Coral Reef Protection in Western Jamaica Thomas J. Goreau, Ph.D.

President, Global Coral Reef Alliance, Scientific Advisor, Negril Coral Reef Preservation Society Published: 1992, p. 39-65 in Protecting Jamaica's Coral Reefs: Water Quality Iss ues NOTE: This paper describes the ecological status of coral reefs along the entir e western half of Jamaica during 1992, identifies the major stresses taking plac e in each area, and makes specific recommendations regarding the management and conservation of all of them, with special attention to identifying those reefs o f special importance because of their high biodiversity, live coral cover, coral size, and roles as fish nurseries and in shore protection. Since this paper was written all the sites described have deteriorated significantly. ABSTRACT Jamaican reefs have high value as natural resources because of their high biodiv ersity and role in fisheries, tourism, and shore protection. The concepts of eut rophication, sustainable management of coral reefs, external reef nutrient load and human carrying capacity are developed in this paper. The environmental healt h and protection status of coral reefs around Western Jamaica from Whitehouse, W estmoreland to Discovery Bay, St. Anns were assessed during 1992. Factors compar ed included coral and algal species distributions, current threats to reef habit ats from sedimentation, sewage, pollution, boat and diver damage, over harvestin g, and both current and proposed land use and development. Sites were evaluated with regard to potential for bathing, snorkeling, diving, boating, fishing, mari culture, port use, fish nursery grounds, and scientific monitoring sites. Areas exceptional because of high species diversity, important fish nursery grounds, u nusually large corals and rapid coral growth rates, or remarkable underwater top ography, are recommended as no-use preserves. Most reefs near developed shores a re now seriously degraded by algal overgrowth of corals: their restoration requi res sharp and prompt decreases in sewage nutrient releases to the coastal zone. To protect water quality in remaining Jamaican reefs, still the most species-ric h in the Caribbean, and preserve them as perpetual resources for tourism, fisher ies, and shore protection will require strong conservation measures and developm ent restrictions near the best reefs. Extension of current patterns of "developm ent" will quickly degrade or destroy them. An integrated national coastal zone m anagement approach is urgently needed that prevents coastal development until af ter sewage infrastructure is in place. While local environmental non-governmenta l organizations have a critical role to play in decision-making and project impl ementation, current models for financing conservation are maladapted and need to be changed. INTRODUCTION: JAMAICAN REEF DIVERSITY AND PROTECTION Jamaica's reefs are regarded as the centre of marine species diversity of the Ca ribbean region (Goreau et al., 1979). This results from Jamaica's exceptionally high habitat diversity in a small area and its probable role as major refuge of the Caribbean reef fauna and flora during the Ice Ages. Jamaica's reef ecosystem s as a whole are therefore central to conservation of the Caribbean's marine bio diversity. Jamaica's reefs are currently under high stress in all developed coastal areas ( Goreau, 1992), and much of the remainder are near areas slated for development s oon. Unless the remaining reefs are assessed quickly with regard to environmenta

l protection needs, many of the best could be lost soon due to a wide range of p opulation dependent stresses or to temperature and climate channe (Goreau & Haye s, 1994). This damage could have been prevented because understanding of the many causes o f reef degradation and sound policies to counteract them were first developed in Jamaica. Many Caribbean countries lost much of their reefs because they didn't have local scientific expertise to recognize or document what was happening, but Jamaica had the longest and most detailed reef ecology data in the world, yet f ailed to build on it. Many islands have now been forced to recognize the need fo r coastal zone management and protection, and established effective research, mo nitoring, protection, and enforcement programs. For example, neighboring Cuba ha s several hundred times as many professional marine scientists and fisheries res earchers as Jamaica, and conservation of coastal ecosystems has kept the reefs i n prime condition except immediately next to major ports. Although the first coral reef marine parks in the world were planned in Jamaica in the mid 1950s, no action was taken by the relevant authorities for over 35 ye ars. Conservation related marine research and monitoring in Jamaica has deterior ated over the past 20 years, while destruction and degradation of reef habitats around the island has accelerated (Goreau, 1992). Serious and sustained work is badly needed to record and learn from the changes of the past, to understand the causes of the changes taking place at present, and to prepare for the future. ESTIMATING THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF JAMAICAN REEFS No detailed estimate has yet been made of the economic value of coral reefs to t he Jamaican economy. A recent assessment of tourism income statistics and FAO fi sheries data for 40 coral reef countries, including Jamaica, has recently been p repared (F. Chan, 1993). Jamaican reefs rank around the middle of those reported , with estimated reef economic values for tourism and fisheries being in the ran ge of several million US dollars per kilometer of reef crest. These values w ere estimated from international economic income statistics, corrected for such factors as income retention in the national economy and for the fraction of fish catch exported. The economic value of reefs in shore line protection is harder to determine than tourism and fisheries revenues, as this value lies not in direct income generat ion but in prevention of expenses resulting from destruction of coastal property , lives, and infrastructure. We can roughly estimate its value in terms of repla cement costs for just the damaged reef crests by ignoring the replacement value of the structures they protect, therefore making an under-estimate of the real c osts. Currently used technology to replace damaged reef crest in order to protec t shorelines in the Maldives costs around 10 million US$ per kilometer (Minister of the Environment, the Maldives, personal communication). Use of a new technol ogy, reef restoration by mineral accretion (Hilbertz, 1992), would cost roughly one tenth as much. We therefore roughly estimate total annual economic value of coral reefs in Jama ica from tourism, fishery, and shore protection as Lying in the range of million s of US$ per kilometer, if not more. With roughly 400 kilometers of reef, Jamaic an reefs therefore have a net value of billions of US$ per year. This preliminar y estimate is very rough, but it is approximately the correct order of magnitude , and will be more fully refined in the future when the next stage of Chan's stu dy is completed. Nevertheless, this early assessment suggests coral reefs are th e most valuable of Jamaica's marine ecosystems, perhaps even be more valuable pe r unit area than any terrestrial ecosystem in Jamaica. The nation therefore has much at stake in maintaining their ecological health and economic value. ASSESSMENT OF REEF USE AND SUSTAINABILITY

The phrase "sustainable development" is widely used, yet rarely in a way in whic h the concept is clearly defined or in which different forms of sustainability c an be identified and quantitatively compared with regard to their desirability. Without such definitions and criteria, the phrase "sustainable development" beco mes virtually meaningless. Sustainability should be regarded as a multidimension al concept, whose spectrum includes many critical parameters of ecological and g enetic diversity, as well as measures of environmental quality with regard to li miting stresses. A number of scientifically-sound criteria which are potential m easures of ecosystem and environmental sustainability are discussed in Goreau 19 92c, d. NUTRIENTS One measure of sustainability that is especially relevant to coral reef protecti on in a densely populated country like Jamaica is the level of nutrients in coas tal waters with regard to the acceptable upper limits required to prevent algal overgrowth. Any marine ecosystem will undergo eutrophication, excessive prolifer ation of nuisance algae, when nutrient inputs are too high, but coral reefs are the most sensitive of all marine ecosystems to excess nutrients. Unfortunately, until the recent establishment of appropriate nutrient standards for coral reefs , there was a tendency to uncritically adopt standards from cold developed count ries. Those standards were developed for estuary ecosystems. These habitats rece ive large amounts of runoff from spring snow melt, are low in biological diversi ty, and are dangerously inappropriate for tropical coral reef ecosystems. The limiting values for tropical reefs, above which algae are observed to overgr ow corals, are 1 micromolar N and 0.1 micromolar P (Lapointe, this volume). Wade 's measurements of nutrients in Negril's coastal waters during 1991 (this volume ) show that concentrations were more than 10 times above the acceptable limits. Nutrients inputs to the Bay are clearly way beyond those the reef corals can tol erate. By the critical reef nutrient criterion, Negril is unsustainably overdeve loped by a factor of more than 10 times. With existing patterns of per-capita nu trient release, the area has more than 10 times more people than the reef can st and. An illustration of the effect of population density on human carrying capacity o f reefs is illustrated by the situation in Moorea, a South Pacific island with a population of only 4,500. Club Med's 400 room complex is the only large tourist site on the island, and its largest single source of sewage, which undergoes se condary treatment before ocean discharge. Only a single species of algae, Turbin aria ornata, was found at all reef sites. This species is tough, unpalatable to fish, and adapted to live on very high wave energy shores and reef crests. Algae were extremely rare in reefs all around Moorea, far less common than anywhere i n Jamaica today, except right in front of Club Med bathing beach. The resort's o cean sewage outfall pipe was buried beneath the beach and ran along the bottom t o a depth of about 20 feet. It had clearly been blocked underground for some tim e when examined in July 1991, because the end of the pipe contained undisturbed marine sediments and was occupied by organisms which had settled and grown insid e. Instead of emerging from the pipe, sewage apparently trickled out through the beach sand, stimulating growth of large slimy mats of cyanobacteria on the sand bottom, and dense growths of smothering green algae identical in appearance to Chaetomorpha linum, which has been a major problem in eutrophication of Jamaican reefs (Goreau, 1992). This alga was seen nowhere else on Moorea, including in f ront of the sewage outfalls of other smaller resorts, which range up to around 2 0 rooms. This evidence suggests that the human carrying capacity of Moorea reefs are to date exceeded only in front of the single largest resort. In terms of po pulation density and sewage generation, Negril is about equivalent to 7 solid mi les of Club Med., and is therefore likely to have a population density which exc eeds the reef human carrying capacity throughout. Consequently the reef's surviv

