These notes are for the course MENG 2012- Heat Transfer and the reference

for the notes is the recommended text Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer-
F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt
RADIATION

Heat transfer by conduction and convection requires the presence of a temperature
gradient in some form of matter. Heat transfer by thermal radiation requires no matter.
We associate thermal radiation with the rate at which energy is emitted by matter as a
result of its finite temperature. All forms of matter emit radiation.

Radiation cooling of a (a)Volumetric Surface phenomenon
heated solid The emission process

For gases and for semitransparent solids, emission is a volumetric phenomenon. In solids
and liquids, radiation emitted from interior molecules is strongly absorbed by adjoining
molecules. Therefore emission from a solid or a liquid into an adjoining gas or a vacuum
is viewed as a surface phenomenon

This figure shows the complete electromagnetic spectrum.

(1) The short wavelength :- Gamma rays, X rays, and Ultraviolet radiation are of
interest to the high energy physicist and nuclear engineer.

(2) The long wavelength microwaves and radiowave are of interest to the electrical
engineer.

(3) The intermediate portion of the spectrum, which extends from approximately 0.1
to 100 m includes portion of the UV and all the visible and infrared IR is termed
thermal radiation and is pertinent to heat transfer.




The intensity I, of radiation emitted by dA
1
is defined as the rate dq at which radiant
energy is emitted by dA
1
in a particular direction per unit solid angle and per unit area of
the projection of dA
1
perpendicular to the direction r. The total emissive power is the
total rate at which a surface, at absolute temperature emits radiant energy per unit area of
that surface.





Fig. 12.7 from the figure the solid angle subtended by area dA
n
is ) (
2
r
dAn
d = e . The
area dA
n
= r(sin ) (d |) rd = r
2
sin d d|. The area used to define intensity is the
component of dA
1
perpendicular to the direction of the radiation. From the next figure
this area is dA
1
Cos

The spectral instensity is

I

= dq/dA
1
Cos . d. d where dq/d = dq

is the rate at which radiation of
wavelength leaves dA
1
and passes through dA
n
. Rearranging equation:-

dq

= I

(dA
1
Cos .) d

I
,e
is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is emitted at the wavelength in the
(,|) direction, per unit area of the emitting surface normal to this direction, per unit
solid angle about this direction, and per unit wavelength interval d about .


Radiosity accounts for all of the radiant energy leaving a surface.
Radiosity is represented by the letter J. If the surface is both a diffuse reflector and
diffuse emitter, I

is independent of and |, i.e:- J = I.

Blackbody Radiation

The black body is an ideal surface having the following properties.

(1) A black body absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wave length and
direction.

(2) For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy
than a blackbody.

(3) The blackbody is a diffuse emitter.

The black body serves as a standard against which the radiative properties of actual
surfaces may be compared.

Experiment shows that the total emissive power is a complicated function of temperature,
type of material, and surface condition.

The total rate at which a black surface emits radiant energy per unit area at the absolute
temperature, T, was found experimentally by Stefan and later shown theoretically by
Boltzmann and is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law as E
b
= T
4
where Stefan
Boltzman constant is 5.670 x 10
-8
W/m
2
. K
4


The blackbody is an ideal emitter, therefore it is convenient to choose the black body as a
reference. For real surfaces there is a radiative property known as emissivity (). It is
defined as the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface to the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature.

Surface absorption, reflection and transmission

Spectral irradiation, G

, is defined as the rate at which radiation of wavelength is

incident on a surface per unit area of the surface and per unit wavelength interval d
about . Total irradiation G (W/m
2
) encompasses all spectral contributions. In the most
general situation when irradiation interacts with a semitransparent medium, portions of
this radiation are reflected, absorbed and transmitted.

For a radiation balance G

= G

,
ref
+ G
,abs
+ G
,tr


The absorptivity (o) is a property that determines the fraction of the irradiation absorbed
by a surface.
The reflectivity () is a property that determines the fraction of the incident radiation
reflected by a surface.

