This is the most fundamental law in electrical engineering.

It states that the potential difference between two ends of

a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it ,provided its temperature and other physical
parameters remain unchanged .
That is V o I
V=IR --------------- (1.1)
The constant of proportionality R is called resistance of the conductor. The unit is ohm ().The unit ohm is defined
as the resistance which permits a flow of one ampere of current when a potential difference of 1 V is applied to the
resistance.
Also I = GV --------------(1.2)
This constant of proportionality G is called conductance of a conductor. Comparing equation 1.1 with 1.2

The SI unit of conductance is siemens (S)


Computation of resistance at constant temperature :
The resistance R depends on the followng factors
Length : If the length increases, the distance to be travelled by electrons increases, as the distance increases the
electrons will be obstructed by more atoms and molecules present therefore resistance increases with the length.
ie R o length
Cross sectional area : If the crossectional area of conductor increases, the path for flow of electrons increases .Hence
opposition offered decreases.
ie R o 1/crossectional area
R o L/A

R = L /A-------------(1.3)

where is resistivity of the material
= RA /L unit is -m

Nature of material : Materials will have different atomic structure, atomic weight and atomic number. In other words
the resistance depends on nature of material

Temperature : Resistance of conductor varies with temperature. For the above equation 1.3 temperature is assumed
to be constant.

Conductance: While resistance is the opposition to the flow of current , the conductance is the ease with which the
current can flow. The conduct is reciprocal of the resistance. It is denoted by G . The SI unit of simen

Electric Power: The rate at which work is done by the charge from moving one point to another is called electric
power .The electric power P used in any part of circuit is equal to current I in that part multiplied by the voltage across
that part of the circuit . The SI unit of power is watt
P = V I or-----------------------(1.4)
P = I
2
R or
P = V
2
/R

R
V
I




Electric energy : Total work done by the charge in an electric circuit is called electric energy .
Electric energy E = Potential difference X Charge flow
E = V Q
E= V I t or E= I
2
R t or E = V
2
t /R ---------(1.5)
Resistances in series

Resistances are said to be connected in series when same current flows in them and resistances are said to be
connected in parallel when the voltage acrross them is same and current gets divided amoung them depending on
the value of the resistances. The following circuits explains the parallel and series connection.




Req for series connection is calculated as
If the voltage across R1 is V1 = IR1 , voltage across R2 is V2 = I R2 and voltage across R3 is V3 = IR3 then the total voltage
is calculated as V = V1 + V2 + V3
V = I R1 + I R2 + I R3
V = I (R1 + R2 + R3 )
V/ I = R1+ R2 + R3
Req = R1+ R2 + R3---------(1.6)


Concept of a series circuit
- The current flowing in all the resistors is the same
- The voltage across the diffrent elements will depend on the magnitude of resistance
- The total voltage across the resistance is equal to the sum of voltages across individual resistance
- In series circuit the volatge drops, power and resistances are additive


Req for parallel connection is calculated as
If the voltage across R1 is V1 = I1R1 , voltage across R2 is V2 = I2R2 and voltage across R3 is V3 = I3R3 then the total
voltage is calculated as I = I1 + I2 + I3
I = V/ R1 + V/ R2 + V/ R3
I = V/ (R1 + R2 + R3 )
I/ V =1 /( R1+ R2 + R3)
1/Req = 1/(R1+ R2 + R3)---------(1.7)

Concept of a parallel circuit
- The current flowing in the resistance is not same but in parallel connection the voltage across each
resistance is equal.
- The total current drawn by the circuit is summation of the current flowing in all the resisters
- The total resistance of the circuit is always less than the smallest resistance in the circuit.
The power,conductance and branch currents are additive .
R3
R1
R2
Req
Req
R3 R2 R1




Kirchhoffs Current Law :
Statement : Kirchhoffs current law states at any node or a juction the algebraic sum of the currents is zero.
EI = 0.
At node N if I1 & I2 are enterring the node and I3 & I4 are leaving from the node then
I1+ I2-I3-I4 =0