al cannot be sustained in the long run unless there is at least a ten fold impro vement in the efficiency of technology used to intercept and remove nutrients be fore coral mortality becomes so severe that recovery is impossible. The same is the case in most areas of tourism development in Jamaica and in most other coral reef countries around the world. They are, in effect, racing each other to capi talize off short term value of their reefs before they destroy them. The situation is far worse than Negril in many other parts of Jamaica, especiall y near Kingston, Montego Bay, Ocho Rios, St. Anns Bay, and Discovery Bay. For th e reefs to recover, either there needs to be many less people living in these ar eas, or they need to adopt technology which treats and removes all excess nutrie nt inputs to the coastal zone. The carrying capacity is highly dependent on the type of technology employed to contain or prevent human impacts to the environme nt. This paper concludes that so much of Jamaica's coastlines are now over-devel oped with regard to current environmental practices that marked technology impro vements in sewage treatment are needed to allow reefs in these areas to recover. Areas not yet impacted need protection from damage by inappropriate "developmen t" because it will be far cheaper to protect their reefs than to restore them af ter they are degraded. COMPARISON OF SITES In this section ecological changes observed in the past year and a half are cont rasted. Sites described begin at Long Bay, Negril, and proceed first southwards to Whitehall, and then from Bloody Bay eastwards to Discovery Bay (see map 1 for the location of each numbered zone discussed below). Sites were examined by a w ide range of methods, including diving, snorkeling, glass bottom boat, from shor e, low-flying aircraft, and from discussions with local divers. All sites were e xamined between late 1991 and early 1993. As many places as possible were invest igated, but sometimes only shallow snorkeling Investigations were possible. Areas of Hanover east of Green Island and from the Montego Bay airport to eastern Trelawny were personally assessed along their en tire lengths only by viewing from shore and air, so their assessment must be reg arded as especially provisional. Descriptions of long term change in reefs aroun d Jamaica are provided in Goreau (1956), Goreau (1959), Goreau & Goreau (1973), & Goreau (1992 a,b). 1) LONG BAY Algal overgrowth continued to be the major problem in Long Bay reefs during 1992 . In most places the height of Sargassum hystrix growth on the fore reef decline d considerably from the previous year, and remained high in many other areas. At most sites it had become generally subordinate in abundance to Lobophora varieg ata, Dictyota species, and Halimeda tuna or Halimeda goreauii. Algal overgrowth of shallow sand flats, seagrass, and reef areas by Chaetomorpha linum was also g reatly reduced compared to 1991. The weather was much cooler during 1992, the se as were much rougher, and the calm conditions which promote stagnant water circu lation and especially elevated nutrient levels were less common in the Bay than the preceding year. Despite the apparent improvement of many Negril reefs during 1992, a serious new algal problem emerged in both deep fore reefs (from 30 to 70 feet) and in some very shallow (5 to 10 feet) waters in the northern part of Long Bay. This was de nse growth of the nuisance green algae species Cladophoropsis macromeres, which completely smothered large patches of the bottom. These patches covered up to 70 % of the areas affected. The large mats break up into loose biscuit-sized lumps which are easily broken up during storms, when they are washed into and fill the submarine sand channels which drain sediments from the fore reef area.

In reefs of Long Bay, many coral heads are being overgrown by encrusting sponges and by Didemnid tunicates, which form pale rubbery mats that smother corals. Al l the dead and perhaps most of the remaining large live coral heads have been he avily infested by boring sponges, worms, and clams. Although many coral heads ap pear superficially to be structurally sound, most are riddled out from within an d will within a few years eventually collapse into rubble. Large dead and live c oral heads which were toppled over near Booby Cay during the strong Norther of l ate March 1993 had largely had their bases severely structurally weakened by the burrows of boring organisms breaking along them. During 1992 seagrass beds in Long Bay and Bloody Bay looked poor, and glass bott om boat transects showed reduced abundance of most species of starfish, sea cucu mbers, and sea urchins with the exception of the long black spined sea urchin, D iadema antillarum. This increased markedly in some shallow seagrass areas of nor thern Long Bay, where they have strongly reduced algal biomass within range of t he dead patch reefs where they shelter. Seagrasses were pale, short, and sparse, and large mats of cyanobacteria were abundant on seagrass bed sediments in nort hern Long Bay and Bloody Bay. Although coral overgrowth by algae has been very marked in recent years, only th e shallow Long Bay reefs, those near Booby Cay, and severely hurricane-stressed areas along the coast have had so much of the coral killed that recovery, even i n the absence of all further stress, would require settlement and growth of a wh ole new coral community, a process which could take centuries. Around half the c oral cover survives in the better reefs of Negril, and so these reefs could reco ver if stresses to them from excessive nutrients and turbidity were abated. Howe ver, unless this happens within the next few years, cumulative algal overgrowth should reach the point of no return, similar to that passed in the Kingston, Mon tego Bay, Ocho Rios, St. Anns Bay, and Discovery Bay areas, where so little live coral remains that if conditions again became favourable natural recovery could take centuries. Recovery of reefs in the Long Bay area requires reducing current inputs of nutri ents by more than 90% for concentrations to fall below levels which stimulate ex cessive algal overgrowth of corals. This mandates treatment of virtually all sew age in watersheds upstream of Long Bay (Goreau, this volume). A more detailed as sessment of current and potential threats to Negril area reefs is included in th e accompanying paper (Goreau, this volume). 2) WEST END Corals in reef areas along the southern fringe of Long Bay near the mouth of the South Negril River have largely been overgrown by algae, sponges, and tunicates . Reef growth, diversity, and fish populations are very low in those parts of th e Bay most affected by the brown plume of the South Negril River. Coral growth f urther westward on the West End consists mainly of coral communities growing on hard limestone bedrock, and true shallow reef structure is poorly developed. Cor al cover and growth improves with water depth and with distance from the River ( Goreau et al., 1988). Coral cover near the Lighthouse steadily improves with dep th down to about 60 feet. The West End is a centre for snorkeling and swimming because waters are accessib le by ladders down the cliffs, and selected areas may provide some of the best r emaining snorkeling within the Negril tourist area. However, swimmers are comple tely unprotected from the high speed boats which occasionally whip around the We st End, and a boat lane should be demarcated and marked with floats. Caves form the major natural attraction, and few areas of Jamaica have so many c aves in so small an area. Because many caves had unusual deep water fauna living in them prior to tourism development, they were strongly recommended for protec

