LMPHY122

LMPHY122: PHYSICS LABORATORY_II
1

PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

LMPHY122: PHYSICS LAB-II

The principle of science, the definition, almost, is the following: The test of all
knowledge is experiment. Experiment is the sole judge of scientific truth. But what is
the source of knowledge? Where do the laws that are to be tested come from?
Experiment, itself, helps to produce these laws, in the sense that it gives us hints. But
also needed is imagination to create from these hints the great generalizations-to guess
at the wonderful, simple, but very strange patterns beneath them all. And then to
experiment to check again whether we have made the right guess.

Richard Feynman

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SR.
NO.
Title of the Experiment
Page No.
1 An introduction to units, errors, different types of graphs and measurement of
length, mass and time.
3
2 To study the induced e.m.f. as the function of velocity of magnet.

7
3 To study the variation of magnetic field with the distance along the axis of
circular coil carrying current by plotting a graph.
10
4 To find the frequency of ac main by using electric vibrator.

12
5 To plot a graph between current and frequency in series and parallel LCR
circuit and find resonant frequency, quality factor and band width.

14
6 To study the voltage regulation and ripple factor of (a) Half Wave Rectifier (b)
Full Wave Rectifier (c) Bridge rectifier and trace it input and output. Also study
the L-type and -type filter circuit.
17
7 To find the coefficient of self inductance of a coil by Andersons method using
a head phone.

22
8 To determine Hall Voltage and Hall Coefficient using Hall Effect.

25
9 To study the characteristics of PNP and NPN transistor (CE and CB).

28
10 To measure the capacitance of plate capacitor by charge measurement/ as a
function of area of plates/determine the dielectric constant of different
materials.
31
11 To draw the forward and reverse characteristics of P-N junction diode and
draw load line.
34

TEXTBOOK:
1. LMPHY122.doc

OTHER READINGS:
2. Arora C.L., B.Sc. Practical Physics Chand S. & Company, New Delhi, Twentieth
edition, 2007

3

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
Aim: An introduction to units, errors, different types of graphs and measurement of length, mass
and time.
Equipment to used: Vernier callipers, screw gauge and multimeter

Material Required: Linear-linear and semi-log graph paper
Learning objective: (1) Students learn the use of Vernier caliper, screw gauge and
multimeter
(ii) Students learn to plot linear-linear and semi-log graphs
Introduction: The precision of length measurements may be increased by using a device
that uses a sliding vernier scale. Two such instruments (identify in the picture above) that
are based on a vernier scale which you will use in the laboratory to measure lengths of
objects are the vernier callipers and the micrometer screw gauge. These instruments have
a main scale (in millimetres) and a sliding or rotating vernier scale.
A multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement
functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to
measure (AC/DC) voltage & current, resistance and testing of a diode.
Zero error occurs when the measuring instrument registered a reading when there should
be none.
Least count of a measuring instrument is the smallest quantity that can be measured
accurately using that instrument. The degree of accuracy of a measurement can be
concluded from the least count of the instrument
Procedure:
Part A (Measurement)
1. To find the density of the given material
You are given a rectangular block and you have to find the density of material of which the
rectangular block is made of. We know density(d) =[mass(m kg)/volume (V m
3
)].
To find the volume of the rectangular block measure its length, width and height by
vernierc caliper.
Take at least five readings of each dimension. Also remember to check and note in
your report sheet the zero error and least count of the vernier caliper you are using.
Even if zero error is zero entry should be recorded in your report sheet.
Next measure the mass of the rectangular block using a balance; take at least five readings.
Also note zero error and least count of the balance you use for finding the mass.
Tabulate the data, calculate the density along with the possible error.
Error in density(od)
4

