A Brief History of Sports and Games Definition Sport is an activity that is governed by a set of rules or customs and often

engaged in competitively. Sports commonly refer to activities where the physical capabilities of the competitor are the sole or primary determiner of the outcome (winning or losing), but the term is also used to include activities such as mind sports and motor sports where mental acuity or equipment quality are major factors. Etymology "Sport" comes from the old French desport meaning "leisure" Activities where the outcome is determined by judgement over execution are considered performances, or competition. The history of sports probably extends as far back as the existence of people as purposive beings. Sporst has been a useful way for people to increase their mastery of nature and the environment. The history of sports can teach us a great deal about social changes and about the nature of sports itself. Sports seem to involve basic human skills being developed and exercised for their own sake, in parallel with being exercised for their usefulness. Pre-history Pre-historic cave art discovered in France, Africa, and Australia, carbon dated up to 30,000 years ago, provides evidence of ritual archery. The art's very existence demonstrates interest in skills unrelated to the functional tasks of staying alive, and is evidence of leisure time being available. It depicts other nonfunctional and apparently ritual activities as well. Therefore, although there is scant direct evidence of sports from these sources, it is reasonable to infer that there was some activity at these times resembling sport. There are artefacts and structures that suggest that the Chinese engaged in sporting activities as early as 4000 BC. Gymnastics appears to have been a popular sport in China's ancient past. Monuments to the Pharaohs indicate that a number of sports, including swimming and fishing, were well-developed and regulated several thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt. Other Egyptian sports included javelin throwing, high jump, and wrestling. Ancient Persian sports such as the traditional Iranian martial art of Zourkhaneh had a close connection to the warfare skills. Among other sports that originate in Persia are polo and jousting.

A wide range of sports were already established by the time of Ancient Greece and the military culture and the development of sports in Greece influenced one another considerably. Sports became such a prominent part of their culture that the Greeks created the Olympic Games, which in ancient times were held every four years in a small village in the Peloponnesus called Olympia. Captain Cook, as the first Western visitor to the Hawaiian Islands, in 1778, reported on the native people surfing. The Native Americans engaged in games and sports, such as lacrosse-type ball games, foot racing, and other athletic activities before the coming of Europeans. The ancient Mayan and Aztec civilizations played, organized, ritualized ballgames. Some of the courts used at that time are still standing today. It is reasonable to assume from these and other historical sources that sport has origins which lie in the global beginnings of humankind itself. Origins of Modern Sports in Medieval Europe Many modern sports can trace their roots back to the local games of the rural working class. Games such as the Shrovetide football matches across much of Europe, caid in Ireland and hurling from Cornwall to Ireland often had few rules and were violent and chaotic in comparison with their modern counterparts. Prizefighting also emerged in 17th century England, with the first rules (the London Prize Ring rules) established in 1743. In contrast, the game of Calcio Fiorentino, in Florence, Italy, was originally reserved for the aristocracy. The aristocracy would also favour sports as patrons. Horse racing, in particular, was a favourite of the upper class in Great Britain, with Queen Anne founding the Ascot Racecourse. Development of Modern Sports A number of the English Public Schools, introduced sports for their pupils, particularly variants of football. These were described at the time as "innocent and lawful", certainly in comparison with the rural games. With the coming of the Industrial Revolution and the movement of the populace from the country to the cities, the rural games moved to the new urban centres and came under the influence of the middle and upper classes. The rules and regulations devised at English public schools began to be applied to the wider game, with governing bodies in England being set up for a number of sports by the end of the 19th century. The rising influence of the upper class also produced an emphasis of the amateur, and the spirit of 'fair play'. The industrial revolution also brought with it increasing mobility, and created the opportunity for English public schools, and universities in Britain and elsewhere, to compete with each other. This sparked