tion as habitats of rare natural beauty in the Negril Marine Park proposed to th e Negril Green Island Land Authority and the Beach Control Authority (Goreau, 19 60). Several caves are currently regarded by local residents to be polluted from sewage, and some are the origin of ear infection complaints, so it is likely th at the majority of cave fauna are no longer pristine. Most areas along the West End show evidence of high physical damage to corals fr om hurricanes and northers, but a few sheltered sites have good coral growth. Ph ysical damage depends strongly on bottom slope and orientation with regard to wa ves and can vary strongly over short distances. Rocky shores less than 10 feet i n depth subject to strong wave pounding during northers are overgrown by the wav e resistant algae Sargassum polyceratium, Turbinaria tricostata, and encrusting coralline red algae. Many areas between 10 and 40 feet are dominated by large de ad coral heads overgrown by Sargassum hystrix, Dictyota species, and Bryothamniu m triquetrum. Algae which are known nutrient indicators (Bryopsis plumosa, Anady omene stellata, and Dictyosphaeria cavernosa) are fairly common near mouths of l arge caves that are sources of groundwater flow and nutrients, although they wer e absent or very rare at adjacent coastal sites away from such caves. Wave erosion along the cliff has created large numbers of small caves beneath fo ssil reef limestone cap rock. These caves are usually small and have dead ends, unlike the large caves formed by dissolution of limestone along cracks by freshw ater flow. Many erosion caves have been scoured bare of life, and some are still barren while others are in various phases of recovery. Some show intense settle ment within the past two years by hundreds of young colonies of the common "lett uce" coral, Agaricia tenuifolia, a fast growing species which commonly settles o n hurricane damaged reefs in Jamaica (Goreau, 1959). Some sites also show incipi ent recolonization by Acropora cervicornis and Acropora palmata. These two speci es had formerly been the most abundant shallow species in the area,based on ecol ogical studies, and on examination of the composition of coral rubble and of dea d standing coral heads. These two species, which had played the major role in Ja maican shore line protection, are now present at no more than a few percent of t heir former abundance almost anywhere in Jamaica. If nutrient levels can be kept low and physical damage minimized, there is an ex cellent chance of West End fringing reefs recovering and becoming more attractiv e for snorkelers. Protecting the reefs of the West End will be increasingly more important as more hotels and villas open in this area. The greatly increased de velopment now planned for the West End could threaten these reefs with eutrophic ation unless all sewage is prevented from entering the underground cave system. Keeping cave waters clean for swimmers and divers requires ensuring that all sew age, including that from populated hill areas as well as from the coastal road s trip, are taken into the sewage collection system for full tertiary treatment be fore their effluents are released to the environment (Goreau, this volume). 3) LIGHTHOUSE TO LITTLE BAY The coastline along this area is rocky, rough, and steep. The eastern half is no w undeveloped because it lacks shore road access. Fringing reefs which had been composed of lushly developed staghorn and elkhorn, were largely destroyed at the end of Hurricane Gilbert, when winds swung around from the south. Large piles o f coral rubble are seen in shallow water, and coral recovery has been fairly poo r in most areas shallower than 20 feet. Nevertheless, new coral settlement is oc curring in selected spots. Some reefs from 20 to 50 feet are in very good condit ion, with nearly 100% hard coral cover, and very high coral species diversity. A lgal species diversity is high, but biomass is moderate and species are typical of relatively oligotrophic (low nutrient) conditions (primarily Dictyota, Halime da, Bryothamnion, Penicillus, Udotea, and Avranvillea species). Except for those which are bleached, corals are largely healthy, being very well

pigmented and apparently protected from excess sediments and nutrients by virtu e of being located along an undeveloped limestone shoreline. Reefs are said to b e best developed around headlands and to improve from Hogg Heaven eastward to Li ttle Bay, according to knowledgeable local fishermen. Unfortunately it was not p ossible to survey most of this area directly except that between Hogg Heaven and Secret Paradise. No reports were available on diving on the deeper reefs, altho ugh it is likely that these are mostly in good condition except that black coral , conch, and many fish species are likely to have been over harvested. This area is a major area for fish trap fishermen based in Negril. Marine charts suggest offshore topography in the Eastern part of this zone is among the steepest in Ja maica, and it is likely that wall diving and deep reef fauna are present close t o land. Although inadequate information is now available to fully assess quality of reef s in this area, there is reason to believe some of the better reefs in the Negri l area may be found there. A detailed ecological survey of this area is needed t o identify the characteristics of the reef habitats and to establish areas in ne ed of protection. Certain sites in the area may provide first rate diving and sn orkeling if suitably delimited and marked by moorings. The coastline along this area is primed for rapid land clearance and development . Housing density roughly decreases with distance from the Lighthouse. Most of t he shore up to Hogg Heaven, large tracts of land along the coasts, and all up th e hill have been cleared or are about to be cleared for development. The propose d new Negril sewage line ends at the Lighthouse. As sewage treatment will not ex tend to this area, the sewage is likely to be discharged into the ground. Becaus e the ecological status of neighboring reefs may deserve high protection status under the proposed Negril Marine Park, no further development should be permitte d along this coast until provision is made for treatment of all sewage generated in the area. This can be accomplished by extending sewage collection lines from the Lighthouse to serve the population beyond, by pumping and tanking of septic tank effluents to the new sewage treatment plant at Sheffield, by provision of solar composting toilets, and by development of small-scale tertiary sewage trea tment. Sewage treatment should not be limited to new coastal developments. It sh ould also include the large resident populations on the southern slopes and shor es of Negril Hill who commute to Negril or engage in farming or fishing, and who se sewage is ultimately discharged alone this coastline. 4) HOMER'S COVE TO SOLOMON'S POINT Except for artesian fishing from Little Bay and Homer's Cove, this area has had little shoreline development. Steep offshore topography and submarine canyons pr ovide relatively little area for fore reef fish trap deployment, so offshore fis hing has been more common. The majority of the coastline is undeveloped, but a r oad has been built along the shore from Little Bay almost all the way to Solomon 's Point (also known as St. John's Point). Extensive bulldozing of shore sand in dicates that there is a clear intent by the owners to subdivide and develop the entire beach shore east of Homer's Cove Jamaican geological maps show that this coast is made up of the same limestone f ormation as Negril Hill, but this interpretation can not result from actual stud y of the site. The coast is composed not of limestone but of a brown quartz and clay beach backed by a brackish margined swamp on clay soils. The flat flood pla in is derived from sediments washed into the area from the New Savanna River and Cabaritta River to the east, which are derived from weathering and erosion of s oils in the Georges Plain and non-limestone hills of central and northern Westmo reland. The high amount of fine grained clays makes near shore waters extremely muddy. Turbidity is transported westward by prevailing currents from the mouth of the N

ew Savanna River, which lies to the east of Solomon's Point. Mud is swept around the Point and along the shore to Little Bay. Because these coastal waters are l ikely to be highly turbid except during unusually calm and dry conditions, they are unlikely to be attractive for swimming or snorkeling. Seawater near Solomon' s Point was so opaque with pale suspended clays that visibility was only a few i nches. The bottom was densely covered with algae adapted to turbid conditions, i ncluding species of Gracilaria terete ("Irish Moss") suitable for mariculture. C oral reef structures offshore were made of dead, severely eroded coral heads. So me corals had not been seriously damaged by hurricane caused physical fragmentat ion, and dead coral surfaces as deep as 60 feet in Homer's Cove were mostly bare and covered with sediment. Algae abundance, dominated by Hypnea musciformis, Br yothamnion, Halimeda, and Dictyota, was moderate, and high nutrient indicating s pecies were not seen. As visibility improved eastward, live coral cover increase d. Nevertheless, well past the terminus of the quartz sand beach, the reefs offs hore from the rocky limestone by Homer's Cove had only about 30% coral cover on hard ground, with the rest largely bare or sediment covered dead coral. This ind icates that the muddy river plume had influenced reefs well beyond the range to which quartz sand had been transported along the shore. Live corals in Homer's C ove generally appeared healthy, although many Montastrea annularis appeared to h ave patchy bleaching which was rare in Long Bay and most other sites examined. T his could have been due to local freshwater and mud stress events during the sev ere rain and flooding events which took place in 1991 and 1992. Although clearly subject to Hurricane damage in shallow exposed sites, reefs in this area appeared to have mainly been killed by excessive sediments transported from the east. It is not possible to tell at present when these corals were kil led, as the watershed has been used for intensive sugar cultivation for over 300 years. There was little sign of eutrophication. Any development of the beach th at results in water sports, dredging, inappropriate shore construction, or use o f groins, will increase water turbidity downstream all the way to Little Bay. De velopment here should be strictly controlled to prevent damage to the reefs down stream because this area has the most muddy and unstable sediments in the propos ed Negril Park region. Recovery of reefs will only be possible if physical alter ation to the beach and shallow zone is prevented, and if the erosion problem in all of central and northern Westmoreland is brought under control. Lack of livin g reef protection for coasts offshore from these muddy areas places future beach housing at risk from damage from storm waves and surges. 5) BROUGHTON/ HOPE WHARF TO SAVANNA LA MAR The area off this shore has been mapped in detail for nautical charts because Sa vanna la Mar has been a major port since Spanish times. Old charts show a well-d eveloped barrier reef offshore. It was not possible to examine this reef structu re directly, but satellite images suggest it has been seriously damaged by sedim entation because the area is hidden in the muddy plumes from the Cabaritta River , New Savanna River, Georges Plain, and the Savanna la Mar urban area. This stre tch of coast is the most turbid in Westmoreland since it receives the major eros ion sediment load of the parish. Fishermen of the area specialize in fishing bet ter reefs further away, deep water line fishing, or fishing offshore banks, beca use of the deterioration of shallow reefs. The water at Hope Wharf was extremely turbid, and probably clears only rarely. B each sediment is largely quartz and clay transported from the New Savanna river to the west and the Cabaritta river to the east. Limestone fragments in the sand comes from shells of sediment dwelling bivalves. Algae cast along the beach wer e largely Dictyota washed in from offshore, and did not include seagrasses or Gr acilaria, suggesting inshore conditions are too muddy for either to survive. The condition of the offshore barrier reef structure and of corals in deeper wat er needs to be evaluated to determine if there exists any possibility of their r