d=m/V or od/d= (om/m)+ (oV/V) (derive this expression)
Estimate (om) and (oV) to estimate the error (od) in the density you have found out in your
experiment.
2. To find the resistivity of a given metal wire
You will need screw gauge and a multimeter for this experiment.
Resistivity ()=
Resistance(R ohms) [ area of cross-section of the wire (A m
2
)/ length of the wire(l m)]
Derive the units of
Take a piece of a metal wire of almost uniform cross-section; measure (at leat five times)
its cross section by screw gauge and length (at least five times) by vernier caliper. Measure
the resistance of the above piece of wire using a multimeter( at leat five times)
Tabulate the data and calculate along with possible errors.
Error in
= R A/l so that o/= oR/R + oA/A + ol/l
How do you estimate oA?
Part B (graphical analysis)
Linear graph paper
Let us consider the case of time period T of a simple pendulum which is written as
T = (2t) (L/g)
1/2
----------(1)
L is the length of the pendulum while g is acceleration due to gravity. Eq. (1) can be
rewritten as
T
2
= (4t
2
/g) L---------(2)
Eq. (2) is an equation of straight line with slope = (4t2/g) and intercept = 0
One can find the value of g from the graph of T
2
with L.
In one of the experiments on simple pendulum a student came up with the following data
Table 1
S. No Time for 10 oscillations
(s)
Effective length of the pendulum
(m)
1 16 0.6
2 18 0.8
3 20 1.0
4 22 1,2
5 24 1,4
6 25 1.6
7 27 1.8
8 28 2.0

Find the value of g by plotting the above data i.e T
2
Vs L; T is the time period of the
pendulum for its effective length L.
How to plot the graph
Step 1. From Eq. 2 we have to plot T
2
vs L (L should in meter)
Prepare the Table with following headings (prepare directly in your Lab Report Sheet)
Sample Table
S.No. L
(m)
T
(s)
T
2

1. 0.6 1.6 2.56~2.6

5

Step 2. Choose a linear graph sheet which is linearly (normally in mm) graduated on both
X as well Y- axis
Step 3. Choose Y-axis for T
2
and X-axis for L
Step 4. Max T2 is 1 and min is 0.25; choose your scale so that you can mark 0.25 clearly.
Similarly choose scale for L on X-axis.
Step 5. Mark the points on the graph with a sharp pencil
Step 6. Draw a straight line through the points so that maximum number of points are very
close to the line (Best fit we will not discuss presently)
Step 7. Find the slope from the graph and calculate g
Exercise
In the above experiment the error (oT) in time period T is (0.1s) while the length L has
error (oL) equal to 0.01m. Calculate the error in g
Semi-log graph paper
Radioactive decay is given by N(t) = N(0) e-at , where N(t) are the observed counts at time
t,
N(0) are the counts at time t = 0 (fixed arbitrarily) and a is the decay constant. Calculate
N(0)
and a by graphical technique from the given data (Table 2)
N(t) = N(0) e-
at

Or ln N(t) = ln N(0) - ot (ln is log to the base e)
Or 2.3log N(t) = 2.3 log N (0) -ot (change of log base to 10)
Or log N(t) = log N(0) - (o/2.3) t.(3)
This is an equation of a straight line with y=log N(t), x- - (o/2.3) t with log N(0) as
intercept and plot of log N(t) vs t will give values of o . Since y is in log form and x is in
linear form the plot has to to prepared using semi-log graph paper whose y-axis is in log
scale while x-axis is in linear scale.
Table 2 summarizes the data collected from an experiment on radioactive decay. Plot the
data on semi-log paper and calculate o and N(0) for this decay.
Exercise: Half-life t is defined as the time needed to have [N(t)/N(0)]= ; derive an
expression for t.
Calculate the value of t for the radioactive process tabulated in Table 2.

Table 2
Time (days) Relative Activity
0.2 35.0
2.2 25.0
4.0 22.1
5.0 17.9
6.0 16.8
8.0 13.7
6

11.0 12.4
12.0 10.3
15.0 7.5
18.0 4.9
26.0 4.0
33.0 2.4
39.0 1.4
45.0 1.1
Important:
(i) Give a title to the graph; in present case it will be T2 Vs L for a simple pendulum.
(ii) Mark scales on the graph sheet; X-axis 10mm = so many m and Y-axis 10mm= so
many seconds
(iii) Mark X-axis and Y-axis with quantity (along with units) you are plotting
(iv)Calculate the slope and g on the graph sheet so that a graph is complete and one
need not to refer to the Lab Sheets.
Interpolation: From the graph you can find the L for T=0.44 (for example, within the
present data set)) even though there is no experimental data; this process is called
interpolation.
Extrapolation: One can extend the length of the line so that one can predict L for T
=0.1s or 2.5s (outside the present data set); this is called extrapolation.
Cautions:
1.Zero error of the instrument must be taken in to account.
2.The cap of screw gauge should be turned till the object is just held between jaws without
pressure.

