National Formulative Summit: South Sudan

Background guide

Chair: Sumaira Mazhar Vice Chairs: Nikita Pillai Laila Rupani

Dear Delegates, It is my distinct honour to welcome all of you to McMUN, Montreal, and the National Formulative Summit for South Sudan. I hope you are looking forward to what promises to be a weekend full of exciting debate in what is called the cultural capital of Canada. My name is Sumaira Mazhar and I am a third-year Science student at McGill. I will serve as Chair for the committee that challenge you in multiple ways, force you to think outside the box, and get in touch with your creative side as you attempt to overcome obstacles by drafting a constitution for the newest nation. Born and raised in Singapore, of Pakistani heritage, and a long-time resident of Montreal, I hope this committee will be as diverse as my own cultural experiences. Before moving on, I would like to introduce your vice-chairs. Your first vice-chair is Nikita Pillai. Born in Bahrain and having living all over the Middle East, she is currently pursuing a double major in Economics and Political Science. Although her Model UN experience started at McGill, she has been involved in debate and public speaking tournaments from a young age. She is excited about this committee because Africa to begin with is a continent that immensely intrigues her with its interesting political and socio-economic dynamics and so to be provided with an opportunity as relevant and practical as this is simply fantastic. Your other vice-chair is Laila Rupani. Born and raised in Nairobi, Kenya, she is now pursuing a double major in Economics and International Development Studies, with a minor in World Religions. A veteran in Model UN, she attended her first conference in 8th grade and has fallen in love since. She is excited that after watching the historic signing of the CPA on television back in 2005, the independence of the people of South Sudan has now been brought to fruition. She is especially excited about drafting a constitution for this brand new country and wishes all the delegates best of luck! I would like to remind you that the first committee session will commence as if taking place on July 9, 2011, the day this new nation was born. There have been many changes between then and now, including a new cabinet of ministers. During your research, it is important to focus on the position of the portfolio (rather than the person) at that time. I look forward to a great conference in January and hope that all of you are as excited as I am for this committee! Having been a delegate at McMUN in the past, I understand the level of competition and intensity at the conference, but hope all of you will enjoy this experience as much as I did as a delegate. Regards, Sumaira Mazhar Chair, National Formulative Summit for South Sudan

Specialized Rules of Procedure Oral Presentations At the beginning of each topic, all delegates will be required to make a presentation lasting no more than one minute. The delegates should come prepared with presentations for all the topics. Ideally, the presentation will briefly outline the delegates position on the topic at hand and give others a clear picture of the representatives vision for the nations future with regards to that topic. The default yield during the presentations will be to two thirty-second comments.

Debate Format There will be no primary speakers list, as debate will advance in moderated caucus format. Constitution Instead of writing draft resolutions, delegates will be expected to produce articles/clauses pertaining to each specific topic, which will be voted on during voting procedure. At the end of the last session, the committee is expected to produce one document, the Constitution of South Sudan, which will incorporate passed articles/clauses from each of the topics.

Topic 1: Nile River Water Resource Introduction The White Nile begins in the Great Lakes Region, crosses South Sudan and merges in Khartoum with the Blue Nile coming from the mountains of Ethiopia. Together, they finally end in the Mediterranean Sea, North of Egypt.i The Nile Basin group is comprised of 10 countries: Burundi, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Sudan and Tanzania. According to the World Bank, the Nile River Basin is home to an estimated 160 million people, while almost 300 million live in the ten countries that share the Nile's waters. Within the next 25 years, population within the Basin is expected to double, adding to the increased demand for water generated by growth in industry and agricultureii. In recent years, however, the use of the Nile's waters for development has become a matter of contention among the 10 countries that share its basin.

Previous Agreements Governing the Use of the Nile Water A major part of the contention can be attributed to the agreements signed during the Colonial era that govern the use of the Nile Water for the 10 countries who share the Nile Basin. These agreements are the 1929 Nile Water Agreement and the 1959 Agreement for the Full Utilization of the Nile. 1929 Nile Water Agreement: This agreement was signed by the British colonial empire and Egypt, where Egypt was granted the veto power to halt all construction along the entire length of the Nile River (including upstream countries) if at any point the planned construction would affect the flow of the Nile River within Egypt.

1959 Agreement for the Full Utilization of the Nile After Sudan acquired independence in 1959, another agreement was signed stipulating that the Niles annual flow would be shared with Egypt getting 87% and Sudan getting 13%iii. The rights of the remaining Nile Basin countries were not exercised. Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) In response to the increasing crisis in the region, the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) was launched in 1999. It aims to reach sustainable social and economic development through an equal sharing of resources.iv Currently five upstream countries (Uganda, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania and Burundi) have signed a Cooperation Framework Agreement to integrate the key idea of water sharing into the NBI, creating an outline to decide specific percentages at a later date. Egypt and Sudan are against it. However, a stipulation exists that if six or more countries sign the agreement, it will be set in motionv. Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) and Water Resources When the Sudanese Central Government and the Sudanese People Liberation Army/ Movement (SPLA/M) signed the CPA in order to end the civil war in Sudan, a Wealth Sharing Agreement was signed. This agreement addressed the sharing of land and natural resources but it did not address the key topic of Nile Water. The reason as to why the SPLA/M did not bring up the sharing and management of the Nile between North and the soon to be South Sudan was because the SPLA/M was afraid they would risk their appeal for self-determination as a consequence. Their fear was based on the fact that the birth of a new Nile Basin country (South Sudan) would upset the previous agreements governing the use of the Nile Water and thus take away attention from their main aim which was self-determination. South Sudan in the Present Nile Diplomatic Game 28% of the Nile Waters flow is present in South Sudan; this gives South Sudan significant political leverage in the Nile Diplomatic Game. In bilateral Egypt-South Sudan talks, South Sudan promised to respect previous treatiesvi. Nevertheless, previous treaties will have to be amended to accommodate the increased need of the Nile Water between North and South Sudan. The previous quota of 13% of the annual Nile Water flow for the entire Sudan will not be enough to sustain both countries. Regarding the NBI Cooperation Framework Agreement, the question still remains if South Sudan will join the effort. However, since South Sudan had the support of its southern Nile basin neighbors during secession it is highly likely that South Sudan will join the NBI and pledge its support.

