Sage Publications, London, pp.218-233 [31] http:/ / web. edu. hku. hk/ academic_staff. php?staffId=gerry [32] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 2112274

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Further reading
Block, A.A., (1997) Im only bleeding, Education as the Practice of Violence Against Children, Peter Lang, New York Bourdieu, P., (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Bourdieu, P., (1984) Distinction, a Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Bourdieu, P., (1986) "The Forms of Capital" (http://web.archive.org/web/20021118172507/http://www. viet-studies.org/Bourdieu_capital.htm) Bourdieu, P., (1990) Reproduction: In Education, Society and Culture, Sage Publications, London Bourdieu, P., (1996) The State Nobility, Polity Press, Cambridge Gabbard, D and Saltman, Ken (eds) (2003) Education as Enforcement: The Militarization and Corporatization of Schooling Grenfell, M. (ed) (2008) Pierre Bourdieu: Key concepts, London, Acumen Press. Harker, R., Mahar, C., & Wilkes, C., (eds) (1990) An Introduction to the Work of Pierre Bourdieu: the practice of theory, Macmillan Press, London Lampert, K.,(2003) "Prolegomena for Radical Schooling", University Press of A, Marryland Lampert Khen, (2012) "Meritocratic Education and Social Worthlessness", Palgrave-Macmillan Paulo Freire, (2000) Pedagogy of the Oppressed (3rd Ed), Continuum Press, New York Schofield, K. (1999) The Purposes of Education, in Queensland State Education: 2010 (Conference Papers)

Sociology of education Spring, J., (2000) Deculturalization and the struggle for Equality: A brief history of the education of dominant cultures in the U.S. McGraw Hill

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Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