Learning outcomes: to be written by the students in 50-70 words.

7

EXPERIMENT NO. 2:
Aim: To Study the induced e.m.f. as function velocity of the magnet.
Equipment Required: A small permanent magnet mounted at the middle of a semi-
circular arc, a coil consisting of number of turns, two weights, stopwatch, capacitor, diode,
resistance, voltmeter
Material Required: A small strong permanent magnet, a stopwatch
Learning Objectives:
- Electromagnetic induction
- Induced e.m.f
- Dependence of the magnitude of induced e.m.f on the velocity of the magnet.
Outline of the Procedure:
- Mount the magnet at the middle point of the semi-circular arc and suspend the rigid
aluminium frame from its centre so that whole frame can oscillate freely through the coil.
- Adjust the position of two weights on the diameter arm of the arc to have minimum time
period.
- Connect the terminals of the coil to the diode circuit for measuring the peak value of
induced e.m.f.
- Note time for about 20 oscillations with an amplitude of about say 20cm and respective
peak voltage.
- Repeat thrice keeping the amplitude same and find the time period. Also note the peak
voltage each time.
- Repeat the experiment after changing the amplitude and take 8-10 readings.
- Now change the time period by adjusting the position of the weights on the diameter arm.
Take about three readings at this position.
- Repeat the experiment after changing the time-period and take 8-10 readings.

Scope of the results expected: This experiment will help in understanding the nature and
polarity of induced e.m.f. One can apply the acquired knowledge to see the dependence of
induced e.m.f. on velocity of magnet w.r.t. the pickup coil.

Parameters and Plots:
(A) Time period constant, amplitude variable:
Mean position of the centre of the magnet= cm.
8

Radius of the semi-circular arc R
0
= cm.

Sr.No. Amplitude
a = R
0
0

Time for 20
Oscillations
Mean time
period(T)
e
o
e
o
/a= e
o
/
R
0
0

Linear velocity
v = (2/T)
R
0
0

1

.
.
.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Mean

2

(B) Amplitude constant, time period variable:

Sr.No. Amplitude
a = R
0
0

Time for 20
Oscillations
Mean time
period(T)
e
o
e
o
T Linear velocity
v = (2/T) R
0
0

1

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Mean

Model Plot:
9

ERROR ANALYSISDo error analysis of graph.

Cautions:
- The semi circular frame should oscillate freely as a whole on the knife edge.
- The magnet should pass freely through the coils..
- The magnet should be small and should be mounted at the middle of the semi circular arc.

10

EXPERIMENT NO. 3:
Aim: To study the variation of magnetic field with the distance along the axis of circular
coil carrying current by plotting a graph.
Equipments required: Stewart and Gees type tangent galvanometer, a battery, a rheostat,
an ammeter, a one-way key, a reversing key, connecting wires.
Material Used: NA
To understand the working of Tangent Galvanometer using Tangent Law.
To study the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field around the coil.

Circuit Diagram

Outline of Procedure:
1. Place the instrument in such a way that the arms of the magnetometer lie roughly east and
west and the magnetic needle lies at the centre of the vertical coil. Place the eye a little
above the coil and rotate the instrument in the horizontal plane till the coil, the needle and
its image in the mirror provided at the base of the compass box, all lie in same vertical
plane. The coil is thus set roughly in the magnetic meridian. Rotate the compass box so that
the pointer lies on the 0-0 line.
2. Connect the galvanometer to a battery, rheostat, one way key and an ammeter through a
reversing key.
3. Adjust the value of the current so that the magnetometer gives a deflection of the order of
60-70
0
degrees. Reverse the current and note the deflection again.
4. Now slide the magnetometer along the axis and find the position where the maximum
deflection is obtained.
5. Note the position of arm against the reference mark and also the value of current. Read
both ends of the pointer in the magnetometer, reverse the current and again read both ends.
Now shift the magnetometer by 2 cm and note the reading again. Record a number of
observations.
6. Similarly repeat the observation by shifting the magnetometer in the opposite direction and
keeping the current constant at the same value.