ecovery. The chances of reef recovery would seem remote because it requires chan ges in the land-use practices of both the large sugar plantations and small farm ers in the central hills and plains. This coastal watershed receives the major p art of the parish's sewage and garbage, and most of its fertilizer and pesticide usage. This watershed is currently the site of a persistent typhoid outbreak, a nd inadequate sewage facilities for upstream rural populations make it a potenti al locus for a cholera epidemic. Bathing should not be permitted without full wa ter quality assessment and public health monitoring, as at time of writing all s ewage treatment facilities in Westmoreland were said to have ceased to operate p roperly, with the result that raw sewage was said to be discharged straight into rivers. 6) SAVANNA LA MAR TO BLUFF POINT An extremely well developed offshore barrier reef exists from south of Savanna l a Mar towards Bluff Point. This area normally lies up current from the sediment plumes from the Cabaritta River, and it is protected from the much smaller plume of the Paradise River by Bluff Point. Almost the entire coastline along this zo ne remains in undisturbed mangrove, protecting the coastal zone from sediment ru noff. As one the largest and healthiest stretches of coastal mangrove in Jamaica , this area is need of protection. Around Bluff Point itself a small but surpris ingly diverse fringing reef is found. A shallow expanse of muddy water lies betw een Bluff Point and the River mouth. Lush sea grass beds stretch both east acros s Bluefields Bay, and west to Savanna la Mar. The shallow offshore barrier reef structure was probably once the largest, broad est, and best developed such reef in Jamaica. The broad reef flat, made of huge interlacing Acropora palmata colonies, had dramatic vertical relief on all sides , but was severely damaged during Hurricane Gilbert. Local fishermen using these reefs are notorious for their widespread use of dynamite. The reef top was obse rved to be covered with circular blast craters of pulverized coral rubble. none of these areas had been recolonized by corals, and most remained completely barr en of life, although a few were covered by large mats of Stochiactis anemones or by algae. Areas which have been dynamited do not recover their fish populations , and so are never deliberately dynamited again by fishermen. Close inspection o f an aerial photograph of the reef crest, kindly provided by Tony Clarke, showed that characteristic circular crater marks practically covered the entire reef f lat. Although healthy young Acropora palmata and Acropora cervicornis were seen in deeper waters, there is only a tiny fraction of their former cover, so perhap s a half century free of further stress might be required for their recovery. Al gae cover was generally fairly low except in patches which are protected by terr itorial damsel-fish, and algae species indicative of eutrophic conditions were r are. These relatively favorable conditions for reef regeneration should remain i n force as long as the mangrove shoreline vegetation is preserved intact. In contrast to the devastation and barren conditions seen on the barrier reef cr est, deeper reefs were in good to excellent condition. Corals were extremely lar ge, healthy, and were forming actively growing reef buttress and canyon formatio ns. Although observations were made to only around 60 feet, there is good reason to believe that deeper reefs are at least equally good. The area probably has m any excellent potential dive sites which could be marked by moorings. The entire reef should be surveyed in detail, especially deeper parts. If shallow areas we re to recover, the barrier reef could become a major attraction for snorkeling. The reef tract as a whole should be a national protected area because it may be the best developed and largest offshore barrier reef in Jamaica. At present the shallow reef crest structure is being actively eroded by boring o rganisms, and shallow reef corals have barely returned on the top of the dynamit ed reef crest. This seriously compromises shore protection for the port of Savan na la Mar from storm waves. The importance of restoring this reef structure is r

einforced by the occasions recorded in Jamaican history when unexpected storm su rges destroyed all buildings and killed the entire population of Savanna la Mar. 7) BLUEFIELDS BAY/SURINAM QUARTERS/WHITEHOUSE BAY Bluefields Bay is largely occupied by extremely productive seagrass beds, much i n depths between 2 to 3 metres, sloping towards deep offshore reefs. The shore i s fringed by mangroves, beaches, and limestone rocks, and is only moderately pop ulated. Waters in Bluefields Bay are exceptionally clear and thought to have ver y little pollution. Bluefields Bay seagrass beds and the smaller bays along the coast to Whitehouse Bay are important fish nursery grounds according to knowledg eable local fishermen. Scores of freshwater springs occur in the Bay, derived fr om water percolating underground from nearby forested mountain slopes. The speci es composition and the pigmentation of algae such as Gracilaria terete, Bryotham nion triquetrum, Halimeda opuntia, Udotea, and Acanthophora spicifera growing ar ound some of these springs suggest that waters near springs have adequate, but n ot excessive, nutrient levels providing near maximal coral reef biological healt h and productivity. From the south end of Bluefields Bay along the coast a nearly continuous offshor e reef crest parallels the entire coast of the Surinam Quarters south to Whiteho use Bay except for passes near river mouths. The reef crest grows right up to th e surface, and interior lagoon waters are clear, protected, safe for swimming an d boat traffic even when it is very rough offshore. The reef crest, composed lar gely of Acropora palmata, Acropora cervicornis, and brain corals, was damaged du ring Hurricane Gilbert but is recovering with vigourous growth of branching stag horn and elkhorn corals, and coral species diversity is high. Problem indicating algae species were not present and algal biomass was moderately high. Currently these shallow reefs must be regarded some of the best in Jamaica because their unusually good water quality conditions provides excellent prospects for long te rm recovery. Beautiful beaches, clear water, and exceptional coral growth near s hore give shallow reefs in this area high potential for snorkeling if suitable a reas are delimited, marked, and protected. Efforts to do so should be done in co njunction with the Bluefields Development Association, a local non-profit organi zation seeking sustainable development which protects the area's natural resourc es. Deeper offshore reefs were not examined during this work due to lack of time, bu t conditions in shallow areas suggest that those areas are likely to provide exc ellent diving, and should be surveyed in detail. The diversity of marine habitat s, the richness of the nursery grounds in shallow bays, the excellent reef growt h, and the high potential for mariculture in Bluefields Bay make protection of t his region's great natural beauty from sewage, sediment, over-fishing and other forms of inappropriate development a major national conservation priority. The major source of sediment in the entire region is from Whitehouse Bay, into w hich a river empties. Water quality in the Bay is poor because of turbidity from suspended river-transported clays in shallow water. The beach is made of quartz sand and mud rather than of white coral reef sand, and the seagrass beds are po orly developed in shallow water due to turbidity. Nevertheless, fringing reefs a re sufficiently far offshore that they are still in fairly good condition despit e episodic moderate sediment stress. Current development plans for Whitehouse Bay include establishing large (reporte dly more than 400 room) all-inclusive hotels plus numerous villas, smaller hotel s, restaurants, and other tourism developments along the shore and hills near Au chindown. Because of unsuitable conditions of the muddy shallow zone for bathing , no effort should be made to dredge out the area in order to deepen it for moto rized water sports such as water skiing and parasailing. Dredging in this area w

