For example:

Motivation is essential in any industrial sector to achieve constructive work effort and ensure that colleagues are satisfied with their own work. This may be more of an issue in the construction sector because of the project-based, fixed-term nature of much employment. Thus it seeks to introduce a range of motivational processes, covering how staff are managed and motivated, as well as factors that may affect motivation at the sector level.

In the 1970s, construction management emerged and was seen as a way of making the sector more efficient by considering the motivational potential of certain ingredients that make up the work environment (money, job satisfaction, a sense of belonging and a future).

Motivation and its relation to performance The following formula highlights the dependency of motivation on other factors in order to achieve high performance: P = f (M + C + S) Where P = performance, M = motivation, C = capability and S = situation (f means function of). Motivation or the desire to partake in construction work, the ability to do the job (capability) and to have the resources within the environment (situation) are all necessary ingredients if an individual strives for promotion that requires a high level of performance. It is managements ultimate responsibility to ensure that these three criteria are met. Motivation is a complex phenomenon and there is no single answer to what can make a person more productive, because we are all individuals. For managers, it is important for them to understand the different theories available and be able to evaluate their use both for themselves and their employees. There are generally two schools of thought in motivation management the school of scientific management (F.W. Taylor) and the school of human relations (Elton Mayo). Within the human relations theory there are two sub-schools, hard HRM and soft HRM. The former emphasizes that employees are primarily a commodity, whereas the latter theory

defines the unique, human aspect of labour compared with other commodities. The scientific school, on the other hand, highlights the carrot and stick method a penalty for bad behaviour and a reward for good work. The human theory paradoxically relies on making work enjoyable so that employees take pride in their work; they may also feel cared for by management and should, according to the unwritten rulebook, work harder. Some theorists might suggest that good pay is a motivator. According to Herzberg, it is actually only a dissatisfier, not a motivator and may not lead to an employee working harder to drive home results.

The scientific approach considers goals, giving individuals a certain set of tasks, a clear set of objectives and increasing economic rewards to improve performance. The barriers would be the limitations imposed by the processes and the resources available, as well as the capability of the worker. Taylor provided the foundation for the theory that money did not sufficiently improve performance, although some sort of reward structure could be successful.

Maslows hierarchy of needs theoryOne of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of needs theory put forth by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the highest, and he concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator. The needs hierarchy- Five basic human needs placed by Maslow in an ascending order of importance are-

 FIGURE 3: SHOWS MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Physiological needs- These are the basic needs for sustaining human life itself, such as food, water, warmth, shelter and sleep. Maslow took the position that until these needs are satisfied to the degree necessary to maintain life, other needs will not motivate people. Security, or safety needs- These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing a job, property, food or shelter.

Affiliation, or acceptance needs- Since people are social beings, they need to belong, to be accepted by others.

Esteem needs- According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they tend to want to be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such satisfactions as power, prestige, status and selfconfidence.

 Need for self-actualization- Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the desire to become what one is capable of becoming- to maximize ones potential and to accomplish something. Whilst employment for manual workers in the construction sector is insecure, the lower-level needs of shelter and food, for example, are not necessarily the only important factors. It has been underestimated that job satisfaction is important to construction workers. It can be upsetting to a craft worker to be working on a poorly managed construction job, where there are delays in the delivery of materials or the materials/processes are poorly designed. These events may affect deadlines and thus the potential for bonus payments, but there is also loss in pride for those who like to see a job completed in the scheduled time and to expected quality levels. Those who are extrovert employees may wish to fulfil the final level, selfactualisation, if they feel confident enough, whereas the more introverted may concentrate on safety. The different levels may be perceived differently by different employees. For some, esteem may be reflected in money whilst others visualize the importance of how many subordinates are responsible to them.

Human Resource Management is a strategic and coherent approach to the management of the employees in an organisation. Human Resource Management is very important for the survival and prosperity of an organisation because workers are regarded as the most important resource in any business. As a result it helps in the procurement of right kind and right number of employees. Before selecting the right man for the right job, it becomes necessary to determine the quality and quantity of people required in the organisation. The function of Human Resource Management is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Planning the work force needs of the business. Recruiting and selecting appropriate staff. Appraising, training and developing staff at every stage of career. Developing appropriate pay system for different categories of staff. Measuring and monitoring staff performance. Involving all the managers in the development of the staff.