Kirchhoffs Voltage Law :

Statement : Kirchhoffs law states that in a closed loop or a mesh the algebraic sum of the voltages is eqaul to zero. It
can be also stated as the sum of the voltage dropes in a closed mesh equal to the sum of the voltage gain in the
circuit


A mesh is any closed path of circuit . For convenice, mesh currents are usually assigned in clockwise direction.
Procedures for finding mesh currents I1 & I2
- The meshes are selected , show the direction of the mesh currents I1, I2 in clockwise direction. Mark the
polarity across the resistor. Remember that conventional current flows in the resistor produces positive
polarity where the current enters.
- Apply KVL , EV = 0 ,around each mesh. Trace each mesh in the direction of the mesh current ( note that
there are two diffrent currents I1, I2 flowing in opposite direction in R2 which is common to both the
meshes)
- Trace mesh 1 in clockwise direction
+ V
1
I
1
R
1
-R
2
(I
1
-I
2
) =0
V
1
I
1
R
1
-I
1
R
2
+I
2
R
2
=0
V
1
=

I
1
(R
1
+R
2
)-I
2
R
2
---------eq1

Trace mesh 2 in clockwise direction
- V
2
I
2
R
3
-R
2
I
2
+I
1
R
2
=0
I
1
R
2
-I
2
(R
2
+R
3
)= V
2
--------eq2

I1
I2
I3
I4
R1
R2
R3
R4
N
V1
V2
R1
R2
R3 +
+
+
- -
-


- Solve equation 1 & 2 and find the value of I1 & I2
- When mesh currents are known one can find the voltage drop across each resistance
- Check the correctness of the solution by writting the KVL to the outside loop
+ V
1
I
1
R
1
-I
2
R
3
- V
2
= 0
Substitute the values of the currents I1 & I2 in the above equation alongwith the sign we can verify the LHS
= RHS =0


















































The branch of engineering which deals with the magnetic effects of electricity current is electromagnetism. The
phenomenon which magnetic substance gets magnetised when it is placed near a magnet is called magnetic
induction
What is magnet ?
A substance that attracts iron filling and when suspended freely shows north south direction.This property of
attracting iron fillings is called magnetism .The magnet can be built artificially. The artificial magnets are called
electromagnets. Material like iron,cobalt,nickel are wound with insulated wire and current is passed through it .
Magnetic field : The region around a magnet where unit north pole experiences a force is called as magnetic field
Electromagnetic force :
consider two magnets having strengths m1 & m2 separated by a distance d. The magnetic force between them can
be written as


d

f o m1 m2
f o 1/d
2

f o m1 m2 / d
2
f = m1 m1/4 d
2
Newton---------------(1.5)
Magnetic flux: The amount of magnetic lines associated with magnet is called flux . It is denoted by u and SI unit is
webber.
1 wb =10
8
lines

Magnetic flux density: The magnetic flux per unit area is called magnetic flux density . It is denoted by B and SI unit
is wb/m
2


B= u/A ---------------------------------------(1.6)

Magnetic Intensity or magnatising force : Magnetic intensity at any point within a magnetic field is the force
experinced by a unit north pole placed at that point . It is a vector quantity . It is denoted by H . Its SI unit is AT/m or
N/m

H = m/ 4 d
2


Magnetic permeability: When magnetic flux tries to set up in the medium, the medium plays an role. When it allows
the flux to set up easily we say that the medium is highly permeable. Therefore the permeability is defined as the ease
with which the medium allows the flux to establish though it .
Permeability of air is taken as ref = 0 and it is called as absolute permeability .
0 = 4 10
-7
H
Relative permeability r = / 0


Relation between flux density (B) and magnetic field intensity (H)
B = H
B = 0 r H
m
1
m
2


Magnetic circuit : It is a route or a path followed by magnetic flux. Consider an iron ring of length l wound with N
number of turns and carrying a current of I A. Let the area of crossection be A m
2






