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Concrete Pavements

John Harvey University of California, Davis

Overview
Concrete Pavement Types How Concrete Pavements Fail Concrete Pavement Design Concrete Materials for Pavements Construction, Traffic, Delay, Money

What is the Objective of Pavement Engineering and Management?


Provide adequate serviceability at minimum cost Provide best serviceability possible with funds available Maximum mobility at minimum cost

Rigid Pavements - Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement


Portland Cement Concrete Fast Setting Hydraulic Hydraulic Concrete Slabs Cement Concrete Base/Subbase Layers Subgrade Compaction Fabrics Mineral Admixtures Chemical Admixtures Lean Concrete Base Treated Permeable Bases Aggregate Bases Asphalt Concrete Base Cement Treated Bases Slab dimensions designed to not crack

Other Rigid Pavement Types


Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
reinforcing steel in slabs steel holds cracks tightly together longer slabs than for plain concrete

Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)


no sawed joints

Prefabricated/Post-Stressed Concrete Pavement Pre-Stressed Concrete Pavement

Pavement Performance (Life) Curve Field Maintenance


Ride Quality Structural Capacity Unacceptable Traffic Repetitions (=Years?) Capital Maintenance

Full-Scale Testing (months) Laboratory Testing (weeks) Computer Analysis (days) Reliability of answers Time & Cost

Long-Term Monitoring (10-30 years)

HVS on SR14 near Palmdale

Side View of HVS

Where is Caltrans Pavement Network in its Life Cycle?


When was it built, how long was it designed for? Mostly deployed Mostly maintenance and rehabilitation Some new lanes, realignments Beginning reconstruction

What Causes Pavement Distress?


Traffic Environment Interaction of traffic/environment, construction quality, materials, design

Environment = Water, Temperature


Increase in water content
decreases soil stiffness decreases soil shear strength decreases resistance to erosion, pumping

Temperature
asphalt concrete stiffness/strength high at low temperatures, low at high temperatures temperature changes cause expansion/contraction stresses in all asphalted and cemented materials

Traffic Variables
Its the trucks
Loads Tire pressures Speeds Dynamics (interaction with roughness) Which are most important?

Big Truck - 1960

Big Truck - 1960

Big Truck - 2001

Super Single Tires

Trucks are Heavier, Faster, More Numerous Different Suspension, Different Tires

An Approximate Load Equivalence Factor Equation


Standard axle load = 80 kN single axle Caltrans current LEF equation for ESALs: ESALs = (Lsingle/80kN) 4.2 ESALs = 2*(0.5*Ltandem/80kN) 4.2 ESALs = 3*(0.33*Ltridem/80kN) 4.2 Current California legal load limits: single axle: 89 kN tandem axle: 151 kN

Rigid Pavement Overview


Concrete slabs, carry nearly all load stress Load transfer between slabs important

Base must provide uniform, continuous support to slabs, often stabilized with cement or asphalt Granular sub-base to provide support to base and slabs, without pumping, expansion/contraction Compacted subgrade, must not expand or contract to provide uniform support to layers above

Slab Dimensions
Concrete slabs have engineered length and width Longer slabs are more prone cracking due to shrinkage, curling and warping Shorter slabs require more joints, which cost more to build and maintain, and can result in rougher ride Typical slab width is 3.7 m (12 ft) = one lane Slab length is a design variable Caltrans joint spacing has varied over the years

Environment and Loading


Tensile stresses crack concrete slabs Environment-related mechanisms causing tensile stresses shrinkage and warping curling Load related mechanisms load mass load location on slab Environment and load stresses are additive

Shrinkage and Warping


Warping of slab: Top of slab cures faster, drier, shrinks more than bottom Hot and dry above Tension Base Cool and moist below Concrete Slab Self-weight

Concrete typically shrinks when curing Uniform shrinkage causes some tensile stresses Non-uniform shrinkage causes warping, higher tensile stresses

Shrinkage Crack (Top-Down)


Slab core laid on its side Top-Down crack

Curling
Curling of slab: caused by temperature difference between top and bottom of slab Night - cooler on top Tension Base Day - hotter on top Tension Base Concrete Slab Self-weight Concrete Slab Self-weight

North Coast 2500 mm

High Desert/ Mountain

Bay Area Central Valley South Coast

Desert 4 mm

Average Maximum Air Temperatures, April-September 18-24 C 24-29 C 29-35 C 35-41 C

