Solar Energy 1

Energy & Sustainability Center
Solar Energy: An I ntroduction

September 13, 2010
Anjane Krothapalli
Professor and Director
akrothapalli@fsu.edu
http://www.esc.fsu.edu
Solar Energy Potential
Theoretical: 1.76 x 10
5
TW striking Earth; 0.3 Global mean albedo
Practical: 600 TW
Conversion Efficiency: 10%
Electricity generation potential = 60 TW
Estimated Global Demand in 2050 = 20 TW
6 Boxes at 3.3 TW Each =20 TW
Solar Cell Land Area Required
Sustainable Energy Vision- World
Source: Sustainable energy vision 2050, Gunnar BoyeOlesen, INFORSE-Europecoordinator, Gl. Kirkevej 56,
DK 8530Hjortshoej, Denmark, email ove@inforse.org. Rio2002
El ectri ci ty suppl y, worl
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
5
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
5
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
5
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
5
2
0
3
0
2
0
3
5
2
0
4
0
2
0
4
5
2
0
5
0
T
W
h
/
y
Nuclear
Fossil tot.
Hydro
Solar
Wind
b
Optimistic
View
Changing Energy Mix
1 EJ = 278 TWh
1/3 - Renewable Energy (Solar + Wind+ Biomass)
25% - Solar energy
Fossil Fuel Industry View - Shell Oil Co.
Source: Photovoltaics Guide book for Decision makers by Bubenzer and Luther; Springer, 2003
RenewableElectricity Generation - EU
27% - Solar Energy
Solar Electricity
Solar-thermally generated electricity: Lowest cost solar electric source.
Complex collectors to gather solar radiation to produce temperatures high
enough to drive steamturbines to produce electric power.
For example, a turbine fed fromparabolic trough collectors might take steam
at 750 K and eject heat into atmosphere at 300 K will have a ideal thermal
(Carnot) efficiency of about 60%. Realistic overall conversion (system)
efficiency of about 35% is feasible.
Photovoltaic energy:
The direct conversion of suns rays to electricity.
The efficiency (the ratio of the maximum power output and the incident
radiation flux) of the best single-junction silicon solar cells has now reached
24% in laboratory test conditions. The best silicon commercially available PV
modules have an efficiency of about 20%. (Sun Power 315 : 19.3% @
standard conditions)
The idea that the suns heat could be
harnessed in some way as a source of
immense power was not a new one even
in 1900s. The power of concentrated
sunlight was a theme that ran through
history, going back some thousand of
years.
In Mesopotamia, the temple priests may
have used polished golden bowls as crude
parabolic mirrors to ignite altar fires.
Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Haithamwork on light
and optics during 1000AD helped the
development of focusing mirrors (burning
mirrors).
In Rome in 1640s Father Athanasius
Kircher had shown that sunlight could be
concentrated at a distance using a
focusing lens and mirror to ignite fires.
Historical Notes
Proposed (~1515AD) to build a concave
mirror 4 miles in diameter to be built in
an excavated bowl-shaped recess in the
ground - a source of heat and power to
run commercial enterprises, not as a
weapon of war. The focal point of the
giant mirror was to be 13 feet. A tall pole
on a central axis would hold the
materials to be heated.
Performed experiments with models of
giant concave mirrors made up of a
mosaic of flat pieces of mirrored glass
glued to the bottomof a bowl.
Used varnish to silver concave mirrors to
improve their reflectivity and calculated
to quantify the degree to which the suns
rays could be concentrated.
Leonardo Da Vinci
The Sun Power Company - 1910
The conversion of solar energy into mechanical power was
attempted as a commercial venture by the Sun Power
Company in Pennsylvania by Frank Shuman.
Alfred Ackerman, a Londoner and an engineer suggested that
the following criteria must be met to have a successful solar
power plant.
It should be sold as a complete package to the consumer as
an inexpensive and reliable mechanical power, not solar
energy collection.
If sun power was to be put to practical use, that some
method for storing energy was essential.
Simplifying construction of heat absorbers to lower their
cost.
Augustin Mouchot in 1878 built a solar powered machine to power a printing
press. The inverted cone shaped solar reflector made of copper sheets coated
with burnished silver had a total reflecting surface of 56 ft
2.
A small central
boiler located along the axis of the collector produced the steam to drive a
1/2 horse power engine at 80 strokes per minute. To store energy for future
use, Mouchot had tried breaking water into its atomic components, hydrogen
and oxygen.