I





Intensity of magnetisation H = NI / l ------------------------(1.6)
We have B=0r H
Putting value of H in the above equation
B= 0r NI / l
u =B A
= ( 0r NI / l ) A
u = -----------------------------------(1.7)
Flux = MMF/ Reluctance
= MMF/ S

Where S = l/ 0rA SI unit is AT/wb
MMF = NI SI unit is AT

Reluctance : It is defined as the property of the medium which opposes the setting up of the flux through it .It is
similar to resistance in electric circuit .It is denoted by S. SI unit is AT/wb

Permeance : It is reciprocal of reluctance . It indicates the ease with which magnetic flux is established in the material.
It is analogous to conductance in the circuit .

Magnetic leakage : The magnetic flux estalishes in a path not intended for it is known as leakage flux .




I <- -------------leakage flux





Leakage coefficient : It is defined as the ratio between total flux to the useful flux. It is denoted by
= u
t
/ u ~ 1.1 to 1.125 ------------------------(1.8)
Fringing : The phenomenon of spreading of the flux when it leaves a high permeable material and enters relatively
low permeability material such as air in air gap is known as fringing. The bulging of the flux in the air gap increases
the effective area and reduces the flux density in the air gap .





u
N
u
N





ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Magnetic flux exists around a current carrying conductor. Faraday discoverd that an emf is induced whenever the flux
linking with the electric circuit changes . The phenomenon by which an emf is induced in any conductor that is cut
across or is cut by a magnetic flux is known as electromagnetism.The phenomenon of generating electricity from
magnet is called electromagnetic induction.

Faradays Experiment :


Solenoid is an arrengement of insulated coil wound on a cylindrical nonmagnetic former. Bar magnet is moved
towards coil. It is observed that galvonometer shows deflection in one direction. Galvonometer is a device which
detects the presence of current in the circuit. If the bar magnet is moved away from coil, galvonometer shows
deflection in opposite direction. This indicates presence of emf .
Faradays summerized eight years of his research into two laws

Faradays first law :
Whenever the flux linking with a coil or a conductor changes, an emf is induced in it.

Faradays second law:
The magnitude of induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.

Let N be the number of turns in the coil and let the flux changes from u1 u2 in time t.
Initial flux linkage Nu1
Final flux linkage N u2
Rate of change of flux linkage = ( Nu1 -Nu2 ) / t

According to Faradays 2
nd
law the average value of emf induced = ( Nu1 -Nu2 ) / t
E= ( Nu1 -Nu2 ) / t

E = N du / dt
According to lenzs law
E = - N du / dt------------------------------------(1.9)

Lenzs law : Lenzs law states that the direction of induced emf is in such a way that it opposes the very cause
When we apply an ac voltage V to a coil of N turns



N
Solenoid
G
Bar magnet



Induced emf
Emf can be induced in different ways
1. Dynamically induced emf
2. Statically induced emf

Dynamically induced emf

When a magnet is moved towards a coil of N number of turns , the flux linking the coil changes and by Faraday's first
law an emf is induced in the coil. This emf is called dynamically induced emf

Statically induced emf
When an ac voltage is applied to the coil ,the flux linking with the coil changes with respect to the time. This is called
Statically induced emf. There is no movement of both the coil and the magnet.
Statically induced emf can be subdivided into
a) self induced emf
b) mutually induced emf

a) Self induced emf :
When current flowing through a coil changes, the flux linking with the coil also changes resulting in an emf
called as self induced emf


Consider a coil of N turns carrying a current of I A. Let @ be the flux.
Flux changes with respect to current in the coil and an emf is induced in the coil. This is called self induced emf and
the phenomenon is called as coefficient of self induction. This induced emf opposes the change of current in the coil
Derivation:
e o di / dt
e = L di/dt--------------------------(2.0)