-6.5 to -1.5 C Average Minimum Air Temperatures, October-March -1.5 to -3.5 C 3.5 to 8.5 C 8.5 to 13.5 C

Slab Size and Environmental Region Effects


Longer slabs result in greater
shrinkage stresses warping stresses curling stresses

Thicker slabs have larger temperature gradients; bending resistance, weight cancel Shrinkage, warping, curling worst where large day-night temperature changes
desert central valley

Top-Down Thermal/Shrinkage Cracking at Palmdale

Load Transfer
Load Transfer: load on one slab partially carried by adjacent slabs reduces tensile stresses in slab reduces deflections at joints Load transfer comes from: aggregate interlock tie bars (rough steel bars) dowels (smooth steel rods)

Load Transfer Locations


Longitudinal joints Dowels Dowels Dowels Dowels
Ties Ties Ties Ties

Dowels Dowels Dowels Dowels Dowels Dowels


Ties Ties Ties

Dowels Dowels Dowels Dowels Dowels Dowels


Ties

Dowels Transverse joints Dowels

Aggregate interlock wherever joint sawed in larger slab

Load Transfer Devices

Sawed transverse joint

Dowel

Aggregate interlock

Sawed longitudinal joint

Tie Bar

Aggregate interlock

Joint Saw Cut with Aggregate Interlock

Dowel Bar Basket Alternative: Dowel Bar Inserters

Tie Bars in Longitudinal Joint

Load Transfer Efficiency (LTE)

A B LTE = deflection at B deflection at A when load is at A A B

LTE vs Repetitions Dowelled and Undowelled HVS Sections


1.00 0.90

Load Transfer Efficiency

0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0.0E+00 1.0E+05 2.0E+05 3.0E+05 4.0E+05 5.0E+05 6.0E+05 7.0E+05

Dowel (90kN) No dowels (70kN)

h = 200 mmm CTB = 100 mm

8.0E+05

Load Repetitions

9.0E+05

Load Transfer Questions


Why are dowels smooth?
permits slabs to shrink and thermally contract with small tensile stresses

What happens if too many lanes are tied together?


shrinkage, temperature contraction can cause a crack same when slabs are too long

Is there aggregate interlock and load transfer


with asphalt shoulders? No with cold joints between adjacent lanes? No

Base Erosion
Mechanisms:
Water enters joints and cracks, erodes base material Vertical deflections of truck loads create hydraulic pumping action

Primarily occurs at transverse joints, corners


locations of largest deflections if poor load transfer efficiency

Also occurs at longitudinal joints and transverse cracks

Severely effects ride quality thump, thump, thump

Faulting

Base material moves from B to A Slabs become tilted, creates step-off Faulting development controlled by: load transfer efficiency erodability of base

Pumping, Voids

Base

A B

Water and large vertical deflection pump base, subbase and subgrade material out, leave void

Voids result in less support to slab, higher tensile stresses under load, and corner cracking

Concrete Cracking
Traffic and environmental loads cause tensile stresses Higher stresses result in fewer repetitions before cracking (fatigue) Types of cracking: transverse longitudinal corner

Fatigue Life Calculation


1. = f(E, k, h, L, P) = slab bending stress E = concrete elastic modulus k = subgrade support value h = concrete thickness L = slab length 2. Stress Ratio = /MR MR = concrete flexural strength 3. Plot /MR versus Repetitions to Failure

FSHCC Fatigue Resistance Results


1.60
Stress Ratio
Beam PCA Curve PCC Slab FSHCC AASHO
Did not fail

1.20 0.80 0.40 0.00 1.E+00

Pumping

1.E+02

1.E+04

1.E+06

1.E+08

Repetitions to Failure

Transverse Cracking
Critical load conditions:
heavy single axle at mid-slab at edge day-time curl (additive with load) no load transfer at edge

Stresses reduced by:


shorter joint spacing thicker slab (Eh3) stronger flexural strength of concrete load transfer at edge (tied shoulder, wide lane)

Transverse Cracks

Corner Cracking
Critical load conditions:
heavy tandem axle at corner night-time curl (additive with load) warping no load transfer at edge and transverse joint erosion of base under corner

Stresses reduced by:


thicker slab (Eh3) stronger flexural strength of concrete load transfer at joint and edge (dowels, tied shoulder, wide lane)

Corner Cracks

Longitudinal Cracking
Critical load conditions:
heavy single axle at mid-slab about 0.5 m from edge night-time curl warping