The Gray Surface
A gray surface may be defined as one for which o
u
and c
u
are independent of over
the spectral regions of the irradiation and the surface emission. It is a surface for which
c = o ie. (c

= o

)

View Factor

The view factor F
ij
is defined as the fraction of the radiation leaving surface i which is
intercepted by surface j.

dq
i - j
= I
i
Cos u
i
dA
i
d
j-i
ie:- The heat transfer from i to j is the

Intensity (I
i
) The projected Area The solid angle at j
of surface I X A
i
as seen from j X looking from i
to the direction r

de
j-i
= projected area of j in the direction to R (from ) (
2
r
dAn
d = e )
R
2
= Cos u
j
dA
j

R
2

dq
i-j
= I
i
Cos u
i
Cosu
j
dA
i
dA
j

R
2
but J
i
= t I
i


dq
i-j
= J
i
Cos u
i
Cosu
j
dA
i
dA
j

tR
2

q
i-j
= J
i

Ai

Aj
Cos u
i
Cosu
j
dA
i
dA
j

tR
2

where J is uniform over the surface A
i
. From the definition of view factor.

F
ij
= q
i-j
that is Radiation leaving A
i
transferred to A
j

A
i
J
i
total radiation leaving Area A
i

F
ij
= (1/A
i
)
Ai

Aj
Cos u
i
Cosu
j
dA
i
dA
j

tR
2

Similarly the view factor F
j i
will be

F
ji
= (1/A
i
)
Ai

Aj
Cos u
i
Cosu
j
dA
i
dA
j

tR
2

A
i
F
ij
= A
j
F
ji
this is the reciprocity relation

Another important view factor relation pertains to the surface of an enclosure Fig. 13.2.


From the definition of the view factor, the summation rule

=
=
N
j
ij
F
1
1, may be applied to
each of the N surfaces in the enclosure.


An example is the two surface enclosure shown below.

Since all the radiation leaving the surface (1) must reach (2) then F
12
= 1. The same is
not true for surface 2, since (2) sees itself. Reciprocity relation

A
2
F
21
= A
1
F
12



2
1
2
1
12
2
1
21
1 ) (
A
A
A
A
F
A
A
F = = =

summation: F
11
+ F
12
= 1 but F
11
= 0 F
12
= 1

F
21
+ F
22
= 1

F
22
= 1 F
21
= 1 ( )
2
1
A
A


The summation rule may be applied to each of the N surfaces in the enclosure. This rule
follows from the conservation requirement that all radiation leaving surface i must be
intercepted by the enclosure surface.

The term F
ii
represents the fraction of the radiation that leaves surface i and is directly
intercepted by i.

i.e. the surfaces sees itself and F
ii
is not zero.


Figures 13.4, 13.5, 13.6 shows the view factor solutions for more complicate geometries.







Blackbody Radiation Exchange
Surfaces that approximate as blackbodies show no reflection. Energy only leaves as a
result of emission, and all incident radiation is absorbed.

q
i-j
= (A
i
J
i
) F
ij
ie the radiation transfer between surfaces i j is the total
radiation emission of surface i which is (A
i
J
i
) x View factor. For blackbodies radiosity
equal emissive power (J
i
= E
i
)
then
q
i - j
= A
i
F
ij
E
i


Similarly q
j - i
= A
j
F
ji
E
j


The net radiative exchange between the two surfaces is then

q
ij
= q
i-j
q
j-i
which gives

q
ij
= A
i
F
ij
o (T
i
4
T
j
4
) using Stefan Boltzman law

q
i
= ( )

=

N
j
j i ij i
T T F A
1
4 4
o

Radiation Exchange Between Diffuse,
Gray Surfaces in an Enclosure
Ref. Fig. 13.9. The term q
i
is the net rate at which radiation leaves surface i. Also it is
the rate at which energy would have to be transferred to the surface by other means to
maintain it at a constant temperature.

It is the difference between the surface radiosity and irradiation.

i.e. q
i
= A
i
(J
i
G
i
) Radiative balance , Fig.13.9 (b)

But radiosity, J
i
is the sum of emission E
i
, and reflection
i
Gi which is the net radiative
transfer from the surface, i. That is J
i
= E
i
+
i
Gi . The net radiative transfer can also be
represented by the difference between surface emissive power and the absorbed
irradiation.
i.e. q
i
= A
i
(E
i

i
G
i
) Radiative balance , Fig. 13.9 (c)
but emissivity =
b
E
E
and
i
= 1
i
= 1
i

ie the reflected radiation is the difference between the total irradiation and what is
absorbed. For gray surfaces =
J
i
=
i
E
bi
+ (1
i
)G
i
which gives G
i
=
i
i
b i i
E J
c
c

1

i
bi i i
i i i
E J
J A q
c
c

=
1
and
i i
i bi
i
A
J E
q
c c / ) 1 (

=






From the definition of view factor, the total rate at which radiation reaches surface, i,
from all surfaces including i, is

=
=
N
j
j j ji i i
J A F G A
1
or from the reciprocity relation

=
=
N
j
j ji i i i
J F A G A
1

=
=
n
j
j ij i i i
J F J A q
1
( ) (
1 1

= =
=
n
j
j ij
n
j
i ij i i
J F J F A q
) (
1

=
=
n
j
j i ij i i
J J F A q

N
j
ij i
j i
i i i
i bi
F A
J J
A
J E
1
1
) ( / ) 1 ( c c


This expression represents a radiation balance for the radiosity node associated with
surface i. The rate of radiation transfer (current flow) to i through its surface resistance
must equal the rate of radiation transfer (current flow) from i to all other surfaces through
the corresponding geometrical resistances.