Conclusion The Nile offers enormous development opportunities to South Sudan but also for the other Nile Basin countriesvii. The current process of the Nile diplomatic game seems like it can be a win-win situation if every country manages to make compromises. If so, those African countries will enjoy the enormous asset that is the Nile River. Questions to Consider 1) Do the future prospects of South Sudan Nile Water utilization lie with Egypt or the upstream countries that comprise the Nile Basin Initiative? 2) How can South Sudan use the Nile River for the future development of its people?

Topic 2:Abyei Conflict Introduction The rural territory of Abyei sits on the border between North and South Sudan. In 1905, British colonial administrators transferred the Abyei district to Northern Sudans Kordofan province. This was administratively more convenient than controlling the area from the Southern Sudan province of Bahr el Ghazal.1 The Dinka Ngok is however the predominant ethnic group in the region and is closely related to other Dinka sub-groups which comprise the largest ethnic grouping of South Sudan. The northern reaches of Abyei are historically populated and used as grazing land by the Arab Misseriya, pastoralist cattle keepers residing across Kordofan and Darfur.2 Abyei was troubled throughout Sudans civil wars. Misseriya and Dinka Ngok were recruited to fight on opposing sides of the greater North-South conflict. Traditional mechanisms for resolving conflict and addressing access rights to land and water broke down3. The Ngok and the Misseriya thus developed disparate North or South identities. The Abyei region is rich in grasslands, forests, swamps, and river systems. Situated in the Muglad Basin which is a massive oil reserve for Sudan, Abyei had been credited as a major investment point for Sudans oil industry. Also, the Greater Nile Oil Pipeline, one of the important pipelines, also runs across through Abyei, further enhancing its importance.4 The Abyei Protocol Negotiations between the Northern Government of Sudan and the Southern Sudan based Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A), concluded under international pressure cumulating in a specific agreement on Abyei, known as the Abyei Protocol. The Protocol was incorporated in the CPA. The agreement commits Northern government and the SPLM/A to determining the precise boundaries of Abyei through an expert body, the Abyei Boundaries Commission (ABC); describes security and local government arrangements; provides a wealth sharing formula for the region; and, specifies that simultaneous with the self-determination referendum for Southern Sudan, a second vote for the people of Abyei be conducted, allowing Abyei to decide whether it should remain administratively part of Northern Sudan or return to the Southviii. The territory is defined as the area of the nine Ngok Dinka Chiefdoms transferred to Kordofan in 1905; The Misseriya and other nomadic peoples retain their traditional rights to graze cattle and move across the territory of Abyei.ix

http://www.ssrresourcecentre.org/2010/08/09/abyei-province-the-crossroads-of-future-border-conflict-insudan/ , Retrieved 2/09/11 2 Ibid, Retrieved 2/09/11 3 Ibid, Retrieved 2/09/11 4 http://www.afronline.org/?p=16266, Retrieved 2/09/11

Reaction to the Abyei Protocol North Sudan rejected the boundaries drawn up by the Abyei Boundaries Commission (ABC). Uncertainty fuelled tension in Abyei, and fighting broke out between northern and southern troops in May 2008.x Following the 2008 violence under international pressure, the NCP and SPLM agreed to refer the boundaries dispute to the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) in The Hague.xi In a ruling by the PCA tribunal in July 2009, the panel accepted in part the decision of the ABC, while in various places redrawing the territorys boundaries. The effect of this has been to reduce the size of the Abyei area, leaving a number of the oil fields outside the new boundaries. The PCAs decision was initially accepted by both the Northern government and the SPLM. But in the year following the PCAs ruling, progress in Abyei has stalled. Physical demarcation of the boundary has so far proved to be impossible to implement. xii In addition, the Northern government and SPLM could not agree on who constituted a resident for the purposes of voting in the Abyei referendum. The Sudanese government argued that the Misseriya, a nomadic group from the north who travel through Abyei in the dry season to graze their livestock, should be allowed to vote. The South Sudan government argued that only those who live in Abyei year-round, mostly the Ngok Dinka, a southern ethnic group, should participate. In the end, the Abyei referendum was sidelined.xiii Conclusion Resolution of the Abyei crisis represents an opportunity to promote sustained peace and development in one of the most tense areas along the disputed borderxiv. Negotiations between the parties on long-term wealth-sharing arrangements related to Abyeis oil reserves, is a strong way to mitigate the risk that Abyei will unravel the North-South peace. And holding the vote without working to build acceptance and trust with the Misseriya will prevent a sustained peace. Should there be any future conflict between North and South, whether to dispute boundaries or wealth, Abyei will again be at the crossroads. If a solution is not found, it is possible a new north-south civil war could break out.xv Questions to Consider 1) To what extent are the Ngok Dinka and the Misseriya being given an opportunity to decide on the fate of the Abyei region? 2) What motives of self-interest are North and South Sudan projecting through the Abyei dispute?

Topic 3: Oil Resource Maintenance Introduction The Republic of South Sudan starts independence facing huge challenges in using its oil wealth to jump-start development in the country, where over 50 percent of its people live below the poverty line and over 80 percent are illiterate. Without new investment to increase output, or successful exploration that finds additional resources, South Sudan faces declining oil production from 2015. Oil started being produced in Sudan in the 1990s and has become the mainstay of the economies of the North and South. Most of the oilfields are located in South Sudan, however vital infrastructure such as pipelines, refineries and the Red Sea export terminal are located in the North. Agreement to share control over oil resources and revenues was a central part of the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, but up to the eve of South Sudans secession, north and south had not resolved how to divide the industry or its revenue. Several oilfields lie in the border area dividing Sudan and the new Republic of South Sudan. The broad outline of what oil resources lie in South Sudan is clear, but the details of how the fields straddling the border are to be allocated and managed are not. xvi Current State of Exploration and Production of Oil Resources Much of the area of South Sudan has already been let for oil exploration, and there is potential for further exploration within the blocks that are under production. The only areas not yet marked out with significantly minimal exploration to date are in the far south.xvii Due to civil conflict, oil exploration has mostly been limited to the central and south-central regions of the country.xviii Exploration and development of Sudan's oil resources has been controversial. International human rights organizations have accused the Sudanese government of financing human rights abuses with oil revenues, including the mass displacement of civilians near the oil fields. Factional fighting in the South and rebel attacks on oil infrastructure has kept oil production and exploration from reaching full potential to date. China, the largest investor in Sudan, has had facilities in attacked while at the same time, the country has faced international condemnation for its investments in Sudan. In addition, The United States prohibits U.S. nationals from engaging in any transactions or activities related to the petroleum or petrochemical industries in the entire territory of Sudan (including Southern Sudan). xix The underdeveloped South will have to rely on the Norths refineries, ports and pipelines. Sudans president has threatened to not allow South Sudan to use its infrastructure unless it pays $32 per barrel. South Sudan, which began negotiations by offering less than half a dollar per barrel, says it will not accept customs fees above $7 per barrel for oil from new oil fields and $4 per barrel from existing ones.xx In order to counter this hurdle, South Sudan plans to build a link to a pipeline in Kenya to export its oil.xxi Border disputes in the oil-rich areas such as Abyei and Heglig continue to be a hurdle in the oil production process. The oil industry is cited as the cause of environmental degradation, land alienation and insecurity which affects all border