ould kill the reef offshore, and the resulting mud plume would probably seriousl y damage the entire reef tract down current along the Surinam Quarters to Bluefi elds. 8) BLOODY BAY Bloody Bay continued to show signs of excessive nutrient stress during 1992. Lar ge amounts of the high nutrient indicating algae species Ulva lactuca, Enteromor pha sp., Chaetomorpha linum, and Dictyosphaeria cavernosa were cast up and raked away on the bathing beaches along southern Bloody Bay. The area may be subject to leakage of nutrients under the beach from the UDC sewage plant outfall across the road in the adjacent Morass. This has caused flooding of low ground by the vendor's craft market near the effluent discharge area where a now-blocked culve rt had previously allowed direct drainage under the road into Bloody Bay. Seagra ss beds near Bloody Bay beach were unhealthy in appearance, with extensive patch es of blue green algae on the bottom near the more developed shores. Shallow ree fs at the mouth of the Bay are in poor condition due to hurricane damage and ove rgrowth by Sargassum hystrix and other algae, but the fore reefs from 30 to 70 f eet are in good condition, with very high gorgonian biomass and unusual abundanc e of large colonies of the uncommon coral Eusmilia fastigiata. Water sport activities that generate a wake, such as fast boats, water skiing, p arasailing, or jet skis, should not be allowed in Bloody Bay as they will cause a turbidity problem by resuspending fine grained sediments. The reduced water tr ansparency which would be caused would further reduce its quality as a bathing b each and the health of its corals and sea grass beds. Coral growth at Little Blo ody Bay should be protected for snorkeling and glass bottom boat viewing. Extensive development is planned for Bloody Bay by UDC after divestment, because the beautiful white sand beach and shallow, protected waters are ideal for bath ing. The protected conditions could allow rapid algal eutrophication unless exce ss nutrient inputs are strictly controlled. The fact that such development is co ntemplated around Bloody Bay even though the sewage line ends short of the area to be developed bodes ill for future water quality in the Bay. All further devel opment in this area should be subject to a moratorium until the sewage line is e xtended to serve the Bloody Bay area. 9) NORTH NEGRIL POINT TO ORANGE POINT Reefs in this area fringe a steep exposed rocky shore which is entirely unpopula ted. They have been seriously impacted since 1960 by the dredging of the Orange River Canal. This discharged large amounts of peat and soil onto reefs which had previously been free of land-derived sediment before the river's diversion. Sus pended sediments are transported into the Orange River from the East Morass cana l which drains most of the Morass, as well as from limestone and non-limestone h ills of interior Westmoreland via the Orange River. These areas are the highest, rainiest, and most erodable parts of the watershed. During the rainy season, th e reef is often hidden below a tea-colored brown plume extending up to a quarter mile offshore, depending on current directions at the time. The central area is strongly affected by brown fresh water runoff. Large areas of bare dead coral are seen near the canal mouth, mostly not coloniz ed by algae. Large amounts of easily resuspended peat sediments are often seen o n the bottom, except after heavy storms. High nutrient indicating algae were not prominent. Further away from the river mouth, and in deeper waters, reefs along the shore appear to be in fairly good condition, with well developed parallel b uttress formations starting in around 15 to 20 feet depth. This area may contain some good dive sites, but they would need to be well marked by buoys because th e area is open to swells from the North, especially in winter. There is little i nformation available on reefs of the area, especially deeper areas, where there

is thought to be a good deep reef drop-off. A detailed ecological survey of the area is needed. The shoreline is at present completely undeveloped, yet it may be subject to dev elopment speculation because of its rocky cliffs, well-developed forests with hu ge old trees, and proximity to Negril. The area was recommended for protection ( Goreau, 1960), and much of it should be preserved as part of a terrestrial park. A moratorium on development along this coast should be enforced until sewage in frastructure is provided. 10) ORANGE BAY Orange Bay has a nearly complete and intact fringe of mangroves separating the w ater from the garbage dump and from the town of Orange Bay. The garbage dump, se rving Negril and Lucea, is a current or potential source of solid, liquid, and a ir pollution, and if the mangroves are not protected, garbage could be washed in to the Bay by storms. Although the plant is due to be closed in late May 1993, a n alternative site has not yet been named. The population of Orange Bay is under going considerable expansion from new housing schemes. These include both touris t villas and housing for Negril area employees, and more large future developmen ts are planned in the next wave of satellite expansion of the Greater Negril tou rist region. There are no sewage lines connecting these areas to the proposed Sh effield treatment plant. Orange Bay has very rich seagrass beds and very well developed parallel reefs at its mouth. The reef is recovering well from damage done by Hurricane Gilbert. C orals are large and healthy, but there are signs of a problem with Sargassum hys trix, the algae which was a serious problem in deep Long Bay reefs in 1991. This species was nearly equally abundant in Orange Bay fore reef waters near the mai n channel from 10 to 50 feet in late 1992, as it had been in Long Bay in 1991, w ith meter long streamers. Its high abundance at this site was unexpected, so alg ae in the area need to be watched carefully to determine if a serious algae prob lem may just now be developing. Water transparency is very good, far better than Negril, and pollution is likely to be far lower due to smaller population and better water circulation. The wat er clarity also results from protection from eroded sediments by the undeveloped shoreline mangroves and diversion of the Orange River, which formerly entered t he south end of the Bay, and was diverted westward into the Orange River Canal i n 1960. The reefs at the mouth of the bay provide first rate snorkeling conditio ns because of excellent reef vertical structure, buttresses, and the presence of the anchor, chain, ballast, and parts of several wrecks which appear to date fr om roughly 200 years ago based on the maximum size of corals growing on them. At that time Orange Bay had been a sugar port, which was subsequently abandoned. Orange Bay reefs present a nearly complete range of habitats and submarine reef topographies for snorkeling, and many parts of it should be set aside for marked snorkeling trails. The shoreline mangroves need to be preserved in their entire ty in order to maintain the Bay's clarity and ecological value as a fish nursery and turtle hatchery. The deeper reefs have not been examined, but very well dev eloped reef buttresses at 20 to 50 feet depth suggest that deeper reefs may also still have the first-rate diving sites they had in the past. Orange Bay has exc eptional potential for diving and snorkeling if suitable areas are clearly marke d by moorings and if excellent water quality can be maintained. All wrecks shoul d be mapped, and remains protected as a diver attraction and for archaeological study. The ecological and environmental history of the area should be reconstruc ted from study of coral growth records. Orange Bay is at present the focus of intensive harvesting of shells, starfish, and other marine organisms for sale as curios in Negril. Valuable and slow growi

ng species, which naturally reach very large sizes in Orange Bay, are being kill ed. The preference for large shells removes those individuals responsible for mo st of the spawning, and leaves species vulnerable to local extinction or genetic impoverishment. It is not yet known if local fishermen are already aware of pas t or potential species extinctions, and of the need to allow populations to reco ver from overharvesting if they are to be managed sustainably. Public education, protected nursery zones, and the development of mariculture alternatives for gr owing high quality marine organisms are urgent priorities for Orange Bay if it i s included in the proposed Negril Marine Park. Orange Bay is slated for major development in the near future, and the Prime Min ister has decreed that it be the next development focus in northeastern Jamaica. Because the exceptional shallow reefs could deteriorate significantly if unwise development follows the path of Negril and other parts of Jamaica, it is essent ial to extend the sewage line to Orange Bay, and the strictest moratorium should be enforced until sewage infrastructure is in place. The Prime Minister, in his speech at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, pointed out the frag ile nature of Jamaica's ecosystems, and the particular need to protect reefs as the basis of tourism. It is especially important that developments in Orange Bay are conducted in a way which fully protect the living natural resources on whic h they are based, by ensuring that the environmental deterioration which has occ urred in other "developed" parts of the island be avoided in Orange Bay. 11 ) SAMUEL'S BAY Samuel's Bay, which adjoins Orange Bay to the north, has long been regarded as h aving some of the most diverse and best developed reefs in Jamaica, and was long proposed as a scientific reserve (Goreau, 1960). Corals here are unusually larg e, old, and rapidly growing. In a survey of coral growth rates in the Negril are a in 1986, the most rapid growth rates were found in Samuel's Bay The sites stud ied are shown in Map 2 (Goreau, et al., 1988) These reefs are among those Jamaic an reefs most in need of protection on grounds of exceptional growth rate, diver sity, and productivity, and deserve the highest status of protection as part of the proposed Negril Marine Park. These reefs escaped damage from Hurricane Allen , which affected most of the north coast, but the shallow fore reef areas were s eriously impacted by Hurricane Gilbert, especially the Acropora palmata and Acro pora cervicornis zones. The back-reef seagrass beds and the reef crest areas off er exceptional snorkeling because reef growth is unusually vigorous, and there a re many buttresses and canyons. Shallow reefs and turtle grass beds are in extre mely good condition, and free from high nutrient indicating algae. Bryothamnion triqetrum, Laurencia, Halimeda, Penicillus, Udotea, and Avranvillea species are especially abundant. The immediately adjacent shoreline is almost entirely undeveloped, although suga r plantations lie inland of a forested coastal strip. The beauty of the shore, i ts charming beaches, excellent swimming, and proximity to the main road make it a likely spot for future development. The ecological status of the area calls fo r especially stringent controls on shore line development, and none should be pe rmitted until adequate sewage infrastructure is in place. Dredging and shoreline construction which causes turbidity should be banned. The Samuel's Bay fore reef from 20 to 60 feet was observed in late 1992 to be de nsely covered by mats of Cladophoropsis macromeres, which covered about half the surface of buttress reefs. The absence of signs of eutrophication in shallower reefs and the appearance of these patches around possible subsurface nutrient so urces, could suggest that the alarming growth of this high nutrient indicating a lgae may be driven by ground water nutrients entering the reef framework via und erground caves. The area is a site of high subsurface groundwater discharges. The possible presence of eutrophication on the fore reef in Samuel's Bay needs t