The Two Surface Enclosure

For such a system the net rate of radiation transfer from surface 1, q
1
, must equal the rate
of radiation transfer to surface 2, - q
2
. i.e q
1
= -q
2
= q
1-2
From the network representation we see that the heat transfer from surface 1, q
1
is the
difference between the ideal radiosity | |
1
.
b Body Black Body Black
E ie E J Note = and the
actual radiosity J
1
, divided by the surface resistance ie.
|
.
|

\
|
1 1
1
1
A c
c

Similarly for the radiation absorbed by surface 2, q
2
.

The heat transfer across the space between surface 1 and 2 is given by the view factor
F
12
x A
1
x J
1
= q
12
. Hence using Stefan Boltzmanns Law the net radiation exchange
between the surfaces may be expressed as
q
12
= q
1
= -q
2
=
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

2 2
2
12 1 1 1
1
4
2
4
1
1 1 1
A F A A
T T
c
c
c
c
o

Note: This result may be used for any two diffuse, gray surfaces that form an enclosure

e.g. Long (infinite) Concentric cylinders Table 13.3

2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
r
r
r
r
A
A
= =
t
t
also F
11
+ F
12
=1, but F
11
= 0 F
12
= 1

( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

+ +

=
2
1
2
2
12 1
1
1
4
2
4
1
2 2
2
12 1 1 1
1
4
2
4
1
12
1 1 1
1 1 1
A
A
F
A T T
A F A A
T T
q
c
c
c
c
o
c
c
c
c
o


Substitute for
2
1
A
A
and F
12

( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

=
2
1
2
2
1
1
4
2
4
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
4
2
4
1
12
1 1 1
1 1
1
r
r
A T T
r
r
A T T
q
c
c
c
o
c
c
c
o



Important cases are shown in Table 13.3

Radiation Shields

Radiation shields constructed from low emissivity (high reflectivity) materials can be
used to reduce the net radiation transfer between two surfaces. The emissivity associated
with one side of the shield may differ from the other side and the radiosities will always
differ.

View Factor (A
1
= A
2
)

F
11
+ F
13
= 1 but F
11
= 0 F
13
= 1 and F
33
+ F
32
= 1 but F
33
= 0 F
32
= 1

Hence
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

=
2 , 3
2 , 3
1 , 3
1 , 3
2
4
2
4
1 1
12
1 1
1 1
) (
1 c
c
c
c
c c
o T T A
q
The resistance becomes larger with smaller emissivity. Also q
12
= q
13
= q
32

This can be extended to problems involving multiple radiation shields. In a special case
for which all the emissivities are equal with N shields.
( ) ( )
0
12 12
1
1
q
N
q
N
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
where ( )
0
12
q is the radiation transfer rate with no shields (i.e. N = 0)

Reradiating Surface
An ideal reradiating surface has zero net radiation transfer (q
i
= 0) since

q
i
= A
i
(J
i
G
i
) = 0 G
i
= J
i
= E
bi
= o T
i
4


Therefore if the radiosity of a reradiating surface is known its temperature is readily
determined and is independent of the emissivity. With q
R
= 0 the net radiation transfer
from surface 1 must equal the net radiation transfer to surface 2. The network is analyzed
as a simple series parallel arrangement as in the simple diagram.

5
4 3 2
1
1 1
1
R
R R R
R R
Total
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =


Therefore, from the diagram

q
1
= -q
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

+ +
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

2 2
2
1
2 2 1 1
12 1
1 1
1
2 1
1
1 1
1 1
A
F A F A
F A
A
E E
R R
b b
c
c
c
c


Knowing J
1
and J
2
you can find J
R
from 0
1 1
2 2
2
1 1
1
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

R
R
R
R
F A
J J
F A
J J
and the temperature
from
R R
J T =
4
o
R
1
R
3
R
2
R
4
R
5