populations. Increasing insecurity along the border in the oil producing areas and at the same time, insecurity on roads and double taxation from the Northern and Southern governments has increased.xxii Economic Development through Oil Revenues Revenue from oil provides an opportunity to invest in social and infrastructure development, but some also needs to be set aside for the future, given that production is already starting to decline.xxiii The Government of South Sudan (GoSS) will have to ensure security for oil workers and installations. Without ensuring security at oil installations so that production can be maintained, the new country faces acute economic problems.xxiv South Sudan could potentially benefit from oil-backed loans for infrastructure development from China or other donors. China already gives infrastructure loans to many African countries. In some cases, these are backed by resources, such as oil or copper, so that once projects, such as road building, are completed, repayments are made in resources valued at current market prices. Although controversialthere are questions as to whether the loan terms are transparent or the infrastructure of good qualitysuch loans can speed up the conversion of oil revenues into development goods, helping ensure that a proportion of revenues are spent on infrastructure needed for economic growth.xxv Transparency of the oil industry will help ordinary citizens see exactly how their natural resources are being managed and will help to avoid corruption. This involves full publication of royalties and oil revenue transactions between companies and oil extracting countries.xxvi Conclusion Following secession, South Sudan has access to enhanced revenues from the oil sector. Through strategic planning, further exploration and foreign cooperation efforts South Sudan can strengthen the current state of the oil sector for the positive development of the livelihoods of its people. Questions to Consider 1) What are the long-term prospects for the South Sudan oil industry? 2) How will the Government of South Sudan (GoSS) maximize revenues from the existing industry? 3) How will GoSS best use oil revenue for the countrys development? What sectors can benefit from this revenue?

Topic 4: Aid Dependence Sudan under Foreign Rule (1820s-1950s) Sudan, which until the 1820s stood as a loose collection of autonomous kingdoms and tribes, was taken control of by Turkish-Egyptian forces that administered it as part of its colonial system. xxvii The rule of the Turkish-Egyptian forces lasted for about seven decades till the 1890s after which Britain invaded Sudan. The British however soon agreed to grant the Sudanese the right of self governance in 1953 after seeing the rise of the Sudanese Nationalism Movement and acknowledging the then increasing difficulty to suppress Sudans desire for freedom from foreign rule. xxviii Free Sudan and Sudans First Civil War (1953-1970s) Newly free from British rule, the predominantly Christian South was still ruled by administration stationed at the capital (Khartoum) located in the mainly Muslim North. xxix Soon a visible divide in the unity of the autonomous region began to emerge as the South called for a federal system that would grant it a certain level of self-governance. Khartoums refusal however, promptly resulted in a strong uprising from southern military officials that marked the start of Sudans first civil war (1955-1972). Over this period, the Norths desire and efforts to implement their plans of Arabization and Islamicization further only solidified the concrete divide between the people of the North and South. Civilian governments came and went with some autonomy granted to and swiftly taken away from the South Sudanese until in 1983 Col. Gaafar Muhammed Nimeiri (then in power) placed control in the hands of the central government and made Arabic the offical language in the South as well. This prompted the start of Sudans tragic and violent second civil war and launched the Sudanese Peoples Liberation Movement and Army (SPLA/M). A Growing SPLA/M (1980s-2005) Omar al-Bashir (Sudans current President and a part of a party that aimed to incorporate Islam into various important factors such as legal systems) took power via coup in 1989 and his policies and beliefs only worsened the tensions between the North and South. Meanwhile, the voices of the South were increasingly difficult to ignore as the SPLA/M was rapidly gaining influence. xxx Talks about ending the civil war began in 2002 and in January 2005, the Khartoum government and the SPLA/M signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement. xxxi South Sudan is Independent (Jan. 9, 2011) On Jan. 9, 2011, 99 percent of the South voted in favor of secession from northern Sudan and xxxii on July 9, South Sudan officially became an independent state. xxxiii Current State South Sudan was declared the worlds 196th country on July 9th 2011. xxxiv

As of now, one of the worlds most underdeveloped and poorest countries, South Sudan along with the international aid community is currently assessing its future plans, one of the topics of which may revolve around that of foreign aid and the South Sudanese economys immense dependence on it in the past and in the present. USAID, the development arm of the American government, has one of its largest offices on the continent in the South's capital, Juba, with Britains foreign aid organizations also being deeply rooted in the capital and its surrounding areas. xxxv USAID has relentlessly been the worlds largest donor of food aid to Sudan, primarily having supplied to those affected by and during the Darfur crisis. USAID even distributed hand-crank-powered radios to people living in the rural areas of South Sudan, as radio is the easiest way to get information to rural areas. xxxvi With the introduction of a new government, promises regarding improved services and provision of basic amenities such as medical care, water and infrastructure have been made. Schooling and education have been of focus of the government too. Case study The US Obama administration has poured $300 million annually into Southern Sudan in the past as part of an effort to prop up Kiirs government before the referendum. Bush, Obamas predecessor who laid the foundation for the USs deep commitment in Africa was in fact involved in crafting the Comprehensive Peace agreement of 2005 that was supposed to have officially ended the last civil war in the country. Since then however, America has plugged in $6billion into the country, making America the countrys largest single donor. With regards to development of infrastructure and prosperity in the region, the close of the civil war left South Sudan with only a shocking three miles of paved roads, but a southern capital (Juba) with radical economic differences. What once consisted of thatched huts, now offers taxi services at American rates, and houses for nothing less than $12,000 a month. It would be wrong to say however that support from foreign entities has done no good for the new country as international aid money has allowed for South Sudan to lay out foundations to build more roads and schools where there was previously just barren land. xxxvii Conclusion The concept of foreign aid donation that at one time was seen as purely and solely a positive factor for the recipient country is increasingly being seen as two-shaded by economists and politicians worldwide. Backed with theories, both sides have contested