Recruitment and Selection One of the biggest steps a business can take is recruiting its first employee. You suddenly have obligations - not least of which is ensuring your business generates sufficient income to pay the costs of that extra person. It is essential that you think carefully in advance - to ensure that you recruit

someone with appropriate skills who fits well into the business and to get the best from them by providing effective training and development. Objectives The aim of this section is to guide you through the employment process. It will enable you to: identify and analyse jobs; define your requirements; prepare a job description and person specification; advertise vacancies effectively; and, interview and hire personnel. Notes To make full use of the information in this section, we would recommend that you work through the numbered articles in order, and attempt the assignments. The information in this section is intended as a starting point only. We would recommend that you contact your Business Adviser if you are in any doubt about the content.

01. Defining your requirements (i) Recruitment and selection can be seen as a two-stage process: Recruitment attracts the optimum number of suitably qualified candidates to apply for the post; and, Selection filters this potentially large group through a variety of criteria in order to determine their suitability to match the needs of the job and the business. Recruitment and selection must be considered as two separate processes, otherwise one or both may fail. If you filter wrongly at recruitment, you may end up with a pool of poor candidates. If you attract wrongly at selection, you may end up with a poor fit between the job and the job-holder. The first rule of effective selection is that you should know what you want. If more than one person is involved in the selection process then this information should be shared with everyone concerned. It is essential that you have a written statement of what it is that you are looking for which includes the knowledge, skills and attitudes required to do the job. Businesses recruit people to carry out specific tasks. These tasks may have been previously defined and the recruitment carried out only for replacement, or the business may be expanding and require additional people to carry out new tasks in which case you will need to define tasks from scratch. What are the jobs or tasks that need to be undertaken?

The objective of the selection process is to match as closely as possible each person you recruit to your requirements. All jobs consist of activities and responsibilities that must be performed in a particular way; these are tasks. Once you have identified those tasks, you will need to consider the knowledge, skills, aptitudes and attitudes required. The tasks and duties of a job holder can then be set out in a systematic way: a Job Description. This can be used to determine what the job will demand of the jobholder in terms of physical and mental abilities, attitudes and personal circumstances. The required abilities and attitudes can then also be set out in a systematic form: a Personnel Specification.

The matching process takes place successfully when you can match the abilities and attitudes of a candidate to the demands made by the job.

02. Defining your requirements (ii): Job analysis Job analysis is the process of breaking down a job into its component parts. It requires you to think carefully about all the tasks (eg book-keeping, selling, etc) undertaken by a defined job holder. Once you have considered all the tasks, think about the competencies, attributes and behaviours (eg imagination, initiative, ability to work under stress, etc) which you will be

looking for in the person. You may find it helpful also to think about the importance of individual tasks, the frequency of tasks, the relative difficulty of tasks, and the consequences of error. Job analysis is a critical element in the process of recruitment. When a post becomes vacant, there is the opportunity to look not only at what is involved in the job, but what should be involved, offering an opportunity to introduce change and to eliminate bad practice which may have crept in. Here are some of the ways in which you can develop a set of criteria that will help you select an appropriate candidate for the job. In order to decide on criteria, information will be needed about the following factors: What does the job involve? What sort of tasks? What sort of skills will be needed to carry out those tasks: manual skills, clerical skills, selling skills, leadership skills? What sort of knowledge: equipment, software, foreign languages? What sort of attitudes? Does the jobholder need to be friendly, flexible, caring, etc? In what context is the job performed? Is it in constant contact with customers or other staff? What levels of responsibility are there? Who would the jobholder report to and what type of supervision will they require? How would working conditions impact upon the type of person who would fit the job requirements? Finding information Once you have developed a list of factors, you can ask where you would be likely to find such information. In a smaller organisation (or department) of, say three or four people, most of the people working there are likely to know quite a lot about the requirements of the job, because they are already doing all or part of it. The growth of a company (or department) to beyond six or seven people means that it is not all that easy any more. A manager or supervisor may think they know what a job entails, but often only know what managing the job entails, and this is a quite different set of information. You should look at the likeliest sources of effective job information. Often you can assume that the boss is the most likely person to know what the job requires; 'doing', however, is a different skill to managing. You may find that as you develop your management skills you become more distant from the job and need to look elsewhere for your information. There are a number of sources of information, and methods that you can use to collect it, to help you develop a clear picture of the job requirements. Some of these are complex and may not seem worth the effort. Listed below are some of the sources of information from which you might gain a clearer picture: Someone who has held the job in the past - this person will have a great deal of information about the job, although it may be biased. In the case of a new job, this source is unavailable and you will need to consider the next most accurate source; The group or team in which the job is to be performed - in a smaller business unit, working under pressure, existing staff are likely to be doing the job already to some extent; and, The boss or the person who is directly responsible for supervising the new job - this may be the most inaccurate source of job-related information as that person may offer criteria related to their own personal preferences and not to the needs of the job. This is, however, the most common source of job-related information.