o be investigated further. The sources of nutrients for the Cladophoropsis mats needs to be determined, and the possible presence of high-nutrient freshwater in puts to the fore reef needs to be investigated by analyzing reef water, groundwa ter, and interstitial sediment and reef structure pore waters. The deep reefs ne ed to be studied. The whole area should be a scientific monitoring reserve, and all other activities except glass bottom boat rides and bathing in demarcated ar eas should be banned. Excessive dredging land clearance and marl dumping has vis ibly affected water clarity in near shore areas, and there are clear signs of eu trophication and algae overgrowth of deeper reefs. These may be receiving nutrie nts from submarine springs, which could be derived from sugar cane fertilizer us e south of the main road. 12) HALF MOON BAY Half Moon Bay, just north of Samuel's Bay, is very different in shallow areas. I nshore and seagrass areas are unexceptional. There is little reef development sh allower than 30 feet, and the bottom largely consists of bare hard limestone bed rock. Although there is rubble present indicating that corals were destroyed by recent hurricanes, there is little sign of recovery or of dead reef structure. T he lack of reef framework might be due to the area being open to damage during n orthers because of steep deep fore reef orientation and topography which may foc us wave energy from the north around the nearby point. Algae did not appear to b e a problem down to 40 feet of depth. Deeper reefs were not investigated. A beautiful white sand beach is being developed for bathing, although not yet we ll known. Beaches in this area should be checked to determine if they are turtle nesting beaches. There seems little potential for snorkeling or diving in the a rea unless deep reefs are very much better than the shallow ones. However, the a rea needs to be more thoroughly surveyed, and there are ship and airplane wrecks in the area which could be moored as dive sites. The fact that the area had for merly been a major conch breeding ground was indicated by a long line of dead sh ells where many dozen conch had apparently been found while on spawning migratio n. When conch hunters find such large numbers of their prey they extract the mea t and discard the shell on the spot to avoid carrying it's weight. Conch are rep orted to subsequently avoid those sites. 13) GREEN ISLAND AREA Green Island Harbour is extremely muddy, and appears to be polluted based on the high abundance of green algae similar to Ulva, Enteromorpha, and Chaetomorpha a long the shore line. Although the Bay is unsuitable for corals, several well dev eloped reef crest structures occur at the mouth of the Bay. Those nearest the Ba y may have suffered from high turbidity and from algal overgrowth. It was not po ssible to directly investigate the reefs in the region between Green Island and Half Moon Bay, but based on studies in 1960 and discussions with local fishermen and divers, it is thought that some good reefs may exist around nearby headland s, away from the Bay's muddy plume. Any of the future developments which are being planned in Green Island that coul d increase turbidity would have a negative impact on local reefs if they are don e without due caution, and could impact Half Moon Bay, Samuels Bay, and Orange B ay as well. The brown quartz sand beaches and muddy water would seem to have mod est potential for water sports, but good dive sites may exist in deeper water to the west and to the east of the Bay. Development should only proceed with cauti on until more detailed environmental impact assessment is conducted, and discuss ions are held with Green Island Fishermen regarding potential marine park bounda ries and management zones. 14) NORTHERN HANOVER

Few direct observations are known of changes in northern Hanover reefs over the past three decades. There is still little tourism or diving except at the easter n end near Montego Bay. There appear to be excellent reefs offshore along all th e limestone headlands, but the interiors of the larger bays are muddy from sedim ent carried by rivers draining non-limestone shale hills in the interior of the Parish. Water conditions are nearly always muddy in Lucea Harbour. Coastal water s near Green Island, Lucea, Hopewell, and Sandy Bay are turbid and appear to be polluted with nutrients based on the large amount of Ulva and Enteromorpha obser ved along the shore line and in shallow waters near towns. Except for areas imme diately adjacent to river mouths and towns, water quality appears to be excellen t along most limestone shores. Nearshore waters along limestone coasts are excep tionally clear, their seagrass beds are unusually lush, and problem algae are ab sent from the shorelines. The many small coves in the area may be important fish nursery grounds. Although the reefs were viewed in 1992 only from low flying airplane and from sh ore rather than by diving, well developed reef crest structures are clearly pres ent, often found in parallel. Steep topography suggested by nautical soundings s uggest that excellent diving sites may be found along this shore. The region nee ds to be surveyed ecologically to establish which zones are in need of managemen t or protection. Northern Hanover now has very limited tourism, but is slated fo r future expansion, so a detailed baseline survey of the area is an urgent prior ity. Sewage treatment provision is urgently needed in all coastal towns in Hanov er. Further development should be permitted only after suitable infrastructure i s in place to protect the area's great marine and terrestrial natural beauty. It would be a shame if the remarkably clear coastal waters of Northern Hanover wer e ruined by inappropriate development as has happened in the other coastal areas of Jamaica. 15) BOGUE/ MONTEGO BAY MARINE PARK The Montego Bay National Marine Park covers the region from the Great River on t he Hanover border to the western corner of the airport. The outer reef parts of this region, along with reefs near Ocho Rios which were in excellent condition a t the time, were first officially proposed to the Beach Control Authority as a m arine park in the mid 1950's by T. F. Goreau. Official action was delayed until 1991. The Marine Park regulations which were then adopted were virtually unchang ed from those drafted over 35 years before. During this interval, reefs at both proposed parks were largely destroyed by dredging, sedimentation, and both land based and marine sources of pollution. Montego Bay Marine Park waters include the port of the City of Montego Bay and t he cruise ship terminal, and receive the bulk of the Parish's sewage, fertilizer , insecticides, sediment, and industrial pollution. These waters are probably th e second most polluted in Jamaica after Kingston Harbor. Cruise ships have recen tly been charged fines by Park rangers for discharging garbage while at dock, an d it is likely that illegal bilge tank flushing takes place in port. An oily sur face slick is visible in the harbor area from land, sea, and air, and park range rs report that most marine life is dead in the inner areas. Surviving corals are found on the northernmost fringes of the Park, where there is intense tourist boating activity and dense hotel development. This area is an alleged locus of ear infection complaints, and this needs to be fully documente d. Some good reefs are still said to occur on the northernmost edge of the park, along the north facing wall near the airport, where development is impossible d ue to low flying planes. A recent description of the best reefs in the northernm ost part of the park was made for the Montego Marine Park (J. Littau, 1992). His data suggest that the reefs were in very poor condition, although they were not so interpreted by him, because of very low coral cover and very high abundances of algae which are indicative of high nutrient conditions. Good reefs were repo

rted by Montego Bay Marine Park Rangers to exist on the fringes of the artificia l (dredge-dumped) Bogue Islands development, although many areas are still suffe ring sediment damage from the dredging and land filling which built up these sma ll mangrove islands into a hotel, cruise ship port, and industrial area. It was not possible to check these reefs directly, but a detailed ecological survey is desirable because detailed studies were made of the area by T. F. Goreau in the 1950s before dredging took place, and there are good photographic records of the excellent reefs which occurred there at that time. The area along the Bogue coast east of the Great River mouth was checked. A larg e number of dead coral heads, subjected to intense boring and erosion, were foun d fringing the shore in 5 to 10 feet depth. This reef had been dominated by Acro pora palmata in the past, indicating that waters had formerly been clear. Water in the area was extremely turbid, and it would not be possible for that species to survive there now. The reef appeared to have been killed by sedimentation fro m the Great River and the Barnett River, algal overgrowth, probably stimulated b y the large amount of raw sewage entering the Montego River from the city, hotel s and villas all along the shore, and from fertilizer runoff from the extensive sugar cane fields inland. The dead coral was covered with sediment or dense mats of algae, many indicative of high nutrients, including Chaetomorpha linum, Cera mium nitens, Acanthophora spicifera, and Gracilaria species. The bottom was blan keted in large amounts of dead algal fragments and seagrass detritus from offsho re. The Chalet Caribe area nearby had excellent diving reefs only five years ago , but sport diving operations have been abandoned there due to severe reef deter ioration. Unless nutrient releases into the Montego Bay Marine Park are drastically curtai led, the remaining reef surviving in the Park could be overgrown within a few ye ars. The area does not appear to now contain ecosystems of ecological significan ce, and it is subject to extreme pollution and turbidity, making it unattractive , if not actually medically unwise, to swim in most of it. Detailed pollution an d microbiological studies should be made of the entire Park waters to determine if swimming should be permitted. The Park does not yet have a pollution and nutr ient monitoring program in place, and so is poorly placed to identify all but th e most obvious sources. Nor does it yet appear to exercise legal authority to co ntrol all sources of pollution or erosion in the watershed. A park is inviable i f existing ecosystems are of little value and cannot be protected against extern al threats, and sets an embarrassing precedent for future Marine Parks. Pollutio n abatement in Montego Bay Harbour should be urgently enforced under the Port Au thority Laws. The Marine Park should be moved to a more suitable site, where the highly motivated Marine Park Rangers can do a more effective job of protecting Jamaica's most valuable marine ecosystems instead of one of the most damaged. 16) ST. JAMES/TRELAWNY If most of the marine ecosystems of the currently demarcated Montego Bay Marine Park do not appear to deserve protected status, all the other coastal zones of S t. James probably do. They are not subject to pollution from Montego Bay because they are located up current from it. The area from the airport east has a well developed reef crest along most of the shore, and steep outer reef topography pr ovides excellent wall diving, with spectacular canyons and caves. Most of the co astline is still undeveloped or in pasture, but there are expanding numbers of i ntense foci of hotel development, housing estates, and squatter communities. Ree fs near these areas are likely to be subject to nutrient stress. The shore along this zone has long been subject to severe fishing pressure from fish traps and spearfishing (Aiken, 1992), and was the major area in the island for collection of corals for sale to tourists. This has now fortunately stopped during 1992, after the police began to enforce NRCA rulings resulting from Jamai ca's ratification of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