11

Observations.
Least count of the magnetometer =
Current I =

S.
No
Distance
from
the centre,x
(in )
Left Side Mean tan Right Side Mean

tan
Direct Reversed Direct Reversed

Scope of the result to be reported
Plots & Parameters: Plot a graph between tan and x, where is the deflection produced
in a deflection magnetometer and x is the distance from the centre of the coil.
The intensity of magnetic field varies with distance from the centre of coil, the
graph can be plotted and variation can be known. The intensity of magnetic field is
maximum at the centre and goes on decreasing as we move away from the centre of the coil
towards right or left.
The value of magnetic field at the centre of coil and radius of coil can also be
determined from this experiment. A graph showing the relation between B and the distance
x is plotted. The curve is first concave towards O and then afterwards becomes convex.
Then the points where the curve changes its nature are called the point of inflection. The
distance between the two points of inflexion is equal to the radius of the circular coil.
ERROR ANALYSISDo error analysis of graph.

Cautions:
1. There should be no magnet, magnetic substances and current carrying conductor near the
apparatus.
2. The plane of the coil should be set in the magnetic medium.
3. The current should remain constant and should be reversed for each observation.


12

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
Aim: To find the frequency of a.c. mains using electrical viberator.
Equipment Required: Electric vibrator, A.C supply source, a table clamp along with
frictionless pulley, weight pan, weight box
Material required: a long uniform thread
Learning objectives:
- To find the frequency of a.c. mains
- To verify the law of string
Diagram:

Outline of the procedure:
1. The current is switched on and the length of the steel rod is adjusted such that the free end of the
rod starts vibrating with maximum amplitude.
2. The current is then switched of and a string of about 2m length is tied to the free end of the rod and
the other end of the rod is passed over a frictionless pulley fixed on the table. To this end a light
weight pan is attached and some weights are added on it to make the string taut.
3. The current is again switched on and the string starts vibrating. The length of the string is adjusted
by moving the vibrator forward
or backward to get sharp loops and clearly marked nodes.
4. The positions of the extreme loops are marked leaving the first and and the last loop.
5. The distance between the two marks is measured and then divided by number of loops to get the
length of one loop.
6. The experiment is repeated three times by taking three different weights in the pan.

13

Scope of the results expected:
Actual frequency of a.c. mains is 50Hz.
Parameter and Plots:
Frequency of a.c. mains(n) = frequency of the vibrator
Therefore,

where m is the mass per unit length of the string, l is the length of one loop and T is the tension
produced in the string which is given by
T = weight of pan + weight in pan
= (mass of pan + mass in pan)g
g = 980 cm/s
2
Therefore, for different values of T, find the corresponding values of n.
Report data in tabular form.
ERROR ANALYSI-calculate percentage errors.

Caution:
1) Make sure that the string should be of uniform thickness and free from knots
2) Nodes and antinodes should be sharply defined.
3) The pulley should be frictionless.


14

EXPEWRIMENT NO. 5
Aim: To plot a graph between current and frequency in LCR series and parallel circuit and
find resonant frequency, quality factor and band width.
Equipment Required- An audio-frequency oscillator (range 10 Hz to 10 kHz), an
inductance coil, variable capacitors, variable resistors, a non-inductive resistance box, ac
milliammeter, ac voltmeter, connecting wires etc.
Material Required: NA
Learning Objective - To experimentally study LCR series and parallel circuit.
2. To find the quality factor and resonant frequency.
3. Also calculate bandwidth from the graph.
4. Be able to explain why LCR series circuit is called acceptor and LCR parallel circuit is
called rejector circuit.
Circuit diagram:

Fig: Series LCR Circuit Fig: Parallel LCR Circuit

Procedure: 1. Connect the LCR (series/parallel) circuit.
15

2. With output voltage of the oscillator kept constant throughout the experiment vary the
value of A.F. and measure the corresponding value of current in millammeter for each
observation.