First Solar Powered Machine
J ohn Ericsson devised a hot-air engine to run on solar heat, that
took cool air into a cylinder, heated it, and used its expansive
force to move a piston. Pistons could push its flywheel at 400
rpm. He also invented the solar calorimeter for measuring the
intensity of solar radiation.
Ericsson Solar Motor- 1880
Solar Powered I rrigation in Egypt -1913
In 1914, Frank Shuman of Philadelphia was planning to build 50,000 km
2
of collectors in Sahara
dissert. With present technology, such a plant can generate 2500 GWof electricity.
Tellier Flat-Plate Collector - 1885
Two iron sheets riveted together
to form a watertight seal.
Ammonia was used as a working
fluid under pressure, because of
its lower boiling point.
A sun-power plant in order to be practicable, must possess, first,
high efficiency; low cost of installation and maintenance; well
marked length of service; and should require no specially trained
mechanics for its operation.
The fact that after installation no fuel is required is such an
enormous advantage as to entirely offset the increased initial cost,
and in addition cause great profits
Frank Shuman - 1911
On Commercial Viability
Solar Thermally Generated Electricity:
State of the Art - 2010
kW x capacity factor x annual hours = KWh
Annual hours = 24 x 365 = 8760
1 kWh = 3412 BTU = 3.6 MJ
Reference: Krothapalli A., and Greska, B., Concentrating Solar Thermal
Power, Handbook of Climate Mitigation, Editors: Wei-Yin Chen, J ohn M.
Seiner, Toshio Suzuki and Maximilian Lackner, Springer-Verlog, 2011.
Parabolic Trough
Cycle: steam turbine, CHP
Status: commercial, 80 MW
Projects ahead:
50 - 150 MW, Spain, India,
Mexico, Egypt, Morocco,
Crete, J ordan, USA,
South Africa .......
oil (1-3 bar / 390 C)
steam (100 bar / 390 - 550 C)
Solar Electricity Generating System (SEGS)- USA
(354 MW - capacity factor: 21%)
Source: Dr. Franz Trieb, German Aerospace Center (DLR)
Power Tower - Solar two
Source: USDOE
1980s
Solar Power Tower
PS-10
Cycle: steam turbine
Direct Saturated Steam (250
o
C @ 40 bar)
- 100,000 kg/h
Forced circulation radiant boiler
Natural gas - 15% of the electricity
production)
624 Heliostats- 75,216 m
2
(121 m
2
each)
Input Radiation: 550 MW
th
@ 650kW/m
2
PS 10 & PS 20 - Southern Spain
Capacity factor: 26%
Solar Dish-engine
Stirling Energy Systems signed a 20 year power
purchasing agreement with Southern California Edison and
San Diego Gas & Electric to provide up to 1750 MW
power using 70,000 dishes in the Mojave Desert. The solar
generator efficiency peaks at 31.25% using Stirling
engine with Hydrogen as working fluid.
Power costs are expected to be significantly less than US
peak rate of about 20 cents/kWh
Infinia 3 kW Dish Stirling engine
system - 4.7 m diameter dish
Engine working fluid: Helium
System efficiency: 24%
Cost goal: $15,000 per unit
CSP Costs
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA
Source: Sandia National Laboratories
*
Solar Thermal Power Plant Potential
Comparably lowpower generation costs can be achieved wherever
insolation reaches 1,900 kWh per square meter and year or more.
CSP Potential
Source: Dr. Franz Trieb, German Aerospace Center (DLR)
Europe & Middle East North Africa (MENA)
CSP Potential
Source: Gerhard Knies, Trans Mediterranean Renewable Corporation, 2006
CSP: 10-25% of Europes electricity needs; Cost: 5 Billion by 2020; Capacity: 60 TWh/year
Concentrated Solar Power - Summary
Direct Conversion- Photovoltaics:
State of the Art - 2010
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
Photoelectrochemistry, an area of confluence between solar cell
technology and battery or fuel cell technology, is playing role in
the development of organic solar cells.
First generation (I): Crystalline PV
Second generation (II): Thin FilmPV
Third generation (III): Based on
nanotechnology using collections of
atoms of semiconducting material. Films
containing nanocrystalline structures
and nanostructured conducting polymers
are designed to absorb much of the solar
spectrum. This technology will lead to
PV cells made fromthinly stacked plastic
sheets converting solar energy to
electricity with very high efficiency and at
very lowcost.
Solar Cell Power Conversion
NREL, USA
o
Polymer Based Solar Cell Power Conversion
World PV Cell Production (MW)
Source: GTM Research
World PV Module Production (MW)
World PV Cell Production (MW)
PV Module Production Experience (or Learning )
Curve
Source: Dr. Thomas Surek, NREL
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
0 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Cumulative Production (MWp)
P
V