Where possible you should always use more than one information source when deciding what it is that the job requires. Do not make assumptions that you alone know what a job entails. You may be wrong. Collecting information Once you have decided on the sources of information you will use, you may wish to consider how you intend to collect it. When collecting information you need to use methods which will give the best possible picture of the needs of the post. You can use three main rule of thumb methods: Observation - this applies where there is already a person in the post to observe; Individual interview - again, this is of more use where there is already a postholder to interview; and, Group interview - this means involving the group or team who may be already doing the job between them and asking what it is likely to involve and what type of person would be needed to fill it. Example Job analysis: Job Title: Office Manager Task Allocate work to suitable staff. Reception, word processing, book-keeping and other work as required. Maintenance of equipment. Ordering materials. Training staff. Monitoring costs. Knowledge Awareness of staff skills. Skills to operate machines. Maintenance timetable. Re-order procedures. Skills People management. Computing. Fault finding. Able to use equipment. Aptitudes Ability to prioritise time planning. Manual dexterity. Clerical. Teaching. Numeracy. Attitude Pleasant manner. Desire to complete jobs on time. Willingness to join in. Understand importance of cost control.

03. Defining your requirements (iii): Job description Once the job analysis is completed, you can prepare a job description (see link to example below). This is a broad statement that sets out the main purpose and scope of the job, the responsibilities and the tasks. It is normal also to include the job title, the line manager to whom the jobholder reports, the job titles of staff who report to the jobholder, and any functional relationships.

From Strategic Planning to Strategic Thinking

by James L. Morrison [Note: This is a re-formatted manuscript that was originally published in On the Horizon, 1994, 2(3), 3-4. It is posted here with permission from Jossey Bass Publishers.] Ian Wilson in the lead article argues convincingly that in this period of rapid change we should shift from strategic planning to strategic thinking and strategic management. Henry Mintzberg (1994), in an article appearing in the latest issue of the Harvard Business Review titled "The Fall and Rise of Strategic Planning," states that the label strategic planning should be dropped because strategic planning has impeded strategic thinking. Mintzberg's argument is as follows: strategic planning is about analysis (i.e., breaking down a goal into steps, designing how the steps may be implemented, and estimating the anticipated consequences of each step). Strategic thinking is about synthesis, about using intuition and creativity to formulate an integrated perspective, a vision, of where the organization should be heading. The problem is that strategic planning proponents believe that analysis encompasses synthesis; that in the best practice, strategic planning, strategic thinking, and strategy making are synonymous. This belief, in turn, rests on the assumptions that prediction is possible and that the strategy-making process can be formalized. Mintzberg argues, and Wilson would probably agree, that predicting seasons of the year is simple, but predicting discontinuities, such as a technological innovation, is difficult, if not impossible. Moreover, Mintzberg maintains, formalizing a strategy implies a sequence from analysis through procedure to action. Certainly we do think in order to act; but also we sometimes act in order to think. We experiment; those experiments that work converge into patterns that become strategies. To Mintzberg, the essence of strategy making is the process of learning as we act. Formal systems can never internalize, comprehend, or synthesize hard information. Thus planning can not "learn." Mintzberg says, "Strategies can develop inadvertently, without the conscious intention of senior management, often through a process of learning. . . . Learning inevitably plays a, if not the, crucial role in the development of novel strategies (p. 111)."

