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Partial Saturation

Fluid Substitution with

Partial Saturation

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Partial Saturation

ρ fluid ≈ Swρ w + So ρ o + Sg ρ g
4.5

K fluid ≈ SwKw + SoK o + Sg Kg

4
Patchy Saturation
Vp (km/s)

Drainage
3.5

Fine-scale mixing
Imbibition
2.5 1 Sw So Sg
= + +
K fluid Kw K o K g
2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
K.1
Sw (fraction)
Knight and Nolen-Hoeksema (GRL, 1990) found saturation
hysteresis at ultrasonic frequencies.

We know now that velocities depend, not just on saturation,

but also on the scales at which the phases are mixed. The
curve labeled “imbibition” is typical when phases are mixed at
a fine scale. The curve labeled “drainage” is typical when the
phases are mixed at a coarse scale -- which we call “patchy.”

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2.45
sandstone
2.4 porosity = 30%
Vp (km/s)

2.35
patchy
2.3
homogeneous
2.25
2.2
2.15
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Oil Saturation

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Partial Saturation
Increasing water saturation

a.

b.

c.

d.

K.4

Endres and Knight (The Log Analyst, 1989) modeled

different microdistributions of pore fluids and gas in the stiff and
soft portions of the pore space. They concluded that the scale
and distribution of fluids influence velocities.

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Partial Saturation

Patchy Saturation
High frequency response
Isolated patches—some
stiff, some softer

Overall a higher
effective velocity

Very low frequency response

Gassmann behavior
with a single "effective
fluid"
1
K eff.fl
= Σi KS ii

Overall the softest,

lowest velocity

kK f
Critical frequency: fvisc = l 2η

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Partial Saturation

Patchy Diffusion Scales

Characteristic diffusion time for a pressure disturbance
with length scale L to relax: 2
1 L
=τ ≈
f 4D
Inverting this, we can find the characteristic diffusion
length over which pressure differences can relax at
seismic frequency f 4κK fl
L≈
ηf
D is the hydraulic diffusivity, K is the fluid bulk
modulus, κ is the permeability, and η is the viscosity.

f κ L
10 Hz 1000 mD 1m
100 mD .3 m
10 mD .1 m
1 mD .03 m
1000 mD .3 m
100 mD .1 m
100 Hz 10 mD .03 m
1 mD .01 m
10 5 Hz 1000 mD .01 m
100 mD .003 m
10 mD .001 m
1 mD .0003 m
.1 mD .0001 m

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Partial Saturation

K.5

Thierry Cadoret studied velocity vs. saturation using the

resonant bar and found the coarse-scale and fine-scale
behavior.
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Partial Saturation

Estaillades Limestone

Cadoret’s velocity and attenuation vs. saturation. The fine

scale distribution gives relaxed viscoelastic behavior, and
the coarse scale gives unrelaxed. Therefore, we expect the
largest attenuation when the velocity dispersion is largest.
Hence, we get the important result that P-wave attenuation
in a partially saturated rock can be much larger than in the
dry or fully saturated case.

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Velocity Dispersion at Saturation

and Attenuation
Transition from uniform (homogeneous)
saturation to patchy saturation helps calculate
attenuation, depending on the model.

Luckily, maximum Q values are approximately

model-invariant.
1 (M∞ − M 0 )(ω /ω ref ) 1 π M 2 − M1
= 2
. = ,
Q M 0 M∞ [1+ (ω /ω ref ) ] Q log(ω 2 /ω1 ) 2M1
12
Standard Linear Solid Constant Q
1/Q

100/Q
€Patchy Patchy
and1/Q

€ 10
M (GPa)
Modulus and

100/Q
M (GPa)
Modulus

8
Homogeneous Homogeneous

6 4
100 1000 10000 100 1000 10
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

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The problem that we address is the nonunique

response of seismic velocity to fluid saturation.
What are the physical conditions that cause patchy
behavior? When do we use the patchy model and
when do we use the homogeneous model?

Our approach is to use flow simulation to study the

parameters that control fluid distributions at a fine
scale.

2.45
sandstone
2.4 porosity = 30%
Vp (km/s)

2.35
patchy
2.3
homogeneous
2.25
2.2
2.15
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Oil Saturation

study by Madhumita Sengupta and G. Mavko

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Typical Our cells:

Eclipse Cell 1m x 1m
10m x 10m ~ Lc

Our approach is simply to run flow simulations at

a fine scale to help discover the reservoir and fluid
properties that control the saturation scale.

The fine scales are chosen to be approximately the

critical diffusion length, so that any mix of fluids within
the cell can be represented as a Reuss average fluid.

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Porosity and permeability models for flow simulation

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Partial Saturation

We will consider two important cases: water

flood into oil, and gas flood into oil.

The parameters that we consider are:

• relative permeability
• wettability
• density contrast
• permeability heterogeneity
• capillary pressure

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Partial Saturation

Water Injection in Oil

Relative Permeability Curves for Oil and Water

1
Rel
Perm
0.8
water
oil
0.6
oil
water
0.4

0.2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Sw

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Saturations obtained from flow simulations using the

dashed (top) and solid (bottom) relative permeability
curves. The irreducible saturations are critical controls
on the saturation extremes.

Sw

Sw

Sw

Sw

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The patchy and uniform saturation curves are upper

and lower bounds. They describe the range of velocity
signatures that we can achieve by mixing the end
members. Finite irreducible saturations drastically
narrow the range of uncertainty.

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Partial Saturation

Wettability

The saturation distribution

depends on the wettability
of the rock.

Most sandstone reservoirs

are water wet and most
carbonate reservoirs
are oil wet.

Water saturation map and histogram

of saturation in an oil wet rock

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Partial Saturation

Wettability

Wettability tends to determine whether the velocities

fall high or low in the allowable range.

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Partial Saturation

Mobility Ratios
max
 k wr   k ormax 
MR =  /
 ηw   ηo 


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3300

3250

3200

Vp
P
V

3150
Low MR
Low MR

3100

High MR
High MR
3050
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
S
0.4 0.5
Waterw
0.6
Saturation
0.7 0.8 0.9 1

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• The uniform saturation model is good enough

for waterflood oil-water cases.

• Exceptions: when the irreducible oil is very low

in an oil wet rock.

• The main control is the finite irreducible

saturations.

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Partial Saturation

Gas Injection Into Oil

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Partial Saturation

Gas Injection
Effect of Mobility

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Partial Saturation

Gas injection: Effect of Mobility Ratios

3150

3100

3050

Vp High Mobility Ratio

3000
V
P
2950

2900

Low Mobility Ratio

2850

2800
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Oil Saturation

So

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Partial Saturation

Heterogeneity of Perm

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Partial Saturation

3150

3100

3050

Large Scale
3000
Heterogeneities
VVp
P
2950

2900

Small Scale
2850
Heterogeneities
2800
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Oil Saturation
So

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Partial Saturation

Summary of Mixing Rules

KVoigt = SwKw + SoK o + Sg Kg

e
K Brie = (K liquid − Kg )(1− Sg ) + Kg

1 / KReuss = Sw / Kw + So / Ko + Sg / Kg

Brie, et al.: SPE 30595

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Conclusions

• Reservoirs with gas are very likely to show patchy

behavior.

• The uniform saturation model may be good

enough for reservoirs with only oil and water

• The main mechanism that causes patchy behavior

at the field scale is gravity.

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