Education Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=549050992 Contributors: 09ps1003, 100110100, 1297, 1660he, 205.188.198.xxx, 213.66.27.xxx, 21655, 2D, 4twenty42o, 5111asda, A D 13, A little insignificant, A. B., AAnandaramaa, ABF, ACLCMASTER, AJackl, Aaaaaaaa111, Aaker, Academic Challenger, Acmthompson, Actionhamster, Adam7davies, Adamrce, Adashiel, Aditya, Aecis, Aeonx, Agbormbai, Ageekgal, Agsteele, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alai, Alan Liefting, Alan Pascoe, AlanBarnet, Alansohn, Alarm, Alaymehta, Alensha, Alex S, Alexandria, Alexius08, Aliraza786110145, Allens, Almazi, Almit39, Alphabet55298, Alphachimp, Altenmann, AlternApproach, AmBeRcOlE, Amandahemp, Ambreenkazmi, Amillion, Anakrajnc1, Anbu121, Andkore, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andrej86, AndrewHowse, Andreweagle, Andy Marchbanks, Andycjp, Andyjsmith, Andymunoz83194, Andypandy.UK, Angela, Angela and ally, Ankushksharma, Ann Stouter, Anna Frodesiak, Anna Lincoln, Antandrus, AnteaterZot, Antonotic, Anubhavk1980, Aogg, Aphaia, Apmbert, Appleseed, Arakunem, Argon233, Ariaconditzione, Arjun rangrej, Arthurmyles, Artost, Asarla, Ashley Cole, Assmonkeyspike12255, Athaenara, Aurgi, Aurola, Author2w, Autonova, Avellano, Avicennasis, Avinesh, Avraham, Az1568, Azxten, B7T, BD2412, Ballard26, Banno, Barek, Barneca, Baronnet, BarretB, Barrylb, Baviskarnilesh, Bballmolly17, Beland, Bentong Isles, Bhadani, BiT, Bigholamusic, BillySharps, BinaryTed, Bkell, Bkonrad, Bkwillwm, Blackfinale, Blanchardb, Bluefishtoofish, Bluemask, Bluezy, BoB da 1st, BobGourley, BobTheTomato, Bobblewik, Bobguy7, Bobo192, Bodnotbod, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Bonniehuynh, Bookwriter, Boomshadow, Breazilegt, Briaboru, Brian0918, Brideshead, Brion VIBBER, Brkpolo, Brunoxky, Bsadowski1, Bunny-chan, BurtAlert, Butros, C-MAN123, CFAbrielle23, CHJL, CIreland, CMacMillan, COMPFUNK2, CS46, CUST1, CX, Caciula, Caknuck, Callymoto, Caltas, Cambalachero, Camball, CambridgeBayWeather, Camembert, Camillaw, Camodeo, CanisRufus, Capricorn42, Carabinieri, Carnildo, Casperdc, CattleGirl, CavaloBranco, Cbrown285, Cdavo3, Cessator, Chabadkeyb, Chairboy, ChallengeSpacePedia, Chanting Fox, Chaos5023, CharlieGrammar, Chcknwnm, Cheekychick, Cheese2wally8, ChemGardener, Chill Factor Five, Chill doubt, ChipChamp, Chobsastig13, Choijh99, Chris Roy, Chrislk02, Christian List, Christopher Parham, Chriswk313, Chzz, Ciaccona, Ckatz, Clarince63, CloveWiki, Cmaricle, Cmdrjameson, Cnajmee, Cod3master1, Codex Sinaiticus, Comet1, CommonsDelinker, Concept4fun, Conskeptical, Conversion script, Coolcaesar, Coolmax.j.p, Cormaggio, Corn cheese, Corpx, Cosmic Latte, Cosmicosmo, Courcelles, Coutts, Crashtools11223344, Crass conversationalist, Crazycomputers, Creativemerchants, Cremepuff222, Cresix, Crumbsucker, CryptoDerk, Cuum, Cyanoa Crylate, Cybercobra, Cyp, D, D-Rock, D. 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Anderson, Stewartadcock, Stone Wi KI, Tall Mart, Tawker, Technopat, Tenan, The Philosophical INFP, Theopolisme, TimNelson, Titoxd, Tomisti, Tonywalton, Torist, Turgan, Twirligig, Ukexpat, Vary, Vege Mite, Vicoduomo, Vingvatabbindamelli, Wayward, West.andrew.g, WhatamIdoing, Whuhh Latt, Wik, Wikidea, Wikieditor06, Wildcat dunny, Wilkes Mall, Wmahan, Woohookitty, Wrap the Stout, YelekreB beJ, Yempton, Yingyayille, Yucatan Beers, Zenyenhon, Zoe, Zzuuzz, 279 , anonymous edits Educational psychology Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=548099229 Contributors: 10metreh, 2over0, APH, Aaron Kauppi, Aelius28, Aleksd, Aletheia, Ammonius.Grammaticus, AndreasPDemetriou, Andrewman327, Angela, Author2w, BennettL, Bob Burkhardt, Bobo192, Bookandcoffee, BrainDoc, CJ0017, Cabe6403, Chihang, Choster, Chris the speller, Closedmouth, Cmsmith81, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Craig.borchardt, Cst17, Culmensis, Cyanidesandwich, DCDuring, Dahl.Cord, Daven200520, Dbiel, Dcooper, Debresser, DennisDaniels, Dmitri Lytov, DocPsych, Dolfrog, Doncorto, DrGNAGarcia, DustFormsWords, EEMIV, EPM, Ejmolina1996, El C, ElKevbo, Encephalon, Epbr123, Erianna, Espoo, Estill, Fadulj, Florian Huber, Frdrick Lacasse, Funandtrvl, Gadfium, Geneb1955, Gomada, Gongshow, GraemeL, Gregbard, Happysailor, Herostratus, Hgilbert, Holon, Hontogaichiban, Icairns, Igoldste, Iss246, Iulus Ascanius, IvyIQTest100, J.delanoy, JCode, Jeff Dahl, Jim1138, JivaGroup, JoeSmack, Joefromrandb, JohannVII, Jokasta, JorisvS, Joyous!, Jtneill, Jusdafax, Jusjih, Karol Langner, Kathlynnly, Kedi the tramp, Kgrr, King of Hearts, Kingfish, Klseifert, Kozuch, L Kensington, Lam Kin Keung, Lhakthong, LibLord, Lightforge, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Lova Falk, Lugia2453, Lurene waddell, M.nelson, MGL, Magioladitis, Manuel Anastcio, MartinPoulter, Masterpiece2000, Mattisse, Maxim, Mayrangn282, McBrayn, MelbourneStar, Mendaliv, Mercurius, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mingming, Mintleaf, MyNameWasTaken, N5iln, Naddy, Narssarssuaq, Nesbit, Neurolysis, Niceguyedc, Nick Number, Noe, Nposs, Obesity is really unhealthy!, Outriggr, PPdd, Phantomsteve, PhilKnight, Philip Cross, Plato's Dog, Prodego, Pustlix Harez, R'n'B, RJFerret, RUL3R, Ral315, Rbellin, Rculatta, RedAlgorithm, Reddi, Redthoreau, Reedy, Rhobite, RichardF, Rocketrod1960, Rombomb2005, Ronz, Saikiri, SandyGeorgia, Sanya3, Sardanaphalus, Sbirrell, SchoolpsychErin, Schwnj, Seglea, SiobhanHansa, Sjones23, Star767, Steinsky, Suisui, Surekhabhagyawant, Sydactive, Tanzania, Tassedethe, Techfiddle, Thesquire, Thiseye, Tim bates, Tking22, Tolly4bolly, Tomsega, Tony1, Tstrobaugh, Vaughan, Villaonisland, Wadegeorge, Ward3001, WatchAndObserve, Wcquidditch, Whicky1978, Whuitt, Wildt, Zzuuzz, 05, 243 anonymous edits Sociology of education Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=548164317 Contributors: Anaxial, Andycjp, Apockk, AveryG, Bald Zebra, Bejnar, Bhadani, Boyfrombriz, Canto2009, Charles Matthews, CharlesC, D'lin, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DCDuring, DarwinPeacock, Davedim, Dbiel, Desiderata03, Edusoc, Edward, Epbr123, Farras Octara, FiveColourMap, Floquenbeam, Funandtrvl, Gothbag, Iamg, Imthebombliketicktick, Itsmejudith, Jeandr du Toit, JenLouise, Jimothytrotter, Jscol, Kall Ramanathan, Kevs, Mandarax, Markov26, Meclee, Menanigdenet, Mkwenda, Nesbit, Nsaa, Orereta, PM Poon, Parhamr, Prof. Sanjay Kumar, R'n'B, RedHouse18, Saraloves26, Senator Palpatine, Siddiqui22nadia, Sluzzelin, StarLove, Sue Rangell, Sun Creator, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tomchiukc, Vegetator, WaterNixie, Wavelength, Wiki alf, Wikimk, Winston Trechane, Woohookitty, Zzuuzz, 94 anonymous edits

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