time and time again in the debate on whether foreign aid is desirable or not. The question is not simple and requires perceptive analysis and evaluation of the effect of reliance on foreign aid in the past and present and short and long run in the country of South Sudan. The agreement and ideas that result from discussion among delegates over this matter should head towards solutions that will ensure a sustainable, growing economy for the new country in the future. Questions to Consider But while foreign aid may be required and helpful to South Sudan at the moment, would the South Sudanese really wish to have their countrys economy solely sustained on international aid? Would they want their country to be tied up in the webs of struggle and slow progress as a result of their aid-backed economy? Must they wait till the UN and various other organization pull the plug off South Sudan, to conduct economic reform? What might the consequences of such reliance on foreign aid be for the newly sovereign country? Will South Sudan face economic withdrawal symptoms so to say from its previous reliance on foreign aid? And if so what can the government do to prepare for this? The question is will the foreign aid that has in the past arguably stood as an economic foundation for the region take it through its rough times? Is this an economic model that is sustainable and inter-generational? What foreign aid policies should we implement and why?

Topic 5: Human Rights Introduction It was in June, as the world's attention was drawn to the birth of the independent nation of South Sudan, that hope sprang in this region that experienced long and severe stagnancy, if not decline in the spheres of well-being and human rights. But alas, much has not changed since June as violence is still rife and violations of primary human rights continue unabated. xxxviii

History of Humanitarian Matters in Sudan Darfur Crisis Looting, rape, torture and mass killing and just some of the human rights abuses that occurred in Darfurxxxix , a war-torn region of Western Sudan, post the outbreak of Darfurs guerrilla conflict in February 2003. Involved in committing these crimes were a variety of parties, including the Sudanese government and the government-backed Janjawid militia. With a government that continues to restrict humanitarian aid and violate international human rights and humanitarian law and serious abuses continuing despite the issue of innumerable arrest warrant, Sudan easily maintains its place in a list of the worlds most tragic humanitarian crises. What lies at the core of such conflicts in the south, east and west regions of the country are causes such as competition over resources (primarily that of oil and natural gas), the nature and dynamics of this state of diverse peoples and of course the desire for power. The result of this was that of xl 2.7 million people fleeing their homes and the UN approximating the death of about 300,000 from the effects of war, hunger and disease. xli Thousands of women and children have been abducted and/or raped and many more children forced to take on the combat duties of soldiers. The greatest issue is that not one perpetrator of these ruthless crimes has been duly brought to justice. Outside the immediate war zone furthermore, the Sudanese government has also alienated its people of other basic rights such as freedom of speech and association. Current State On July 9th 2011, the worlds newest state South Sudan was born. Managing the aftermath of its independence from Khartoum control has and will certainly not be easy for its young government and are many problems that not only affected Sudan as a collective nation in the past, but continues to affect South Sudan in the present and if not addressed sooner or later will have detrimental effects on this young country. xliiSouth Sudan continues to be affected by internal conflict over a variety of issues, primarily over natural resources, and hence post independence violence still exists. xliii With regards to human rights furthermore, many restrictions have been placed on freedom of speech and expression. Most recently in South Sudan, journalists of newspapers such as the Rai Al Shaab ( a newspaper associated with the opposition Popular Congress Party) have suffered scrutiny, harassment and at times unjustified arrest due to their coverage of the elections. On the topic of order amongst the public, police continue to arrest women, young girls and men on the grounds of inappropriate public behavior and/or dress. Women from vulnerable backgrounds specifically have been targeted in the past and been victim to torture and harassment during arrest. xliv

Case study: Women of South Sudan A new country is born and with the birth of a new country, there are many issues, the solutions of which go hand in hand with economic and social progress of the country, and such is the case in South Sudan. The women of South Sudan have faced endless challenges for many decades with especially hard times during the two brutal, tragic civil wars the country was witness to. The 2010 State Department Human Rights Report on Sudan points to violence and discrimination against women as being an increasingly prevalent issue in the South.xlv Furthermore, other reputable sources like Medecins Sans Frontieres says women in South Sudan have a one in seven lifetime chance of dying during childbirth and a 15 year old girl has more chance of dying in childbirth than completing school.xlvi Barring these issues, the country faces approximately 80% female illiteracy and widespread child marriage.xlvii Despite these setback and severe challenges, the women of South Sudan want to have a role in shaping the future of their country. As a part of this, women have actively campaigned on local turf and to the attention of foreign organizations, such to the extent that the constitution now states that 25% of the seats in the legislature and executive posts must be held by women. The South has gone beyond what was expected from the constitution and currently 34% of parliamentary seats are held by women. Conclusion Coined as being xlviii the worlds greatest humanitarian crisis, human rights in South Sudan - formerly unwillingly a part of the republic of Sudan and now post June of this year an independent nation, has been a matter that has been too frequently violated and has received little local or international attention. As delegates in this committee it is important to think of what has been going on and why it has been going on. It is also important to note which bodies are responsible most often for violating these human rights. In understanding this, effective solutions can be brought about in a country whose people have suffered tremendously through two civil wars and internal conflict in the years between and post the war and this is what the people of South Sudan hope for. Questions to Consider What solutions can be implemented to bring an end to the humanitarian crisis in South Sudan? Should new government bodies be set up to deal with human rights in the country? What policies should be decided upon for foreign intervention? Involvement of foreign organizations such as the UN and Amnesty International have brought about positive changes in the past so should South Sudan allow them to play a prominent key in solving the humanitarian crisis of the country? xlix

Could the future of South Sudan be brighter with increased involvement of women in various sectors of the economy and industry? What should South Sudans policies be on this matter?