M
o
d
u
l
e

P
r
i
c
e

(
2
0
0
3
$
/
W
p
)
1976
2003
90%
80%
70%
Based on discovery and
progress in new technologies
2013* 2023*
* Future-year markers are based
on 25% annual growth rates
(expect >>25% in this scenario)
Based on successful progress
in thin films *
Power Cost
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA
Source; New York Times,
August 27, 2009
*
*
Median electricity
price in US
~$0.10/kWh
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Solar Land Area Requirement
Source: Exxon Mobil, 2002 and
modified by AK
Electricity Production Cost
* Integrated gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) with
Capture and Sequestration
Residential consumer cost of electricity
*
Thin Film ?
Source: Volker Quascning, DLR & Manuel Blanco Muriel, CIEMAT, Spain
PV-CSP Power Ranges
6 Boxes at 3.3 TW Each =20 TW
Solar Cell Land Area Required
Source: Smalley, 2003
I rradiance & I rradiation
Irradiance is given in W/m
2
and is represented by the symbol G.
The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface per unit area
of surface.
Irradiation is given in J /m
2
and is the incident energy per unit area on
a surface - determined by integration of irradiance over a specified
time, usually an hour or a day.
Insolation is a termused to solar energy irradiation
Radiosity is the rate at which radiant energy leaves a surface, per unit
area, by combined emission, reflection and transmission.
Annual Global I rradiation in Europe &
USA
CSP
Source: Quaschning, Kistner & Ortmanns, 2001
Levelized Energy Cost (LEC)