3. Repeat the experiment for two more different values of R.

4. Plot a graph between current (y axis) and frequency (x axis).

Observations:
Resistance R =
Capacitance C =
Inductance L =
Output voltage of audio oscillator = Input voltage for LCR Circuit , E
v
=
S. No Frequency (in ) Current in the circuit (in mA) for
R
1
R
2
R
3

Current at resonance from the graph for
(i) R
1
=
(ii) R
2
=

(iii) R
3
=
Calculated value of current at resonance for
(i) R
1
= Ev

/R
1
(ii) R
2
= Ev

/R
2
(iii) R
3
= E
V
/R
3
Resonant frequency,
r
= 1/(2 LC )
Resonant frequency,
r
(graphically) =

Quality Factor
Maximum value of current at resonance I
r
=
Corresponding Frequency
r
=
0.707 I
r
=
Corresponding value of frequency
below
r
,

1
=
above
r
,

2
=
Band Width =
2
-
1
=
Quality Factor, Q = 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 2
v v
v
r

Calculated value of Q from inductance L = (
r
L)/R =
R
L
r
v H 2

Calculated value of Q from inductance L =
R
C
r
) / 1 ( e
=
r
CRv H 2
1

Parallel Circuit
S. No Frequency (in ) Current in the circuit (in mA) for
16

R
1
R
2
R
3

Current at (anti) resonance from the graph for
(i) R
1
=
C R
L
1
=
(ii) R
2
=
C R
L
2
=
Impedance at resonance Z =

Calculated value of current at (anti) resonance for
(i) R
1
= Ev

/Z =
L
C R E
v 1

(ii) R
2
= Ev

/Z =
L
C R E
v 2

Anti Resonant frequency,
r
(graphically) =
Calculated value for R
1
=
H 2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
2
1
1
L
R
LC

Calculated value for R
2
=
H 2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
2
2
1
L
R
LC

Plots and parameters:
Current vs. frequency
Scope of the Result-
Graph between current and frequency will be Gaussian.
Resonant frequency, quality factor and band width can be calculated from the graph.
ERROR ANALYSI-Do error analysis for the various parameters calculated.
Cautions-
- If the amplitude of the output voltage of the oscillator changes with frequency, it must be
adjusted.
- The values of inductance and capacitance are so selected that the natural frequency of the
circuit lies almost in the middle of the available frequency range.


17

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
Aim: To study the voltage regulation and ripple factor of (a) Half Wave Rectifier (b) Full
Wave Rectifier (c) Bridge rectifier and trace it input and output by using CRO. Also Study
the L-type and -type filter circuit.
Equipment Required: A step down transformer, P-N junction diodes, a high resistance, a
voltmeter, a ammeter, multimeter, a cathode ray oscilloscope, connecting wires.
- Input current I
ac
and Input Voltage V
ac

- Output current I
dc
and output voltage V
dc

- Voltage Regulation Factor with and without filter
- Rectifier Efficiency with and without filter.
- Varying the R
L
you can compare effect of load on circuit output.
- You can trace the output using CRO to visualize the changing in output of
circuit with respective change in various electronic parameters of circuit.
- Set the circuit as shown in circuit diagram for both half wave and full wave rectifier.
- Study the entire crux mentioned under learning objectives.
- Do the required calculations and trace out the output.
- Repeat all these steps for different value of load R
L
.
- Full wave Rectifier with -type filter: Close the switch S to bring both the semi-
conductor diodes D
1
and D
2
in circuit so that the arrangement acts as a full wave rectifier.
Also close switches S
1
and S
2
to get a -type filter. Connect the terminals A
1
and B
1
to the
y-y plate of C.R.O. Connect the primary of the transformer T to A.C. mains supply and
switch on the key K. Obtain the pattern of the full wave rectified voltage through the -
type filter on the C.R.O. screen and trace it.
- Full Wave Rectifier with L-type filter: Switch off S
1
keeping S
2
closed so that L-type
filter consisting of choke coil L and capacitor C
2
is only in circuit. Repeat all observations
in step 2, 3 and 4.
Circuit Diagram:

Half Wave Rectifier
18

Fig 1: Half Wave Rectifier

Fig2: Full Wave rectifier
Fig 3: Bridge Rectifier

19

Fig 4: Full wave rectifier with L filter

Fig5: filter

Observations:
Half Wave Rectifier
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V

Full Wave Rectifier
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V

Bridge Rectifier
20

S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V

Full Wave Rectifier with L filter
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V

Full Wave Rectifier with pi filter
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V

Plots and Parameters:
- Trace of Output waveform of HWR and FWR with and without the use of
filters.
- Ripple Factor
Scope of Results:
You can trace the output of both HWR and FWR in this experiment and study the response
of circuit under different conditions.
Voltage regulation is the ability of a rectifier to provide near constant voltage over a wide
range of load conditions. It is a dimensionless quantity defined as:
Where V
nl
is voltage at no load and V
fl
is voltage at full load. A
smaller value of VR

is usually beneficial.
- Current Regulation of a circuit can also be studied by using the current
as a study parameter instead of voltage.
- Rectification or Power Efficiency can be defined as ratio of output d.c
power available at load to input d.c power from the mains.
Rectification
where ,
The rectification of HWR and FWR ideally is 40.53% and 81.06% respectively.
Error analysis-Calculate percentage error.
21

Cautions:
- A safely resistance must be connected in series with the load to avoid excessive current.
- To find the effective value of a.c. component a blocking capacitor of 16f capacitance must
be used.
- The load in the output circuit must be varied by changing the resistance by 1k at a time.


22

EXPERIMENT NO. 7:
Aim: To determine the coefficient of self-inductance of unknown coil by Andersons
method using a headphone.
Equipment Required: Inductance coil, Capacitor, Two variable resistances,
Galvanometer, headphone, audio oscillato
(a).Balancing point of the Wheatstone bridge.
(b). Self-inductance of the unknown coil
(c). Unknown capacity of capacitor can be determined.
Outline of the Procedure:
- According to circuit diagram using a battery in place of A.C. Source and galvanometer in
place of headphone make the connections.
- Make Resistance P = Q
- Taking a suitable value of R adjust the value of S so as to get a null point. Note the values
of resistances P and R.
- Now replace the galvanometer by a headphone and battery by A.C. source you will hear a
sound in headphone.
- Reduce the sound to minimum or zero value by varying the variable resistance r by keeping
all other resistances constant out of which three are already constant. This is the balance
point for alternating current. Note the value of r for which sound in minimum or zero.
- Note the value of capacitance marked on it. Repeat it three times by changing the value of
capacitance.
23

The self inductance of unknown coil is ------- L. This experiment can be used to
calculate the unknown capacity of capacitor.
Parameters and Plots:
Capacitance C =
Resistance P = Q =
Resistance R =
Resistance r = (i) (ii) (iii)
Mean r =
Inductance L= CR (P+2r)

Error analysis:-
Probable error:-

Probable error = Standard Error

24

=
Where S =
2

= n mean value of frequency
m is the number of readings taken.

S.NO. Inductance of coil
2

Percentage error:-

%age error = (actual value measured value/ Actual value) * 100

Cautions:
- Balancing point should be clearly noted.
- Sound should be reduced to minimum value or zero before noting balancing point.
- The resistance used should be non-inductive


25

EXPERIMENT NO. 8:

Aim: - To determine Hall Voltage and Hall Coefficient using Hall Effect.

Equipment Requirement: -Hall probe, Gauss probe, Gauss meter, electromagnet, constant
current power supply, digital voltmeter.
Material used: Ge crystal
Learning objectives: - When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current
carrying conductor, a voltage is developed in a specimen in a direction perpendicular to
both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called the Hall Effect. The
voltage is so produced is called hall voltage. When the charges flow, a magnetic field
directed perpendicular to the direction of flow produces a mutually perpendicular force on
the charges. Consequently the electrons and holes get separated by opposite forces and
produce an electric field. , there by setting up a potential difference between the ends of
specimen. This is called hall potential.