Topic 6: Child Soldiers and Slavery Introduction The topic of child soldiers and slavery is one that has hindered the standing of countries in terms of human rights for generations. A painful trend that started centuries ago, unfortunately still exists in our world today and in the case of South Sudan, is still very much prevalent. The shear number of child soldiers in the army of South Sudan and the multiple issues with regards to slavery of individuals that the country faces places it amongst others in the top league of world humanitarian crises. History of Slavery and Child Soldiers in South Sudan Slavery was in fact common under Turkish-Egyptian and Mahdist rule in the 19th century, during which Northern Sudan held thousands of slaves captive and exported thousands to Arab and North African states. At this point much of southern Sudan was plundered by commercial slave traders who ruthlessly took people under their control as slaves. Slavery was however abolished during British rule in 1898 after which it was rarely heard of during the civil wars. Slavery re-emerged as an issue of extreme importance in the country in the last decade. liIn the past there have been many ethical concerns about how organizations have tried to solve this issue by doing what was so called redeeming slaves. This action involved purchasing the slaves from slave owners to set them free but in doing so just confirming the ideas of it being tolerable to buy and sell human beings. Child soldiers have been actively used in combat roles for many decades, as they served as agile, impressionable, easily influenced members of society who would be loyal to their armies. They often had no or minimal training which led to the loss of lives of many children that only contributed to staggering numbers on human rights indexes for the country. Current State Taking a look at the current state and recent happenings with regards to the topic beforehand, lii the Sudanese government (that previously denied the existence of practices of slavery in the country but admitted the truth of many people having been abducted during raids) has (under the pressure of international bodies) set up local bodies to investigate the phenomenon in the various regions of the country. liiiA program was set up to facilitate the return of abductees to the south with few thousands of people having returned, but post the bankruptcy of the program in 2005, the government funded it for a while after which both parts of the country choose to focus more on the distribution of oil wealth. To this date, thousands of South Sudanese are still believed to be subject to the harsh world of slavery. Whilst different parties point fingers at different reasons for the existing practice of slavery in the country, not many concrete efforts are actually being made to eradicate the cruel purchase and sale of human beings. livWith child soldiers on the other hand, the South claims that there are currently fewer than 1000 children serving in combat roles. The South army has promised to prevent the recruitment of child soldiers, and make their army free of children by the end of the year although officials
l

working in Juba claim that it may take much longer. Much pressure has been put on the country on this matter by the Obama administration furthermore, with Obama pushing for Sudan to comply with a law prohibiting child soldiers. lvMany hundreds of child soldiers have however been released subsequent to the commencement of the peace process in 2004. Case Study Stories Behind the Destiny of a Child Soldier The story behind the ultimate destiny of a child soldier comes about for many reasons. As can be expected, homeless or street children can be vulnerable and so in the minds of army conscription officers, sweeps aimed at them will be known little of by the public and so will raise minimal public outcry. History has seen the government setting up camps for street children before luring the children to the camps that they claim are created to clean up Khartoum. These camps in reality, however, were used as means of army recruitment and combat training. However, this is not how all children end up serving as child soldiers. Some voluntarily choose to be a part of the army and thus groups using them claim they have committed no crime by recruiting them as the child became a part of the army by choice. As per research conducted by the Brookings institution, a non profit public policy organization, the rough trend seems to be that nearly two out of every three child soldiers have some sort of initiative in their own recruitment lvi. Either way, the use of child soldiers in the army has been deemed as intolerable, as the process traps the children in a brutal circle of danger and forces children into the misery of being dependent on the army for life, until means of escape and a path to the outside world is provided to them. lvii It has been said that Sudan had recruited a large number of child soldiers, as many as 100,000, for both sides of the civil war. In the past, the government also targeted the children living the southern region to rebel the SPLA. lviii Conclusion Slavery and the use of child soldiers in South Sudan must come to an end and that too soon. To do that we must understand the root causes of enslavement of people in South Sudan in recent years and the reason behind the use of child soldiers. Alternative plans must be decided upon so as to facilitate and help those children who may turn to the option of fighting in warzone as they are helpless and need the army as a means of dependence. Strict laws prohibiting slavery and use of child soldiers in the army that have been tailored to South Sudan (given its specific past and present) should be enforced. What these laws should be exactly, who they should be enforced by and how they are enforced are decisions that you as delegates must dutifully decide. Questions to Consider What actions can be taken and by who to ensure that initial plans to eradicate the practice of slavery and the prevention of children in soldier roles is followed through? Should foreign groups be involved? Should plans be redesigned?

The roots of the problems involving child soldiers and slavery must be understood in order to bring an end to it. So how have south Sudanese been enslaved? How do children end up fighting in the army?

Topic 7: Educational Reform Introduction Although there is some peace in South Sudan as the second civil war has come to an end, they have yet another war to win: the war against illiteracy.lix After Afghanistan, South Sudan has the second lowest access to primary schoolslx . There are less than twenty active secondary schools in South Sudan, and during the civil war, most of the universities were relocated to North Sudan, leaving limited access to higher education for the locals.lxi The greatest obstacle to quality education, or rather education, in South Sudan is the lack of qualified teachers. Many teachers, as high as forty percent, have not completed primary school education, rendering them unqualified to teacher higher level students. Only between seven and thirteen percent of the teachers are qualified to teach. Current State Now that South Sudan is an independent country, education will play an important role in its economic development and future stability.lxii Due to the civil war, hundreds of thousands of people have been displaced, and the ones who seem to suffer the most are children. Not only do they have to face violence, hunger, and poverty, they are also deprived of education. It should not come as a surprise then that South Sudan has one of the lowest primary school enrolments. As seen in in the figure on the right, the net attendance rate (NAR) was 59.5% for males and 56.7% for females in 2000.lxiii Almost 1.3 million primary school aged children have not been enrolled in any school.lxiv Most students, especially girls lack access to higher education. Furthermore, only two percent of the children complete primary school.lxv It has been estimated that eighty percent of the grown population cannot read or write.lxvi The state for women is even worse, with statistics showing that nine out of ten grown women are illiterate.lxvii Obstacles to Education in South Sudan and Possible Solutions: Lack of Teachers and Discrepancy in Curriculum One major obstacle that South Sudans education system faces is the lack of teachers. Most of the teachers were from the North and will not be returning to South Sudan after the independence. Most of the teachers in South Sudan are not paid salary and have to work on a voluntary basis. One possible solution to this problem is the recruitment of foreign teachers. Either the South Sudanese government or volunteer