LEC =
CRF K
I
+ K
OM
+ K
F
E
where
CRF =
k
d
1+ k
d
( )
n
1+ k
d
( )
n
1
+ k
i
CRF: Capital Recovery Factor; K
I
: total investment of the plant; K
OM
: annual
operation and maintenance costs; K
F
: annual fuel costs (any fossil fuel, such
as natural gas); E: annual net electricity revenue; k
d
: debt interest rate; n:
depreciation period in years (~30); k
i
: annual insurance rate (~1%).
Levelized Energy Costs
Daily Average Output for Plat Plate Collectors with Fixed
Tilt Angle Chosen for Maximum Annual Output
Key Factors - Solar Commercialization
System Cost
Insolation ( average sunlight)
Local price of grid based electricity
Three variables:
Installed system cost
How the system is financed
The amount of sun available at the location
to be served
Sun-Earth Relationships
The solar constant, G
SC
is the energy from the sun, per unit time,
received on a unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the radiation, at mean earth-sun distance, outside of the
atmosphere.
Earths elliptic orbit
The elliptical path causes
only small variations in the
amount of solar radiation
reaching the earth.
Energy and Radiation*
Radiation: The transfer of energy via electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed of
light. The velocity of light in a vacuumis approximately 3 x 10
8
m/s. The time it takes
light from the sun to reach the Earth is 8 minutes and 20 seconds. Heat transfer by
electromagnetic radiation can travel through empty space. Any body above the
temperature of absolute zero (-273.15
o
C) radiate energy to their surrounding
environment.
The many different types of radiation is defined by its wavelength. The electromagnetic
radiation can vary widely.
*Source: http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/energy/nature_of_electromagnetic_radiation.html
http://www.physicalgeography.net
Sun Radiation Spectrum
Visible light has a wavelength of between 0.40 to 0.71 micrometers (m). The sun emits
only a portion (44%) of its radiation in this range. Solar radiation spans a spectrumfrom
approximately 0.1 to 4.0 micrometers. About 7% of the sun's emission is in 0.1 to 0.4
micrometers wavelength band (UV). About 48% of the sun's radiation falls in the region
between 0.71 to 4.0 micrometers (near infrared : 0.71 to 1.5 micrometers; far infrared:
1.5 to 4.0 micrometers).
Solar radiation incident outside
the earth's atmosphere is called
extraterrestrial radiation. On
average the extraterrestrial
irradiance is 1367 W/m
2
. This
value varies by 3% as the
earth orbits the sun.
The amount of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body is directly related to its
temperature. If the body is a perfect emitter (black body), the amount of radiation
given off is proportional to the 4th power of its temperature as measured in degrees
Kelvin. This natural phenomenon is described by the Stephan-Boltzmann law:
Where =5.67 x 10
-8
Wm
-2
k
-4
and T is in K
In general, good emitters of radiation are also good absorbers of radiation at specific
wavelength bands. This is especially true of greenhouse gases. Some objects in nature
have almost completely perfect abilities to absorb and emit radiation. We call these
objects black bodies. The radiation characteristics of the sun and the Earth are very
close to being black bodies.
Stephan-Boltzmann Law

E =T
4
The wavelength of maximumemission of any body is inversely proportional to its
absolute temperature. Thus, the higher the temperature, the shorter the
wavelength of maximumemission. This phenomenon is often called Wiens law:
where T is in Kelvin. According to the above equation the wavelength of maximum
emission for the sun (5800 K) is about 0.5 m, while the wavelength of maximum
emission for the Earth (288 K) is approximately 10.0 m.
Wiens Law

max
=
C
T
C = 2897
The gases of the atmosphere are relatively
good absorbers of long wave radiation and
thus absorb the energy emitted by the
Earth's surface. The absorbed radiation is
emitted downward toward the surface as
long wave atmospheric counter-radiation
keeping near surfaces temperatures warmer
than they would be without this blanket of
gases. This is known as the greenhouse
effect".
The amount of radiation passing through a specific area is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance of that area from the energy source. This phenomenon is called
the inverse square law. Using this law we can model the effect that distance traveled has
on the intensity of emitted radiation froma body like the sun.
Where I is the intensity of radiation at one danddis the distance traveled
Radiation from the Sun is lessened by the inverse square law as it reaches further and
further away from the Sun. So the further away that a planet is from the Sun then the
less radiation it receives. What happens to that radiation depends on whether the planet
has an atmosphere, whether the atmosphere contains clouds and how the clouds, or the
surface, reflect the radiation.
For planets with no atmosphere all the Sun's radiation will strike the surface. Some of this
will be reflected away fromthe planet but the rest will be absorbed. The temperature of
the surface will be raised until there is equilibrium between the energy radiated by the
warmsurface of the planet and the received solar radiation. For planets like Mercury, this
results in a very hot surface where the Sun is shining (more than 400C) but very cold on
the night side, where the radiation fromthe surface rapidly cools it to -180C.
I nverse Square Law