. While the coral trade took place, it targeted the two most important reef cres t corals, Acropora cervicornis and Acropora palmata, and so did serious damage t o local shoreline protection from hurricane and storm waves. Coral reefs in this region have great potential for diving, snorkeling, and swim ming. As the area is the likely future axis for expansion for the Montego Bay to urist industry, it is critical that full sewage treatment capacity for the entir e population of the area, including poor neighborhoods, precede further developm ent, so that the marine resources can be kept attractive for both fishing and ec otourism and avoid the fate of reefs in Montego Bay. Reefs along Trelawny, especially Maria Buena Bay, were pristine in the 1960s and 1970s, and excellent wall diving is found. However Falmouth Harbour receives ma jor mud discharges from the Martha Brae River and sewage from the town. Unwise d evelopment schemes in the 1960s killed the coastal mangroves which nourished the naturally luminescent plantonic microorganisms that made the area a unique natu ral attraction, and the phosphorescence took around 25 years to recover. Trelawn y shores are slated for large numbers of development schemes which could adverse ly affect the health of the reefs unless appropriate environmental safeguards ar e first taken. Only an aerial and shoreline based survey was possible during 199 2, and more detailed assessment is needed. 17) RIO BUENO The mouth of the Rio Bueno forms the boundary between Trelawny and St. Anns. The river normally runs clear or green, but turns red with mud during flood rains. These sediments are normally transported westward by strong coastal currents, ma king reefs on the west side of the spectacular submarine canyon very different f rom those on the east. Nevertheless, both show incredible vertical relief, falli ng from as little as a few feet deep straight down to over 400. Reefs to the west of the river have been seriously affected by sediment and floo d waters from the river, and they were also devastated by Hurricane Allen and Gi lbert, so that very little live coral is now to be seen (T. Hughes, personal com munication). The east side, in contrast, was spared serious damage by both hurri canes because of its orientation, except in the shallow fore reef, which is reco vering well, with Acropora species returning. Submarine topography of Rio Bueno is unique because exceptionally rapid outward growth of the reef has produced in credible caves, grottos, and overhanging reefs. Coral populations are very diver se and exceptionally brightly colored and healthy in appearance. Rio Bueno Bay i s a major fish nursery, probably the most important alone the central north coas t of Jamaica, and large deepwater fish are common visitors. It may also be a tur tle-nesting site. East Rio Bueno deserves the very highest national priority for fully protected s tatus because of its remarkable reef structures and excellent snorkeling and div ing. No further coastline development should be permitted, and existing houses s hould be required to have full sewage treatment. The area also has some of the b est developed fossil reefs and ancient sea level notches in Jamaica, which shoul d be protected as Global Heritage educational and scientific sites because they are one of the best places in the world to understand the effects of climate cha nge. Adjacent land areas should be protected as Arawak Indian and early Spanish archaeological sites, where Columbus killed the first Arawaks in Jamaica in orde r to seize their water and food. The entire Bay and town, with its remarkable hi storic architecture, large number of ancient Arawak Indian graves and artifacts, and more recent slave burial grounds, should be protected along with the Bay's marine habitats as a National Ecological/Historical/Cultural Treasure. Fully pro tected scientific reserve status is needed for the East Rio Bueno Reef and all a rchaeological and rare geological sites. It is imperative that this area avoid t he serious deterioration which has taken place in nearby Discovery Bay, and a pl

anned and orderly development process should be initiated to focus on preserving the remarkable historic, cultural, and scientific importance of Rio Bueno for p osterity. 18) DISCOVERY BAY Discovery Bay reefs, after having been severely battered by a decade of hurrican es, excess nutrients, and mass bleaching, appear to have largely passed the poin t of no return in the last year. Bay waters have become hyper-eutrophic and exce ptionally turbid with phytoplankton. Increasing urban development has accelerate d the amount of raw sewage discharged into the Bay, and high incidence of ear in fections among tourists indicates that bathing in Discovery Bay waters may incur public health hazards. The Discovery Bay fish nursery grounds, which were once teeming with fish and rivaled Rio Bueno (Goreau et al., 1986), has become a virt ual biological desert as a result of over collecting by both the Discovery Bay M arine Lab and local fishermen. No trace of the original rich nursery now remains except for a pathetic handful of damselfish and squirrel fish hiding in the mos t remote crevices. Algae have continued to proliferate, and their ecological zones have steadily ex panded outwards. By late 1992 Chaetomorpha linum, once confined to the innermost springs and then to the back reef, had moved its range out on to the top of the reef crest. Lagoon areas had large amounts of Dictyosphaeria cavernosa, the alg ae which overgrew corals and killed sewage-impacted reefs in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii . This algae, formerly extremely rare in Discovery Bay, is now found in large en crusting masses throughout the back reef area. Inner reef areas also had large a mounts of Ernodesmis verticillata, and innermost lagoon areas were taken up by U lva lactuca and Enteromorpha. All these species are high nutrient indicator spec ies, with Ulva and Enteromorpha marking the most extremely polluted sewage sites . On the shallow fore reef some small scale Acropora palmata recovery is taking pl ace, but by late 1992 almost the entire fore reef was occupied by waving mats of Sargassum Hystrix, about 50 cm or more high. Coral cover was only a few percent as deep as 90 feet on a video transect taken by B. Lapointe in late 1992. The p ace of coral overgrowth has become so severe in Discovery Bay that there is now little prospect of recovery. Because nutrient sources include both local polluti on and that transported from the centre of the island via underground rivers (Go reau et al., 1988), there is little prospect of short or medium term recovery. L arge scale construction of a rubble and soil dock at the lab are about to delive r the coup de grace to the back reef zone by elevating mud levels and blocking c irculation of the nursery areas. The purpose of this construction is not to prot ect the species diversity of the remaining reef but to hasten its depauperizatio n by using research submarines to remove large numbers of slow growing deep sea organisms for research experiments. The ecological devastation that has been obs erved in Discovery Bay over the past 40 years is so severe and accelerated so qu ickly that there is now no ecological merit in establishing West Discovery Bay a s a scientific reserve or research park for the study of coral reefs, as has bee n proposed in the PARC project in reactivation of the original Discovery Bay Mar ine Lab proposal made 30 years ago. The object lessons of reef destruction at Di scovery Bay should be thoroughly learned so they can be avoided elsewhere GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR JAMAICA COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION Coral reefs along all commercially developed shores examined in Western Jamaica show visible stress during 1992 from algal overgrowth caused by excessive levels of nutrients derived from sewage, sedimentation stress, or both. Reefs along un developed coastlines are still in good condition unless they were severely damag ed by hurricanes or strongly affected by river sediments. Many Western Jamaican reefs have exceptional conservation value because of high biodiversity, unusual