Stresses reduced by:


thicker slab (Eh3) stronger flexural strength of concrete

Longitudinal Crack

Critical (worst) load location for transverse and corner cracking wheels along slab edge best location is down middle of slabs For outside truck lane can use wide lane (4.3 m instead of 3.7 m) put stripe at 3.7 m to get trucks off edge potential alternative to tied shoulder Always try to keep trucks off edge and corners

Wide-Truck Lane and Lane Striping

Wide Truck Lane (with dowels)


Wide lane This is a test section! In practice, dowels extra 0.6 m should go completely across joint 3.7 m lane

Long-Term Durability
Concrete strength gain Sulfate attack Alkali-aggregate reaction Spalling, mechanical abrasion resistance

Sulfate Attack
Sulfates in soil and water can create a sulfate (acidic) environment for concrete slabs Sulfates reduce pH of cement, degrades some kinds of concrete crystal structures Controlled by concrete chemistry, water/cement ratio, access to water First identified in California, Type I/II cement usually required

Lab Mortar Samples after Sulfate Exposure


Hydraulic cement A

Hydraulic cement B

Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
High pH of cement causes reaction with aggregates, particularly those with certain siliceous minerals Continued reaction (requires water) creates gel which expands When expansion strain greater than failure strain, concrete cracks Can completely crack, destroy concrete First identified in California in 1920s

Concrete Strength Gain, Chemical Conversion, Mechanical Abrasion


Portland cement
typically continues to gain strength with time hydration products (crystals) are stable

Other cement types (such as FSHCC)


may not continue to gain strength after initial high early strength may have hydration products that change with time, reduce strength Hard aggregate, strong cement needed to resist chipping, spalling, chain wear

Soils Expansion
Certain clay soils will expand when have access to source of water Can cause distortion in pavement Uniform support to slabs is key to good concrete pavements do not use unless completely mitigate risk of soils expansion

Influence of Materials Selection and Design on Each Distress


Understanding of climate and traffic essential Materials selection effects on performance: high enough flexural strength for cracking not such high strength or early strength that shrinkage cracks occur Balance in joint spacing, lane tieing: load transfer, thermal, shrinkage contraction, stresses, ride quality Adequate thickness to resist bending Base type: non-erodible, accommodate curl, warping Load transfer: dowels, tie bars, wide lanes

Typical Properties for QC/QA


1) Fresh Concrete Properties 2) Hardened Concrete Properties 3) Surface Roughness 4) Thickness 5) Surface Friction

Hardened Concrete Properties


1) Strength Tests fc, MR 2) Shrinkage Tests mortar bar concrete prism 3) Maturity ASTM C 1074-93

Flexural Strength Apparatus


( ASTM C 78 - third-point loading)

Calculation of Modulus of Rupture (MR)


CTM 523 or ASTM C 293: MR = 1.5PL/(bd2)

ASTM C 78: MR = PL/(bd2)

Why use flexural strength test?


1) Required for pavement design 2) Most realistic to slab bending action 3) Conservative estimate of slab strength Cons of flexural beam tests moisture sensitive temperature sensitive size and loading configuration effects

Maturity Testing
ASTM C 1074 Internal temperature of concrete relates directly to concrete strength Develop correlation curve in lab Precision to baseline cylinders: 5%

Maturity Testing
Compressive Strength (MPa) 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1000 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Temperature-Time Factor, M(t) 5000 4000 3000 2000 Compressive Strength (psi)

M(t) = (Ta-To) t
M(t) = temperature-time factor t = time interval Ta = average concrete temp. To = datum temp. (-10oC)

Dowel Bar Retrofit

Dowel Bar Retrofit of Transverse Joint

Dowel Bar Retrofit of Transverse Crack

Completed DBR

Rigid Long-Life Strategies Currently Under Investigation


200-225 mm PCC 100 mm CTB 150 mm ASB

Remove PCC, Replace with 200-300 mm Concrete Slab 100 mm CTB or other base type (Recompact) ASB

Effect of Pavement Thickness and Construction Window on Project Duration 20 lane-km project
Const. Window Cont. (3 shift) Cont. (1 Shift) Weekend

203 mm

254 mm

305 mm

Duration
Weeks Weeks No. of Weekend

1.4 4.0 6.2

2.1 5.9 10.1

2.4 6.6 11.4

254 and 305 mm slab require new base (more time) For both AC and Rigid Long-Life Strategies most critical element controlling construction duration is reconstruction thickness, which determines amount of old material to be removed and new material to be hauled in

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