Intensity=
I
d
2
Extraterrestrial Radiation
The amount of solar radiant energy from outside the earths atmosphere
passing per unit time through unit surface area perpendicular to the suns rays
and at a distance of the mean radius of the terrestrial orbit is 1367 W/m
2.
This
value is referred to as Solar Constant.
The amount of extraterrestrial radiation reaching the earth is given by
R
av
: the mean sun-earth distance
R: the actual sun-earth distance on the day of the year
I
o
=1367
R
av
R
|
\

|
.
|
2
W/m
2
(R
av
/ R)
2
=1.00011+0.034221 * cos (b) +0.001280 * sin (b) + 0.000719 * cos (2b)
+0.000077 * sin (2b)
b =2 (d
n
-1)/ 365radians and d
n
is t hedayo fthe y ear
Atmospheric Effects on Incoming Solar Radiation
Sunlight reaching the Earth's surface unmodified by
any of the atmospheric processes is termed direct
solar radiation. Solar radiation that reaches the Earth's
surface after it was altered by the process of
scattering is called diffused solar radiation. Not all of
the direct and diffused radiation is available at the
Earth's surface. Some of the radiation received at the
Earth's surface is redirected back to space by
reflection.
The spatial pattern of surface reflectivity
as measured for the year 1987.
Of all the sunlight that passes through the atmosphere
annually, only 51 % is available at the Earth's surface;
to heat the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere,
evaporate water, and run photosynthesis in plants. Of
the other 49 %, 4 % is reflected back to space by the
Earth's surface, 26 % is scattered or reflected to
space by clouds and atmospheric particles, and 19 %
is absorbed by atmospheric gases, particles, and
clouds.
Direct Normal I rradiation
Solar Spectrum with Atmospheric
Absorptions
http://www.csr.utexas.edu/projects/rs/hrs/pics/irradiance.gif Source:
Earth-Sun Relations
The earth itself rotates around the polar axis, which is inclined at
approximately 23.5
o
fromthe normal to the elliptic plane of revolution of the
earth around the sun.
Sun-Earth Relationships
The Earth's axis is tilted 23 1/2 degrees from being perpendicular to the plane of
the ecliptic. The axis of rotation remains pointing in the same direction as it
revolves around the Sun, pointing toward the star Polaris. The constant tilt and
parallelism causes changes in the angle that a beam of light makes with respect
to a point on Earth during the year, called the "sun angle". The most intense
incoming solar radiation occurs where the sun's rays strike the Earth at the
highest angle. As the sun angle decreases, the beam of light is spread over a
larger area and decreases in intensity. During the summer months the Earth is
inclined toward the Sun yielding high sun angles. During the winter, the Earth is
oriented away from the Sun creating low sun angles.
Sun angle determines the intensity of energy.
Declination Angle
=(0.006918 - 0.399912cos b +0.070257sin b - 0.006758cos2b +0.000907sin2b
0.002697cos3b +0.00148sin3b) * (180/).
Orbit of the Earth AroundtheSun
Source: Photovoltaic systems Engineering by Messenger & Ventre, CRC 2000.
At about J une 21, we observe that the noontime time sun is at its highest point in the sky and the
declination angle () = +23.45
o
. We call this condition summer solstice and it marks the
beginning of Summer in the northern hemisphere. The winter solstice occurs on about December
22 - the northern hemisphere is tilted away fromthe sun. The noontime sun at its lowest point in
the sky, i.e the declination angle () = -23.45
o
. In between, on about September 23 (autumnal
equinox) and March 22 (vernal equinox) , the line fromthe earth to the sun lies on the equatorial
plane and =0
o
Suns Position
For a given geographical location, the suns position in the sky in
relation to a horizontal surface is determined by
cos
z
= sin = sin sin + cos cos cos
cos =
sinsin sin
cos cos
z
: Zenith angle (degrees); : the
solar altitude of the sun elevation
above the horizon (degrees, = 90-
z
); : hour angle; : geographic
latitude (degrees, north positive);
: the declination (degrees, north
positive); : solar azimuth angle
(degrees, south zero, east
positive)