Mintzberg sees strategic planning as practiced, as strategic programmingarticulating and elaborating strategies that already exist. When managers comprehend the difference between planning and strategic thinking, it is possible to return to what the strategy-making process should be: "capturing what the manager learns from all sources (both the soft insights from his or her personal experiences and the experiences of others throughout the organization and the hard data from market research and the like) and then synthesizing that learning into a vision of the direction that the business should pursue (p. 107)." Mintzberg does not mean get rid of the planners. Instead, those with planning responsibilities should make their contribution around the strategy-making process rather than inside it. Planners should supply the data that strategic thinking requires, should act as catalysts who support strategy-making by aiding and encouraging managers to think strategically, and should help specify the implementation steps needed to carry out the strategic vision. Mintzberg distinguishes between planners and managers. Planners do not have authority to make commitments, nor do they have managers' access to that "soft" information critical to strategy making. Managers are under time pressure to make decisions, to act, not reflect; they may overlook important analytical information. Planners have the time and the inclination to analyze. Their role should be to pose the right questions rather than to find the right answers, opening complex issues for thoughtful consideration. Planners should function as strategy finders, analysts, and catalysts. Planners should encourage managers to think about the future in creative ways, to question conventional wisdom, to raise difficult questions, to challenge conventional assumptions, and to help themselves out of conceptual ruts. Mintzberg cites Arie de Geus (1988), onetime head of planning at Royal Dutch Shell, in a classic article titled "Planning as Learning," as arguing that the real purpose of planning is to change the mental models that decision makers carry in their heads. What are the implications of the Wilson and Mintzberg arguments for college and university leaders? First, presidents, chancellors, provosts, and deans should focus on strategic thinking and strategic management, on developing a shared vision for their school. Their colleagues with "planning" either in their title or in their assigned responsibilities should function in the role of planners as described by Mintzberg. They should not be told, "Draft the plan." Such commandments usually result in another document for the archives. There are a number of tools available to planners to assist them in helping senior administrators think strategically. Ian Wilson points to visioning and scenarios. Perhaps Ian will present a seminar through the UNC Institute for Academic and Professional Leadership on these topics. On the Horizon itself can serve as a tool. Our editorial board is charged with identifying signals of change in specific sectors of the macroenvironment (social, technological, economic, environmental, and political) and suggesting their implications for higher education. Our lead articles focus more broadly on what is on the horizon that can affect colleges and universities, as do our pieces in Commentary. The Situation Room focuses on

emerging issues and on issues management techniques. We have begun a new section in this issue: The Internet. In the next issue, we will began another section: Methods and Techniques. In the April issue for example, Mark Champion and James Rieley will describe their experience with environmental scanning and with Hoshin planning respectively as two approaches to effective planning. If you wish to contribute an article, please send me a 800-1200 word manuscript for our review. As always we welcome your comments and suggestions as to how we can make On the Horizon more useful to you. References Mintzberg, H. (1994, January-February). The fall and rise of strategic planning. Harvard Business Review, 107-114. DeGeus, A. P. (1988, March/April). Planning as learning. Harvard Business Review, 70-74.

The Role of Strategic Thinking in Business Planning

by Michael Stanleigh Traditionally, Strategic Planning omits the step of innovative thinking that is so critical to business success. Strategic Thinking is a more comprehensive planning model that covers innovation, strategic planning and operational planning. Introduction What is Strategic Thinking? Why is Strategic Thinking Important? The Strategic Thinking Process Conclusion

Introduction
Strategy has never been more challenging, or more important, than in today's environment of global competition, in which, corporate strategies must transcend the borders of nations and markets. Too many organizations try to be everything to everyone, wasting resources in markets that may never provide a worthwhile return on investment.

What is Strategic Thinking?

Strategic Thinking is a planning process that applies innovation, strategic planning and operational planning to develop business strategies that have a greater chance for success. More and more organizations are learning that past experience is not always the best basis for developing future strategies. Executives need to thoughtfully consider how to create value for customers. The exercise of strategic planning, while important, tends to answer the

"how" and "when" of business planning and rarely captures the essence of what it means to think strategically. That's where strategic thinking comes in. Strategic thinking is the "what:" and "why" of the planning process. It answers the question, "What should we be doing, and why?" Strategic Thinking requires innovation and creativity and includes a research phase to examine the voice of the customer, the employee and industry best practices. It is a process of examining everything we do in our various roles, understanding the needs of our customers and ensuring that all of this is linked to clearly defined strategic imperatives.If we compare strategic thinking with strategic planning and operational planning we see that: Strategic Thinking - is the "What" and the "Why"...that is what should we be doing and why. Strategic Planning - is the "How" and "When" ...at a very high level. Operational Planning - is the specific details of the how and when.

Why is Strategic Thinking Important?

The purpose of Strategic Thinking is to create a strategy that is a coherent, unifying, integrative framework for decisions especially about direction of the business and resource utilization. To do it, Strategic Thinking uses internal and external data, qualitative synthesis of opinions and perceptions. It is conscious, explicit, and proactive and defines competitive domain for corporate strategic advantage. Strategy is a key outcome of a relevant strategic thinking process. Tregoe and Zimmerman outlined the relationship between strategy and operations in their work on strategy, "Top Management Strategy: What It Is and How To Make It Work".