organizations from other nations can facilitate this process of hiring and training teachers to teach students in South Sudan. Furthermore, it has been said that there is a discrepancy in the curriculum. Various curricula, including those by Kenya, Uganda, and the Khartoum government have been used in the past, and the government has yet to establish a unified curriculum. Although English is supposed to be the primary language of instruction, many students have only been taught Arabic or French.lxviii Hindrance to Girls Education Although some parents want their daughters to read and write, they are afraid of going against the cultural norms. It is a widely-held belief in South Sudan that girls are supposed to stay at home and work, while boys should get educated and earn for the family.lxix Furthermore, parents are also reluctant to send their daughters to mixed, coeducational institutions. In South Sudan, girls are considered to be a source of wealth, because of the bride price, which her suitor pays to her family when he marries her. Parents usually get their daughters married at a young age in order to receive the bride price.lxxAlthough female enrolment has increased in the past few years, it is not as high as other nations. According to a 2008 report by UNICEF, other major obstacles that hinder girls education include harassment and early pregnancy.lxxi South Sudan has proportionally fewer girls going to schools than any other nation.lxxii Possible solutions can be to build girls-only schools and providing scholarships for female students. Lack of Institutions There is a lack of schools in South Sudan. The enrolment of a single class can be up to 100 studentslxxiii . The picture one the right shows a classroom of Kinji Primary School, located in Yei, South Sudan. Students do not have proper space to study and have to share textbooks as most schools do not provide them. One main concern for students wishing to pursue further education is the lack of universitieslxxiv . As mentioned earlier, most of the universities were relocated to North Sudan during the civil war. South Sudan government brought back the university students, but the universities remain in the North. There are only five universities, and twenty five thousand students have registered. Possible solutions to this problem could be a greater investment by the government, or negotiation deals with other governments to allow South Sudanese students to pursue further education in their nation.

Conclusion Amongst other problems, access to quality education, or rather education itself, is a great challenge that the government of South Sudan faces. There is a need for the youth of today to be educated for future stability and economic development. There are various obstacles that the government needs to overcome in order to accomplish this goal, including a lack of teachers, discrepancy in the curriculum, lack of female enrolment, and lack of educational institutes. Questions to Consider 1. What is the greatest obstacle that the government needs to overcome? How can the government overcome it? What resources does the government require? 2. As proposed above, the government of South Sudan can try to negotiate a deal with other nations, but how would this benefit the other nation? What does South Sudan have to offer to other nations in return of education for their citizens? Is this a practical solution? What will be the long-term outcome of this solution?

Topic 8: Health Introduction In addition to other problems, the newest nation, South Sudan, faces many healthcare challenges. The maternal mortality rates are so high that a fifteen year old girl in South Sudan is more likely to die in childbirth than complete high schoollxxv . South Sudan lacks medical supplies and facilities to provide residents with adequate health care. Thirty percent of South Sudans residents have no access to health carelxxvi . It has been said that the situation of South Sudan is such that the challenge is not on improving the health care system; rather it is on creating onelxxvii . "If you look at it by the numbers, it paints quite a grim picture. Maternal and infant mortality are among the highest in the world. Vaccination coverage is among the lowest for children and pregnant women. It's a very sad picture." - Kate Morris, Program Manager, Catholic Relief Services.lxxviii Current Issues in Health Care Although the civil war has ended, South Sudan continues to face challenges. The nation lacks vital health infrastructure due to the war. Humanitarian aid agencies that are currently providing healthcare in South Sudan warn the nation about the upcoming problems after independence. They say that South Sudan is experiencing a massive humanitarian emergency that will continue for years. The head of Mdecins SansFrontire (Doctors Without Borders) mentioned that there is a long way to go before the government is able to provide adequate health care to the people, as there is no infrastructure and majority of the people have no access to health carelxxix . It is also interesting to note that the minimal health care that is currently available in South Sudan is primarily provided by Non-Government Organizations (NGOs), international agencies, and the United Nations. It has been said that there is a long way to go before the government is able to provide proper health care to the people living there.lxxx One of the most pressing issues in health care in South Sudan is the lack of medical supplies and facilities. There is only one childrens hospital and South Sudan and the facilities do not function properly. The X-ray machine is broken, and there are no machines for CT scan or ultrasound. In addition to these, people suffering from contagious diseases are forced to share the limited space with others, which drastically increases the number of people affected with diseaseslxxxi . According to Dr. Justin Bruno, a medical director, another major problem that persists is the lack of access to clean drinking water. People drink water that is freely flowing from the river, without boiling it or subjecting it to purifying treatmentlxxxii . Women and children collect water from a drinking pump. The lack of access to safe and hygienic drinking water results in diseases such as acute diarrhoea and typhoid fever. It has also been said that another major concern for health professionals and authorities right now is kalaazar. South Sudan is currently facing an outbreak of this parasitic diseaselxxxiii . Kalaazar is the most severe form of leishmaniasis, a parasitic disease caused by the bite of the sandfly. Figure 1.0 shows an initial sore, which is what

kalaazar looks like at the beginning. Although the cure rates of this disease are high, lack of medicines and proper health care can lead to death within two years. Other complications of this disease include deadly infections due to immune system damage, disfigurement of the face, bleeding (hemorrhage)lxxxiv . Case Study: Maternal, Newborn, and Child Mortality Rates The greatest obstacle to quality maternal, newborn, and child health care in South Sudan is the lack of skilled health care providers. As seen in figure 2.0, maternal mortality is highest in Sub-Saharan Africa.lxxxv According to the representatives of the United Nations Population Fund, there are only five gynaecologists or obstetricians, three paediatricians, eight certified midwives in South Sudan, resulting in a greater number of deaths. South Sudan has the highest infant mortality rates in the worldlxxxvi . According to a 2008 report by UNICEF, 102 infants die out of 1000 live births in hospitalslxxxvii .Even if children survived infant mortality, their lives did not get any better in the past, as some were recruited as child soldiers. In addition to causing physical harm, being a child soldier also compromises their emotional and psycho-social healthlxxxviii . In addition to the highest infant mortality rates, South Sudan also has one of the highest maternal mortality rates. Out of 100,000 live births, 2054 women do not survivelxxxix . In addition to harsh and unfavorable living conditions, people have limited access to medical services, which drastically increases their risk of dying. It has been said that only 25% of people have access to medical services in South Sudan. According to the statistics, 48% of women visit a hospital once during their pregnancy, while 13% deliver at a hospital, and only 10% are attended by a skilled professionalxc. When women are due, they call their neighbors to deliver their babies as they know that they will not be able to make it to the hospital on time. Medical facilities and hospitals are not easily accessible to the women living there, which is why most of them have to deliver at home. The lack medical attention for the women and infants could lead to death due to diseases which could have easily been prevented had they been given medical attention on time.xci According to the United Nations Population Fund, more than 90 percent of the births take place in rural areas, where there is a lack of health infrastructure, trained personnel, and medical facilitiesxcii . It has been said that preventable health diseases and malnutrition are the most common causes of morbidity and mortality for children under