Where t
s
is the solar time in hours. For example, when it is 3 hours after solar noon, the
hour angle has a value of 45 degrees. When it is 2 hours and 20 minutes before solar
noon, the hour angle is 325 degrees.
The Hour Angle ()

=15 t
s
12
( )
(degrees)
Equatorial plane
Polaris
E
Solar noon
meridian
Observer
meridian
Center of
earth
This is the angle defined as the angle between the plane of
the meridian containing the point of interest and the
meridian that touches the earth -sun line. The hour angle is
zero at solar noon. The hour angle increases by 15 degrees
every hour. An expression for the hour angle is
Time based on the apparent angular motion of the sun across sky, with
solar noon the time the sun crosses the meridian of the observer.
Solar time - standard time = 4(L
st
- L
loc
) + E
Where L
st
is the standard meridian for local time zone. L
loc
is the
longitude of the location in question in degrees west. The time E is
determined fromthe following figure.
Solar Time
Tallahassee, FL
Latitude: 30.438N
Longitude: 84.28W
Time zone: Eastern Daylight Saving
E

E = 229.2(0.000075+ 0.001868cosB0.032077sinB0.014615cos2B0.04089sin2B)
B= (n1)
360
365
Where n is the day of the year
Fixed Collector
cos =(sin cos - cos sin cos)sin +(cos cos +sin sin cos) cos cos +
cos sinsinsin
= angle of incidence
= the slope of the
collector surface measured
fromthe horizontal position
: the surface azimuth
angle
c os =s i n c o s - c o s si n c o s
For Surfaces facing south
MountingAngle of a FixedCollector
Source: Photovoltaic systems Engineering by Messenger & Ventre, CRC 2000.
Tilted Collector Surface
Zenith Angle
Determination of Zenith angle (
z
) for tilted surfaces: The zenith angle
for tilted surfaces is determined fromWhilliers curves given below.
I nclination Effect
Ibrahim Reda & Afshin Andreas, Solar Position Algorithm for Solar Radiation Applications, NREL/TP-
560-34302, November 2005. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/34302.pdf
Algorithm

E
gl obal
= 650sin
4
3
30
|
\

|
.
|
+ 325

(

(
810
5
h+1
( )
W/m
2
Annual Global I rradiance
For clear sky condition
Where is the solar altitude in degrees and h is the geographic
altitude in meters.
Masato Oki & Hiroyuki Shiina, Preliminary study on an estimation method for annual solar irradianceat
various geological altitudes, Eighth International IBPSA Conference, Eindhoven, Netherlands, August
2003.
Source:
Typical Daily Solar I nsolation
Typical daily solar insolation on an optimally tilted surface during the worst month of the
year around the world in kWh/m
2
Commercially available data base: www.meteotest.ch
Other site: wrdc-mgo.nrel.gov
The path length of the solar radiation
through the Earths atmosphere in units
of Air Mass (AM) increases with the
angle from the zenith. The AM 1.5
spectrum is the preferred standard
spectrum for solar cell efficiency
measurements.
The easiest way to estimate the air
mass in practice is to measure the
length of the shadows cast by a vertical
structure of height h using

AM= 1+
s
h
|
\

|
.
|
2
Air Mass
Air Mass AM: The ratio of the mass of atmosphere through which beamradiation passes to
the mass it would pass through if the sun were at zenith (directly overhead).
At sea level, AM=1 when the sun is at zenith; AM=2 for a zenith angle
z
of 60
o
.
For 0 <
z
<70
o
AM=1/cos
z
Air Mass Variation
Berlin
Cairo
At the time during a day
with highest sun
elevation - solar noon
The global spectrum
comprises the direct
plus the diffused light.
Global Radiation
Sweden - Latitudes
Average Monthly I nsolation Data
Stockholm Yearly Insolation: 968 kWh/m
2

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Solar Energy: An I ntroduction

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