L= e/ di/dt --------------------------(2.1)
But we know that
E = N du / dt
Eqauting both the equations
Nu = L I
L =Nu / I --------------------------(2.2)
But flux u = NI /S
L = N NI /S I
L = N
2
I / l/ 0rA
L= 0rA N
2
/l----------------------(2.3)

Coefficient of self inductance (L)
Coefficient of self inductance L of a coil is defined to be 1 H when the current changes in the coil at the rate of 1A per
second inducing an emf of 1V. Unit of self inductance is Henry (H).
We know that L =Nu / I
But flux u = MMF/ Reluctance

I
L
flux


u = NI /( l/ 0r A)
Substitute the value of u in L
L =0 r A N
2
/ l Henry----------------------(2.4)


b) Mutually induced emf
Consider two coils A and B placed close to each other as shown in the diagram. Let the current be passed
through the coil A,then some of the flux produced by it will link with the coil B. If the current in coil A changes then
the flux linking with the coil B also changes. This will produce not only an emf in the coil A but also mutually induced
emf in coil B. This phenomenon of producing an emf in one coil when current in another coil changes is called mutual
induction.


eB o dIA/ dt
eB = M dIA/ dt --------------------------(2.4)
M= eB / dIA/ dt -------------------------(2.5)

M is called coefficient of mutual induction .
Coefficient of mutual induction in a coil is defined to be 1H when current flowing in other coil changes at the rate of 1
A/sec induces an emf of 1 volt in it.

Expression for M



Let NA and NB be the number of turns of coil A and coil B. Let IA be the current flowing in coil A produces a
total flux phi A. Out of total flux uA flux uB will link with coil B. If IA changes flux linking with coil B also changes and
an emf is induced in coil B.
eB o d(NAuA) / dt
eB = NA d(uA) / dt
equating both equations
NA d(uA) / dt = M dIA/ dt
Integrating both sides we get
NA uA = M IA
M = NA uA / IA-----------------------------------(2.6)


NB
NA
coil A coil B
IA
NB
NA
coil A coil B
IA


Coefficient of coupling K
Consider two coils coil1 and coil2 having N1 and N2 number of coils respectively.



I1 -------current in coil 1
I2 --------current in coil2
u1 -------- flux due to I1
u11-----------flux linking with coil1
u12-----------flux linking with coil2
The total flux is vector summation of both the linking flux

u
1
=u
11
+u
12

Coefficient of coupling K is defined as the ratio of mutual flux to the mutal flux. In this case the toatal flux is u
1
and
the mutual flux is u
12
.
K = Mutual flux / total flux
K = u
12
/u
1
< 1
K tells us how closely the coils are coupled

The coefficient of mutual induction is defined as
M= N2 u12 / I1
& K = u
12
/u
1
we get M = N2 K u
1
/ I1-----------------------------------(2.7)
similarly if the volt
ge source V2 is connected to coil 2 then I2 is the current coil 2 and let u
2
be the flux.
But u
2
= u
21
+ u
22
K = u
21
/u
2
u
21
= Ku
2

M = N1u
21
/ I2
M= N1 K u
2
/ I2----------------------------------(2.8)
Multipling eq 2.7 & 2.8
M. M = (N2 K u
1
/ I1 ) ( N1 K u
2
/ I2)
M
2
= K
2
( N1 u
1
/ I1 ) (N2 K u2 / I2)

Energy stored in the magnetic field

When current flowing through a coil is gradually increased from zero to maximum value I, the increase in the current
is opposed by the self induced emf.
Energy is needed to overcome this opposition and this energy is stored in magnetic field of the coil. The expression
for stored energy is obtained as follows
Let i be the instantaneous value of current
e be the induced emf opposing the applied voltage

e= L di /dt
N2
N1
coil 1 coil 2
I1


where L is the inductance of the coil in Henry

work done in time dt in overcoming this opposition is
dw = e i dt
= L di/dt dt

Total work done in establishing the maximum steady current of I is

W = L I
2
------------------------(2.7)