five years of agexciii . In 2007, the United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) provided aide to combat these problems for children. They provided training for 122 nurses and community health workers on the management of severe malnutrition. In addition, they provided training on early child care practices for 41 health workers. Health facilities began implementing an essential nutrition package that includes information about infant feeding, growth monitoring, maternal nutrition programmes, and low birth-weight prevention.xciv Although this was helpful to an extent, it was not enough to combat the problem entirely. In 2010, the child mortality rate was 37 per 1000 live births, and 135 per 1000 live births under five mortality rates.xcv Conclusion Although the civil war has ended and it is now an independent nation, South Sudan continues to face major healthcare challenges. Majority of the people have limited or no access whatsoever to basic health care. There is a lack of medical professionals, as well as medical supplies, and facilities, which are causing death rates and disease spread to drastically escalate. Contagious diseases are rapidly spreading, even in hospital waiting rooms, because of the limited space that is available. South Sudan also has one of the highest mortality rates in the world, due to the lack of health facilities. Most women do not have access to a hospital where they could deliver, and therefore these women and their newborns have to face health complications. Many people, children in particular, die of contagious diseases each year. People have differing opinions about what the nation should do about healthcare and what the governments priorities should be. Dr. Bruno, a health professional said before the referendum that the government needs to focus on the security of the nation, and things like health care can waitxcvi . On the other hand, the U.Ns coordinator said that there will be a number of years before the government can build a health infrastructure, and for now, humanitarian agencies will have to provide their servicesxcvii . Questions to Consider 1. What is your position on this issue? Is healthcare a priority for you? Do you think that the government should be allocating funds to sectors other than healthcare? 2. What are the major obstacles that South Sudan faces in providing good quality healthcare? How can South Sudan overcome these obstacles? Which area of health care should be a priority for South Sudan? Which groups are most vulnerable and how can their situation be improved? 3. How can the area of health care be used to improve the economy and combat unemployment? Instead of hiring qualified health professionals, what kinds of changes can the government make to train its own citizens? Why would this be more beneficial? Is

http://afjn.org/component/content/article/93-legislative-watch-sudandarfur/component/content/article/22overview/956-the-republic-of-south-sudan-and-africas-thirst-for-the-nile-.html , Retrieved 15/08/11 ii http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2003/may/nile.htm , Retrieved 18/08/11 iii http://afjn.org/component/content/article/93-legislative-watch-sudandarfur/component/content/article/22overview/956-the-republic-of-south-sudan-and-africas-thirst-for-the-nile-.html, Retrieved 15/08/11 iv http://www.nilebasin.org/newsite/ , Retrieved 19/08/11 v http://afjn.org/component/content/article/93-legislative-watch-sudandarfur/component/content/article/22overview/956-the-republic-of-south-sudan-and-africas-thirst-for-the-nile-.html, Retrieved 15/08/11 vi http://www.sudantribune.com/South-Sudan-tells-Egypt-it-will,38423, Retrieved 20/08/11 vii http://afjn.org/component/content/article/93-legislative-watch-sudandarfur/component/content/article/22overview/956-the-republic-of-south-sudan-and-africas-thirst-for-the-nile-.html , Retrieved15/08/11 viii http://www.ssrresourcecentre.org/2010/08/09/abyei-province-the-crossroads-of-future-border-conflict-in-sudan/ , Retrieved 2/09/11 ix http://unmis.unmissions.org/Portals/UNMIS/Fact%20Sheets/FS-abyeiprotocol.pdf, Retrieved 4/09/11 x http://www.tnr.com/article/world/88873/sudan-abyei-civil-war-north-south-bashir, Retrieved 4/09/11 xi http://www.ssrresourcecentre.org/2010/08/09/abyei-province-the-crossroads-of-future-border-conflict-in-sudan/ , Retrieved 2/09/11 xii Ibid xiii http://www.tnr.com/article/world/88873/sudan-abyei-civil-war-north-south-bashir, Retrieved 6/09/11 xiv Ibid xv http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12208399, Retrieved 7/09/11 xvi http://www.usip.org/files/resources/Oil_and_State_Building_South_Sudan.pdf. Retrieved 09/09/11 xvii Ibid, Retrieved 09/09/11 xviii http://geology.com/energy/sudan/. Retrieved 10/09/11 xix Ibid xx http://www.sudantribune.com/Sudan-s-oil-fee-demand-forces,40018 Retrieved 11/09/11 xxi http://af.reuters.com/article/sudanNews/idAFLAE63689720110706 Retrieved 11/09/11 xxii http://www.usip.org/files/GrantsFellows/GrantsDownloadsNotApps/More%20than%20a%20line,%20Sudan's%20N-S%20border,%20092010.pdf Retrieved 11/09/11 xxiii http://www.imf.org/external/np/vc/2011/072311.htm Retrieved 12/09/11 xxiv http://www.usip.org/files/resources/Oil_and_State_Building_South_Sudan.pdf. Retrieved 09/09/11 xxv http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/65916/deborah-brautigam/africa%E2%80%99s-eastern-promise Retrieved 12/09/11 xxvi http://www.nationofchange.org/oil-transparency-would-start-south-sudan-right-foot-1309726219, Retrieved 12/09/11 xxvii Ariel Zirulnick, South Sudan-A timeline to independence, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2011/0708/South-Sudan-a-timeline-to-independence/British-colonization-ofSudan-1890s-1953 xxviii Ariel Zirulnick, South Sudan-A timeline to independence, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2011/0708/South-Sudan-a-timeline-to-independence/Sudan-under-TurkishEgyptian-rule-1820s-1890s xxix Ariel Zirulnick, South Sudan-A timeline to independence, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2011/0708/South-Sudan-a-timeline-to-independence/Independent-Sudan-andthe-growing-North-South-divide-1953-1970s xxx Ariel Zirulnick, South Sudan-A timeline to independence, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2011/0708/South-Sudan-a-timeline-to-independence/The-ComprehensivePeace-Agreement-2005 xxxi Ariel Zirulnick, South Sudan-A timeline to independence, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2011/0708/South-Sudan-a-timeline-to-independence/The-second-civil-warand-the-rise-of-the-SPLA-M-1980s-2005 xxxii Ariel Zirulnick, South Sudan-A timeline to independence, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2011/0708/South-Sudan-a-timeline-to-independence/South-Sudan-sindependence-July-9-2011 xxxiii http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2011/0708/South-Sudan-a-timeline-to-i Ariel Zirulnick, South Sudan-A timeline to independence, ndependence/The-referendum-on-independence-Jan.-9-2011 xxxiv Maggie Fick and Pete Puller, The Independence Brigade, Foreign Policy, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/10/29/the_independence_brigade?page=0,0 xxxv Sudan, http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub-saharan_africa/countries/sudan/ xxxvi Photo Library. http://africaphotos.usaid.gov/ search_details.cfm?Keyword_ID=239&Country_ID=25&Sector_ID=10&Photo_ID=5513&StartRow=16

xxxvii

Kevin Peraino, Sorry, Sudan, The Daily Beast, http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2010/09/24/is-massiveu-s-aid-helping-south-sudan.html xxxviii Colum Lynch, In Sudan even the peacekeepers need protection, Foreign Policy, http://turtlebay.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/07/24/the_siege_at_kadugli_sudans_very_un_safe_haven
xxxix