increasing attempts to unify and reconcile various public school games in England, leading to the establishment of the Football Association in London, the first official governing body in football. Modern History The influence of British sports and their codified rules began to spread across the world in the late 19th and early 20th century, particularly association football. A number of major teams elsewhere in the world still show these British origins in their names, such as AC Milan in Italy, Corinthians in Brazil, and Athletic Bilbao in Spain. Cricket became popular in a number of the nations of the then British Empire, such as Australia, South Africa and India. The revival of the Olympic Games by Baroun Coubertin were also heavily influenced by the Amateur ethos of the English public schools. Baseball became established in the urban Northeastern United States, with the first rules being codified in the 1840s, while American football was very popular in the south-east. After the civil war the game of baseball started spreading to the south, and American football spreading to the north. In the 1870s the game split between the professionals and amateurs; the professional game rapidly gained dominance, and also marked a shift in the focus from the player to the club. The rise of baseball also helped squeeze out other sports such as Cricket, which had been popular in Philadelphia prior to the rise of Baseball. American football also has its origins in the English variants of the game, with the first set of intercollegiate football rules based directly on the rules of the Football Association in London. However, Harvard chose to play a game based on the rules of Rugby Union. This variant would then be heavily modified by Walter Camp in the 1880s, with the modifications also heavily influencing the rules of Canadian football. Some historians notably Bernard Lewis claim that team sports are primarily an invention of Western cultures. The traditional teams sports, according to these authors, springs from Europe, primarily England. This ignores some of the ancient games of cooperation from Central America and the Indian subcontinent. The Industrial Revolution and mass production brought increased leisure which allowed increases in spectator sports, less elitism in sports, and greater accessibility. With the advent of mass media and global communication, professionalism became prevalent in sports. This further sports popularity in general. Perhaps in a reaction to the demands of contemporary life, there have been developments in sport which are best described as post-modern. There is also a move towards adventure sports as a form of escaping or transcending the routines of life, examples being white water rafting, paragliding, canyoning, BASE jumping and orienteering. Industrialization has brought increased leisure time to the citizens of developed and developing countries, leading to more time for citizens to attend and follow spectator sports, greater participation in athletic activities, and increased accessibility. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and

global communication. Professionalism became prevalent, further adding to the increase in sport's popularity, as sports fans began following the exploits of professional athletes through radio, television, and the internet--all while enjoying the exercise and competition associated with amateur participation in sports. In the new millennium, new sports have been going further from the physical aspect to the mental or psychological aspect of competing. Cyber sports organizations are becoming more and more popular. Development of Sports in India Present day India has not much to crow about its achievements in the field of sports and games. This does not mean that this very important aspect of life was absent from our culture and traditions. In fact the three ancient cultures of the world, the Greco-Roman culture, the ancient Indian and the ancient Chineese cultures give enough evidences of sports and games having a place in their cultures. The swayamvarah of Sita in the Ramanaya involved a sport competition of some sort. The game of Chaturanga is mentioned in the Mahabharatas. We have enough historic proofs to believe that the game of chess in its initial version originated in India. Swordfight as a sport was prevalent in India, including northern Kerala, where kalarippayattu used to be held. Other sports like wrestling, archary etc was also popular in India. Hockey, the national game of India had its origin in India. Other than these each local culture had its own unique kinds of sports and games. Nationalism and sports Nationalism and sports are often intertwined, as sports provide a venue for symbolic competition between nations; sports competition often reflects national conflict, and in fact has often been a tool of diplomacy. The involvement of political goals in sport is seen by some as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport being carried on for its own sake, for the enjoyment of its participants, but this involvement has been true throughout the history of sport. Most sports are contested between national teams, which encourages the use of sporting events for nationalist purposes, whether intentionally or not. The signalling of national solidarity through sport is one of the primary forms of banal nationalism. Several sporting events are a matter of national pride The Ashes is a matter of national pride between England and Australia. Also in cricket an India vs Pakistan match puts both countries on a virtual standstill as it is all about national pride during those matches. The Olympic Games are the premier stage for nationalist competition, and its history reflects the history of political conflict since its inception at the end of the 19th century. The 1936 Summer Olympics

held in Berlin was an illustration, maybe best acknowledged in hindsight, where an ideology was developing which used the event to strengthen its spread through propaganda. The boycott by the United States and politically aligned nations of the 1980 Summer Olympics and the Soviet Union of the 1984 Summer Olympics were part of the Cold War conflict. When apartheid was the official policy in South Africa, many sportspeople adopted the conscientious approach that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others feel that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects. Women's Sports History Women's competition in sports has been frowned upon by many societies in the past. The English public-school background of organised sport in the 19th and early 20th century led to a paternalism that tended to discourage women's involvement in sports, with, for example, no women officially competing in the 1896 Olympic Games. The 20th century saw major advances in the participation of women in sports, although women's participation as fans or athletes remains in general less than men's. Mass involvement tends to favour sports such as swimming and aerobics, and tends to stress the competitive aspects less than men. The increase has been partly related to the drive for more women's rights. In the United States, female students participation in sports was significantly boosted by the Title IX Act in 1972, preventing gender discrimination and equal opportunity for women to participate in sport at all levels. Pressure from sports funding bodies has also improved gender equality in sports. For example the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and the Leander Rowing Club in England had both been male-only establishments since their founding in 1787 and 1818, respectively, but both opened their doors to female members at the end of the 20th century at least partially due to the requirements of the United Kingdom Lottery Sports Fund.