The Strategic Thinking Process

Strategic Thinking is the combination of Innovation, Strategy Planning, and Operational Planning. The process begins with Innovation. We try to create the ideal future and consider the plans needed to achieve them and to see them through. Innovation helps us to move outside our comfort zone into the possibilities of exceeding customer and organizational requirements and expectations. Innovations are then articulated into a series of strategies. This is a part of the entire Strategic Planning process. However, in Strategic Thinking, we incorporate the needs of our customers, the organization and our staff in the process. We incorporate Benchmarking to ensure that industry best practices are included in our vision of the future. Employee Involvement at each stage of the Strategic Thinking process is key to ensuring that they stay involved in the execution of the Operational plans. This is where Operational Planning comes to play. It is the process of taking the strategies (the outcomes of the Strategic Planning process) and developing them into action plans that are achievable and involve staff throughout the organization in ensuring that the needs of the customer and the organization are met. The last part of Strategic Thinking is Measurement. There must be an on-going process of measuring the effectiveness of the plans and verifying that they are implemented as planned. Measurement is also used to benchmark the original needs against the implemented actions. To successfully implement strategic change, initiated through the strategic thinking process, it is important for all levels of employees to fully incorporate the change in everything they do. We do this by identifying and establishing Values and Principles to ensure the organization is successful at achieving its strategic goals.

Conclusion

Senior managers and leaders in organizations have a responsibility to make the required time to undertake Strategic Thinking in their business planning. It won't just happen-nor can it be done in a quick half-day meeting. Without comprehensive Strategic Thinking the organization risks making quick decisions that lack the creativity and insights derived through a Strategic Thinking process. Executives may find out later that their organization is going in directions that they likely didn't want it to go. This is not something that can be delegated away. Strategic Thinking can be done for the organization as a whole and for each department or division within the organization. The goal is to out-think, out-plan and out-maneuver other forces or competitors. The notion of combat implies a central premise of competition in the pursuit of "fulfilment". Sun Tzu in his book, "The Art of War," defines the peak efficiency of knowledge and strategy as being, to make conflict altogether unnecessary-to overcome other's armies without fighting. Similarly, the role of the leader embodying the essential elements of Strategic Thinking is well described in this passage: "A general must see alone and know alone, meaning that he must see what others do not see and know what others do not know. Seeing what others do not see is called brilliance, knowing what others do not know is called genius. Brilliant geniuses win first, meaning that they defend in such a way as to be unassailable and attack in such a way as to be irresistible."

Strategic planning is critical to a nonprofit organization's future direction and

survival. As such, it is important to understand what strategic planning is and why it is so

important. This article provides a definition of strategic planning and why it is important to nonprofit organizations. Wikipedia defines strategic planning as "an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people." Strategic planning is the formal consideration of an organization's future course. All strategic planning deals with at least one of three key questions: 1. The first key question is "What do we do?" This relates to the organization's vision and mission. An organization's vision is broad... it is the final goal the organization aspires to achieve. The organization's mission is a statement describing how the organization is going to meet its vision. For example, an organization's vision might be to employ all persons with disabilities. Its mission might be "Through the provision of vocational counseling, job seeking skills training, and job development and placement, assist persons with disabilities to gain or retain meaningful employment." 2. The second key question is "For whom do we do it?" The organization needs to be clear about who its clients are in order to develop or modify programs and services to meet their needs. 3. The third key question is "How do we excel?" This question relates to how well the organization is doing and what it could be doing better to best meets the needs of its clients. It also reminds the organization to assess its competition and develop a strategy to be the premier agency in its field. Although these three questions should always be considered when developing, modifying, or deleting programs and services, it is also important that they be addressed before and during the strategic planning process. The answers to these questions will help the organization to determine its direction, exactly where it stands, where it wants to go, and how it will get there. The resulting document is called the "strategic plan." Strategic planning is a process organizations should engage in on an ongoing basis, regardless of the length of the plan. Some organizations engage in tactical planning, which is essentially a one year strategic plan. Tactical plans are developed when an organization is brand new or develops a new program or service that wasn't included in the original strategic plan. Generally, however, most strategic plans are 3-5 years. Although some plans could be longer, it is difficult to predict opportunities, threats, and trends in the field beyond three years. Whether the plan's duration is one year or longer, the important thing to keep in mind is developing a plan that strategically moves the organization in the right direction. Without strategic planning and a resulting plan of action, the organization will not have a clear idea of what it is doing, why it is doing it, and where it is going. If there are no goals and objectives in place to address stakeholder issues/concerns, improve programs/services, or grow the organization, it may not be able to continue meeting the needs of the very people it is supposed to serve. In addition, the lack of a plan could compromise public trust,

result in a loss of funding, or prevent the organization from pursuing new funding opportunities and partnerships. Without planning, an organization becomes stagnant. Copyright 2010 Sharon L. Mikrut, All rights reserved. New: Do you have what it takes to be an entrepreneur? New: 8 Powerful Steps to Finding Your Passion New: Does your pitch suck? New: Create a plan of attach to launch your new business.

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