Sudan summons seven leaders of embattled party, Radio Netherlands Worldwide, http://www.rnw.nl/africa/bulletin/sudan-bans-main-opposition-party-sweeping-arrests xl Q&A: Sudans Darfur Conflict, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3496731.stm xli Sudan Human Rights, http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/countries/africa/sudan xlii Annual Report: Sudan 2011, http://www.amnestyusa.org/research/reports/annual-report-sudan-2011?page=3 xliii Ibid p4 xliv Maggie Fick, Free at Last, Foreign Policy, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/07/08/free_at_last xlv http://blog.amnestyusa.org/women/challenges-opprotunities-south-sudan/ xlvi http://www.trust.org/trustlaw/news/factbox-women-in-south-sudan/ xlvii http://blog.amnestyusa.org/women/challenges-opprotunities-south-sudan/ xlviii Quotes from Mukesh Kapila, former United Nations staff in Sudan, Human Rights in Sudan: Overview, http://www.amnesty.ca/themes/sudan_overview.php xlix http://www.amnesty.ca/themes/sudan_overview.php l Sudan-Slavery Briefing, http://www.sudanupdate.org/REPORTS/Slavery/slave.htm#anchor575706 li Modern Day Slavery, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan#Modern_day_slavery lii Sudan-Slavery Briefing, http://www.sudanupdate.org/REPORTS/Slavery/slave.htm#anchor575706 liii No return for Sudans forgotten slaves, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6455365.stm liv Maggie Fick and Pete Puller, The Independence Brigade, Foreign Policy, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/10/29/the_independence_brigade lv Child Soldiers in Sudan, www.child-soldier.org/sudan lvi Ibid lvii Ibid lviii P.W. Singer, The New Faces of War, Brookings Institution, http://www.brookings.edu/views/articles/fellows/singer20051215.pdf lix Hope for Ariang. What Challenges are Facing Education in Sudan..http://david-morse.com/hopeforariang/education/ lx Ibid lxi Ibid lxii Costello, Amy & Vojvoda, Rudina. As South Sudan Looks to Nationhood, Education is Pivotal. UNICEF. (Jul. 6, 2011). <http://www.africafiles.org/article.asp?ID=25464>. lxiii UNICEF. Education Statistics: Sudan (May 2008). http://www.childinfo.org/files/MENA_Sudan.pdf lxiv Ibid lxv World Vision Canada. Children in South Sudan. (2011). http://www.worldvision.ca/Education-and-Justice/Policyand-Analysis/Pages/ChildreninSouthSudan.aspx lxvi Voice of America. South Sudan Works to Rebuild Higher Education. (Feb. 23, 2011). http://www.voanews.com/learningenglish/home/Rebuilding-Higher-Education-in-South-Sudan-116772544.html lxvii Uma, Julius. Marriage QuashesEducation Hopes of South Sudans Girls. AlertNet. (June 1, 2011) http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/marriage-quashes-education-hopes-of-south-sudans-girls/ lxviii Brown, Tim. South Sudan Education Emergency. FMReview. http://www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/EducationSupplement/13.pdf lxix Ibid 9 lxx Ibid 9 lxxi Ibid 9 lxxii Ibid 10 lxxiii Ibid 10 lxxiv Ibid 8 lxxv Merlin USA,Welcome to the Republic of South Sudan, http://www.merlinusa.org/2011/07/welcome-to-the-republicof-south-sudan/?gclid=CNbFwufK96oCFch_5QodsCB8Ow (July 12, 2011). lxxvi PBS News hour, South Sudans Health Care System Shows Dire Need, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/video/ blog/2011/01/south_sudans_health_care_syste.html (Jan. 4, 2011). lxxvii PBS News Hour.Southern Sudans Dire State of Health Care. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/video/blog/ 2011/01/south_sudans_health_care_syste.html (Jan. 3, 2011). lxxviii Ibid 2 lxxix DeCapua, Joe. Voice of America.South Sudan Health Needs High. (July 8, 2011). http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/decapua-sudan-msh-8jul11-125222094.html lxxx Ibid

lxxxi

PBS News hour.Transcript.http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/health/jan-june11/sudan_01-03.html (Jan. 4, 2011). Ibid 2 lxxxiii Ibid 5 lxxxiv PubMed Health. Leishmaniasis. (Aug. 28, 2009). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002362/ lxxxv Called to Compassion. The Risk of Child Birth (Feb. 7, 2011). http://calledtocompassion.blogspot.com/2011/02/risk-of-childbirth.html lxxxvi UJENZI.MNCSI. (http://www.ujenzi.org/support-programs/hssi/mncs lxxxvii IPS Africa. South Sudan: Women Hope Independence Means Less Maternal Deaths. (July 8, 2011). http://www.ips.org/africa/2011/07/south-sudan-women-hope-independence-means-less-maternal-deaths/ lxxxviii Save the Children, Humanitarian Relief and Development for Children, http://www.savethechildren.org/site/ c.8rKLIXMGIpI4E/b.6150459/k.A7AF/Southern_Sudan.htm (2011 lxxxix Ibid 12 xc Ibid 12 xci Ibid 13 xcii All Africa.South Sudan: After Independence, Nation Battles Maternal Mortality. (Aug. 11, 2011). http://allafrica.com/stories/201108140001.html xciii Ibid 12 xciv UNICEF.Activities and Results for Children in 2007. (Dec. 19, 2008). http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sudan_ background.html. xcv Malinga, Koe. Mothers and Newborn Health in South Sudan. (Dec. 13, 2010). http://www.ccmitalia.org/attachments/199_Malingi_Koe_Salute_materno_infantile_SudSudan.pdf xcvi Ibid 5 xcvii Ibid 5
lxxxii

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