Outline of Procedure:-
1. Place the specimen at the centre between the pole pieces and exactly perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
2. Place the hall probe at the centre between the pole pieces, parallel to the semiconductor
sample and note the magnetic flux density from the guess meter keeping the current
constant through electromagnet.
3. Before taking the reading from the gauss meter ensure that gauss meter is showing zero
value. For this put the probe away the electromagnet and switch on the gauss meter and
adjust zero.
4. Do not change the current in the electromagnet for the first observation.
5. Vary the current in small increment. Note the current and the hall voltage.
6. For the 2
nd
observation keep the current constant through the specimen and vary the
current through electromagnet and note the hall voltage.
26

7. Plot the graph between the hall voltage and the current through electromagnet.

Observations:
Current through the electromagnet = A(Constant)
Magnetic field (as measured by the Gaussmeter) =
S.
No
Current through
Hall probe I (in )
Voltmeter reading
Hall
Voltage, V=
V
H

- V
H

with
magnetic
field,V
H

without
magnetic
field,V
H

1

Current through the specimen = mA(Constant)
S.
No
Current through
Electromagnet I

( in )
Voltmeter reading
Hall
Voltage, V=
V
H

- V
H

with
magnetic
field,V
H

without
magnetic
field,V
H

1

Scope of Result: - The graph between the V
H
and I, V
H
and I is the straight line.
Parameters & Plots: -

The current density J = I / A
I = n E v A
The hall coefficient is given R
H
= V
H
b / IB,
27

where b = thickness of the specimen, V
H
= Hall Voltage, I = Current through the specimen,
B = Magnetic Field
The hall coefficient m
3 /
C
Error analysis---NA

Caution:-
1. The hall probe should be placed at the centre of the electromagnet.
2. The specimen should be placed at the centre of the electromagnet.
3. Zero should be ensured in the gauss meter before placing the hall probe between the
centre of electromagnet.

28

EXPERIMENT NO. 9:
Aim: To study the characteristics of PNP and NPN transistor (CE and CB).
Equipments Required: A pnp and npn transistor, Two voltmeters, Two milliammeters, a
potentiometer of total resistance of the order of one mega ohm, Batteries, connecting wires.
- Set the transistor circuit to study its input/output characteristics with proper biasing.
- Study the active, cut-off and saturation region.
- Comparison of CB and CE characteristics
Common base characteristics of the PNP transistor: Base is common to input and
output circuit. To draw the input characteristics, adjust the values of V
CB
(fix at one point)
and increase the V
EB
from zero onwards note I
E.
To draw the output characteristics, adjust the values of I
E
at some fixed value and increase
the value of V
CB
from zero onwards and note I
C
.
Common emitter characteristics of the PNP transistor: Emitter is common to input and
output circuit. To draw the input characteristics, adjust the value of V
CE
(fix at one point)
and increase the value of V
EB
from zero onwards and note the value of I
B.
To draw the output characteristics, adjust the values of I
B
at some fixed value and increase
the value of V
CE
from zero onwards and note I
C
.
Parameters & Plots:
I
E
=Emitter current, I
B
=Base current, I
C
=Collector current, V
EB
=Emitter to base voltage,
V
CB
=collector to base voltage, V
CE
= Collector to emitter voltage.
Characteristics of Transistor: There are two types of characteristics.
(A) Input:
For Common Base: Between I
E
and V
EB
at constant values of the collector voltages.
29

For Common Emitter: Between I
B
and V
BE
(b) Output:
For Common Base: Between I
C
and V
CB
at constant value of emitter current.
For Common Emitter: Between I
C
and V
CE
Plots of data:
Common Base configuration:

Input characteristics Output characteristics

Common Emitter Configuration:
30

Input characteristics Output characteristics
Error analysis--- find various sources of errors.

Cautions:
1. If the collector voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage for the junction the result may
vary.
2. If in a PNP transistor the emitter is not given the positive potential with respect to the base
and collector a negative voltage with respect to the base then the result may vary.

4. The leads of the transistor should be connected in the right way, the collector and the
emitter junctions should not be interchanged.

31

EXPERIMENT NO. 10:

Aim: To measure the capacitance of plate capacitor by charge measurement/ as a function
of area of plates/determine the dielectric constant of different materials.