growth rates, large coral sizes, spectacular reef growth and topography, or fish nurseries. Preserving these remaining reefs and realizing their tremendous pote ntially sustainable value for fishing, mariculture, bathing, diving, snorkeling, boating, water sports, environmental protection, scientific research, and other uses for future generations, requires that development in high conservation pri ority zones avoid taking the environmentally disastrous course which has been fo llowed so far in Jamaica. This is best achieved through increases in nutrient re moval efficiency from sewage effluents. Development in all environmentally-sensitive areas should therefore not be permi tted until after all sewage infrastructure is completed. Strict controls are nee ded on all activities in the water and its watershed which could damage nearby r eefs. Reefs all around the island need to be thoroughly surveyed with regard to their current health, ongoing and potential threats, current and potential uses, and conservation needs. A long term environmental monitoring program has long b een urgently needed, but there has been little meaningful progress towards this to date. Reef restoration would be beneficial at exposed coastal sites where the shallow reef has been largely destroyed. A suitable approach could be techniques develop ed by Hilbertz and Goreau on the North Coast. Corals were attached to or settled naturally on underwater structures on which magnesium and calcium minerals were precipitated from sea water by electrical currents. Corals readily cemented the mselves onto the structures and grew exceptionally rapidly, from thumb to fist s ized pieces to colonies the size of a football in two years. Corals in identical habitats nearby grew very slowly or died from being overgrown by algae. The str uctures created a small thriving reef community containing half a dozen coral sp ecies, maintaining prolific growth of the sand producing algae Halimeda tuna and Jania rubens, and provided shelter for fish, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, cuttle fish, oysters, and other species. The dominant reef crest coral, Acropora palmat a, settled naturally onto the structure. Such artificial reef structures could b e used as bases for growing Acropora palmata, Acropora cervicornis, and other fa st growing reef species for regenerating reef crests at sites in need of shore p rotection. A nationwide integrated coastal zone management regime is imperative. This shoul d be under the leadership of the National Resources Conservation Authority, but decision making should be in the hands of local NGOs focusing on regional enviro nmental protection and management. Admirable existing fisheries laws are known n ot to be enforced, are routinely and openly violated without sanction, and are u nwise because they lead to contempt for laws in general. In practice, all activi ties are now permitted unless they are specifically and enforceably prohibited. It would be better to have the opposite situation: in which all coastal waters a re zoned on the principle that no activities are allowed unless they are express ly permitted in that zone. Such a regime may seem utopian in light of the well-known anarchic impulses of J amaican developers and fishermen, but it is surely in the long term interest of both. At present the two factions are competing to destroy the reef for short si ghted gain when they need to cooperate to protect what they could both lose thro ugh lack of foresight. Any effective coastal zone management regime must reflect fully the interests and cooperation of all major resource users in each area. I n Negril and Ocho Rios these may be watersports and dive operators, in Montego B ay it would be commercial port operations and cruise ship docking, but in most o f Jamaica it will be locally resident fishermen. All coastal zones should have a grass-roots local organization which establishes a regional effort to identify and protect the most crucial local habitats, ensu re that local water usage and land management does not abuse the reef environmen t, and develops a local consensus for these values based on public environmental

education. They should be headed by residents who are frequently in the water a nd who have a firm commitment to bettering their environment for the future. The se organizations could help monitor changes in the local environment, and take r outine samples for long-term monitoring programs. A cooperative outreach program could be developed to provide them with periodic scientific expertise to identi fy local reef problems and design solutions to them. Recently several local orga nizations which could play such a role have developed in Jamaica, such as the Ne gril Coral Reef Preservation Society, The Portland Environmental Protection Asso ciation, the Bluefield Community Association, and others. Most environmentally s ensitive zones of Jamaican coastline still lack such effective local groups. Dev elopment of new local environmental protection organizations badly needs to be s upported, and organizations with greater access to funds and expertise need to f ind ways to share these resources with groups which are less fortunate. Over the past decade a new paradigm for conservation, the "private sector park m odel", has become dominant in planning agencies in developing countries, especia lly Jamaica. This approach holds that environmental management is best conducted on a "self income generating capacity", i.e. as a private business. While this approach may have advantages with regard to managerial efficiency, it results in conservation priority being placed on those areas most likely to be readily abl e to generate excess capital for infrastructural investment. Following this appr oach, parks are most likely to be declared in areas which have high existing cap ital investment in tourism (areas which are, ipso facto, degraded), rather than in those areas which are most in need of conservation for scientific reasons. Th is approach, which led to the establishment of the Montego Bay Marine Park, leav es reefs off undeveloped shorelines with the least potential to raise the capita l urgently needed for their protection, the opposite of real long term conservat ion needs. Because marine environmental protection is currently regarded as a free public g ood (i.e. a service for which the individual does not need to pay), management o n a private-sector model inherently misallocates resources where they are least needed, and so does not provide an adequate basis for sound and sustainable long term ecosystem management. As a public good such as water supply, sewage treatm ent, health services, education, and other public services, funding for environm ental protection should be provided on a national basis. It should be allocated where most needed according scientifically-sound priorities, and designed to max imize environmental protection, restoration, and regeneration of Jamaica's natur al resources, rather than on maximizing short term financial profit. Past and cu rrent paths of Jamaica's "development" have led to the raping of the Jamaican en vironment, especially forests and reefs, by those who could clearly see quick pr ofits but who have left behind a ruined or degraded landscape for the next gener ation A fundamental change in public attitudes is needed if Negril is to avoid t he fate of Ocho Rios and Montego Bay, and create a more beautiful island for our children's children. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I gratefully thank a large number of other divers, swimmers, fishermen, and boat ers, for sharing their knowledge about specific sites. These include Katy Thacke r, Karen McCarthy, Craig Travis, Peter Goreau, Cy MacFarlane, Peter Graham, Dalt on Sutton, Lowan Lawrence, Larry Smith, Clive Maxwell, William Hogg, Jackie Lewi s of Jackie's on the Reef, Sharon Russell, Nadine Loeb, Tony Clarke. Terry Willi ams, Fabian, Ceylon Clayton, Cyril Connell, Gee, Fatta, the Montego Bay Marine P ark Rangers, and many others. REFERENCES Aiken, K., 1992, Fisheries and Marine Conservation, p.71-82 in Protecting Jamaic a's Coral Reefs: Final Report of the Negril Reef Mooring Buoy Workshop and Insta

llation Project, Key West, Florida. Goreau, T. F., 1956, A study of the biology and histochemistry of corals. Ph.D. thesis, Yale University, New Haven. Goreau, T. F., 1959, The ecology of Jamaican reefs. I. Species composition and zonation. Ecolony, 40: 67-90. Goreau, T. F., 1960, Report on a biological survey of the offshore regions borde ring upon the Negril-Green Island area. Negril-Green Island Area Land Authority, Negril. Goreau, T. .F. & N. I. Goreau. 1973. The ecology of Jamaican coral reefs. II. Ge omorphology, zonation, and sedimentary phases. Bulletin of Marine Science. 23: 3 99-464. T. F. Goreau, N. I. Goreau, & T. J. Goreau, 1979, Corals and Coral Reefs, Scient ific American, 241: 124-136 Goreau, T. J., 1992a, Coral reef health in the Negril area, p. 32-70 in Protecti ng Jamaica's Coral Reefs: Final Report of the Negril Reef Mooring Buoy Workshop and Installation Proiect, Key West, Florida. Goreau, T. J., 1992b, Bleaching and reef community change in Jamaica: 1951 -1991 , Proceedings of a Symposium on Long-term Change in Coral Reefs, Amer. Zool. 32: 683-695. T. J. Goreau, 1992c, Technological options which minimize the loss of biological diversity, p. 67-73 in ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND TECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOP MENT, United Nations, New York. T. J. Goreau, 1992d, An analytical framework for environmentally sound technolog y assessment, p. 88-92 in ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND TECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVEL OPMENT, United Nations, New York. Goreau, T. J., this volume. T. J. Goreau, P. D. Goreau, S. H. Goreau, A. H. Macfarlane, P. V. Devi Prasad, B . Lapointe, & J. H. Ryther, 1986, Jamaican back reef springs: some aspects of th eir ecology and mariculture potential, PROC. ASSOC. ISLAND MARINE LABS. CARIBBEA N, 19. Goreau, T. J., Dodge, R., & Goreau, P., 1988, Decline of coral growth rates at N egril, Jamaica, Proc. Assoc. Island Marine Labs. Carib., 21: 45. T. J. Goreau, B. Lapointe, J. O'Connell, P. D. Goreau, & A. H. Macfarlane, 1988, Groundwater nutrient inputs to Jamaican reefs, PROC. ASSOC. ISLAND MARINE LABS. CARIBBEAN, 21: 48 Goreau, T. J., Hayes, R., Clark, J., Basta, D., & Robertson, C.,1993, Elevated s ea surface temperatures correlate with Caribbean coral bleaching, p. 225-255 in R. Geyer (ed.), A Global Warming Forum: Scientific, economic, and legal overview , CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. Goreau, T. J., & Hayes, R., 1994, Coral bleaching and ocean "hot spots", Ambio, 23: 176-180 Hilbertz, W., 1992, Solar-generated building material from seawater as a sink fo r carbon, Ambio, 1: 126-129.