Equipments Required: PN junction diode, test capacitor (having facility of filling with a
dielectric), a gang capacitor, micro ammeter standard variable, air capacitor, variable
oscillator, connecting wires.

1. To know how the capacity of a capacitor increase with dielectric material. If
a capacitor is filled with a substance of higher dielectric constant then its capacity
will increase.

2. When it is filled with low dielectric constant material. It means that capacitor
can store more charge.

Circuit diagram:

32


1. Connect the variable/gang capacitor and test capacitor plug to the sockets
indicated on the front panel.
2. Adjust the frequency of oscillator and do not change that value throughout the
experiment.

3. Keep the test capacitor without dielectric and change the capacity of
variable capacitor to get the maximum deflection in micro ammeter.

4. For measuring dielectric of solids, connect the variable/gang capacitor in
parallel with the test capacito
5. Fill the test capacitor with the dielectric and change the capacity of
variable gang capacitor slowly to get maximum deflection in micro-ammeter.


1. Dielectric constant for different material (mica, Bakelite etc.) is different.

2. Larger the value of dielectric constant of the material means greater will be
its charge storage capacity.

Parameters and plots:
LMPHY122: PHYSICS LABORATORY-II
33

Dielectric constant is given by the relation : K = 1+ (C
1
-C
2
/C
0
)

Where,
C
1
= Capacity of variable capacitor for maximum deflection in micro ammeter when
test capacitor is without dielectric.
C
2
= Capacity of variable capacitor for maximum deflection in micro ammeter
when test capacitor is filled with dielectric.
C
0
= Capacity of test capacitor (27pF)
Error analysis---Calculate the percentage error and find various sources of errors.

Cautions:

Set the sensitivity pot to 30A maximum.

34

EXPERIMENT NO. 11:
Aim: To draw the forward and reverse characteristics of P-N junction diode and
draw load line.
Learning Objective:
1. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.
2. To find cut-in Voltage for Silicon P-N Junction
diode.
3. To find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse Biased
conditions for P-N Junction diode.
Equipment Required:
PN Junction Diode Resistance 1k ohm Regulated power supply(0 30V) 104 Ammeter mC
(0-30)mA, (0-500)A105 Voltmeter mC
(0 1)V, (0 30)V 106 Bread board and connecting wires
Reverse BiasHere the anode of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of battery
andcathode of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the battery.
Circuit Diagram:

Forward Biased:

Reverse Biased:
For reverse biased , observer should reverse the polarity of battery.

35

Forward Biased Condition:
1. Connect the PN Junction diode in forward bias i.eAnode is connected to
positive of the power supply and cathode is connected to negative of the power supply.
2. Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30)V and a series resistance of 1k.
3. For various values of forward voltage (V
f
) note down the correspondingvalues
of forward current(I
f
)

Reverse biased condition:
1. Connect the PN Junction diode in Reverse bias i.e; anode is connected to negative of
the power supply and cathode is connected to positive of the power supply.
2. For various values of reverse voltage (V
r
) note down the corresponding values
of reverse current ( I
r
)
Tabular Column:
Forward Biased:

S.no (V
f
) (I
f
)
1
2

Reversed Biased:

S.no (V
r
) (I
r
)
1
2

Graph ( instructions) :
1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of thegraph
sheet.
2. Now mark +ve x-axis as( V
f
), -ve x-axis as (V
r
) ,+ve y-axis as (I
f
) , -ve y-axis as (I
r
).
3. Mark the readings tabulated for diode forward biased condition in first Quadrantand
Diode reverse biased condition in third Quadrant.

Calculations from Graph:
Static forward Resistance R dc= V
f
/I
f

Dynamic forward Resistance rac= V
f
/I
f

Static Reverse Resistance R dc=V
r
/I
r

Dynamic Reverse Resistance rac= V
r
/I
r

Load Line:
36

Result:
Thus the VI characteristics of PN junction diode is
verified.
1. Cut in voltage = V
2. Static forward resistance = .
3. Dynamic forward resistance = .
Error analysis- find various sources of errors.

Cautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may
lead to damage of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit
diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the
Circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.

LMPHY122

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

LMPHY122

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

LMPHY122: PHYSICS LABORATORY_II

Anda mungkin juga menyukai