SOCIAL STUDIES REVIEW SHEET

Final Exam: 6/21/10

CHAPTER 10- The High Middle Ages

Middle Ages- a period of vigorous growth for European civilization, between 1000 and 1300. It was also known as the Age of Faith because many cathedrals were built and Church leaders exerted great power. Three Field System- A newly developed system of farming in which a field was divided into three sections instead of two. One of the sections was left fallow, wheat or rye was planted in another section, and oats, barley beans or peas were planted in the other section. This increased food production and provided villagers with a healthier diet. Burghers- People who made their homes in walled towns known as burghs. Usually burghers were members of the middle class. Bourgeoisie- The collective name for burgh dwellers in France. Guild- An association of people who worked at the same occupation. Guilds enforced standards of quality for occupations. They also trained new workers called apprentices. Monasteries- Secluded houses where monks and abbots lived to pray and learn. Benedictine Rule- A strict monastic way of life determined by Saint Benedict. Many monasteries in the High Middle Ages followed the Benedictine rule. Lay investiture- One of the three main practice Church reformers wanted to end during the Reformation. It was a practice in which a layman, or a feudal lord or king, performed the ceremony where bishops and abbots would receive their Church offices. Gregory VII- The foremost leader of the reformers, he became pope in 1073. He ordered all married priests to abandon their wives, then he banned lay investiture. This caused him to clash with Henry VII. Henry IV- The German emperor who was in favor of the corrupt church practices that reformers were against, since they allowed him to have power in the Church. He was furious when Gregory VII banned lay investiture and was later excommunicated. Concordat of Worms- A compromise reached by the representatives of the Church and the emperor in 1122. It stated that the Church alone would grant a bishop his ring and staff, which are religious symbols, but that the emperor could grant the bishop the land that went with his office. This allowed the emperor to maintain a lot of control over the bishops. Canossa- the Italian town that Henry IV journeyed to while Pope Gregory was staying as a guest in one of its castles. Henry begged for Gregorys forgiveness, and Gregory, being the pope, was forced to grant it. Though it was a dramatic confrontation, it solved nothing. Simony- the buying and selling of Church offices. It was another practice Church reformers wished to end. Interdict- A weapon that could be used by the pope in which no Church ceremonies could be performed in the offending rulers land. Fear of the interdict caused many rulers of the Middle Ages to obey the pope. Tithe- a tax, or one tenth of their income, that Christian families were forced to pay to the Church every year. The Church was to use at least one fourth of tithes to care for the sick and poor. Heresy- When a person held a belief different from the teachings of the Church. Many heresies were a result of the widespread interest in religion in the 1100s and 1200s. Inquisition- the leading arm of the Church in the war against heresy. It was an organization of experts whose job was to find and judge heretics.
High

of Assisi- an Italian saint who founded an order of friars. He preached that all creatures should be treated as if they were spiritual brothers and sisters. His order traveled, apreaching and helping the community. Gothic Style Architecture- a new form of architecture in which many cathedrals were built in the High Middle Ages. The goal of gothic architecture was to get more height and more light. Pointed, ribbed vaults were uses; flying buttresses were utilized; and pointed arches were built rather than rounded ones. Gothic style cathedrals began to pop up all over Europe. The Battle of Hastings- It all started when the English king died without an heir. Harold Godwinson, an English noble was declared king, but William, Edwards second cousin, claimed the crown. William marched to England in 1066 and faced King Harolds troops where William won a decisive victory. William the Conquerer- Declared all of England his personal property. He granted fiefs to Norman lords that supported him, and to loyal bishops of the Church. William kept one-fifth of England for himself, which served as a powerful base. This made England the most centralized feudal kingdom. Henry II of England- Williams great-grandson who further increased royal power. Henry strengthened the royal courts of justice and introduced the jury in English courts. Common law- a unified body of law formed by English judges that was common to the whole kingdom. Thomas Aquinas- wrote Summa Theologiae, which attempted to answer philosophical questions about God using reason. He believed that religious truths could be proved through logic. Chivalry- the ideals that knights of the Middle Ages were expected to live up to, including being loyal to your lord and courageous in battle. The Crusades- the military expeditions funded by the Church in which Church armies attempted to win back the Holy Land from the Muslim Turks. Pope Urban II- called for the First Crusade in 1096. He was attempting to show off the power of the pope in order to unite the Byzantine and Roman Christians. Saladin- The Muslim conqueror who retook Jerusalem in 1187. He reached a compromise with King Richard in 1192 in which Christian pilgrims could freely visit Jerusalems holy places. Holy Land- Jerusalem and the surrounding areas of Asia Minor in which the Christians believe their religion was founded. It was conquered by the Turks and fought over during the Crusades. Consequences of the Crusades: 1. Decline of papal prestige- the failure of the later crusades lessened respect for the pope. 2. Decline in the power of the nobles- European monarchs strengthened royal power. 3. Decrease in Byzantine power. 4. Increase in religious intolerance- There was an increased hostility between Christians & Muslims and Christians & Jews. 5. There was increased demand for goods and increased spirit for trade.
Francis

Chapter 11- The Origin of European Nations

of Arc- a young french girl who fought in the French army to help end the siege of New Orleans. She was later tried as a witch and burned at the stake. Magna Carta- John Swoftsword was forced to sign this document in 1214 in order to borrow any more money from the English barons. The Magna Carta limited the power of the
Joan

monarchy.
Parliament-

Parliament was formed by King Edward I in 1295, when he needed support and funds to go to war with France. Over the next century, Parliament formed two assemblies: The House of Commons and the House of Nobles. Parliament gradually began to gain power in the government. Louis IX of France- Philips grandson who ruled from 1226 to 1270. He created a supreme court for Paris called the Parlement of Paris. It strengthened the monarchy and weakened feudal ties. Nation State- a group of people who occupy a definite territory and are under one government. People of nation states are also culturally united. Both France and England developed into nation-states in the 1500s. Pope Boniface VII- issued a papal bull in 1296 stating that kings were not to tax the clergy. He then issued the Unam Sanctum in 1302. Unam Sanctum- declared that there were two powers on Earth, the temporal and the spiritual. It then declared that the spiritual power was always favored over the temporal power. Babylon Captivity- the period of Church history in which the home of the popes was in Avignon. This was so because many people believed that the popes were just pawns of the French king during this time. Avignon- Pope Clement V moved to the city of Avignon in 1309, and it remained the home of the popes for the next 67 years. Great Schism- a split in the Church that occurred when there was a both a pope ruling from Rome and a pope ruling from Avignon. John Wycliffe- an Englishman who challenged the authority of the pope. His teachings were: The true head of the Church was Jesus Christ; the clergy should own no land or wealth; and the Bible alone was the final authority for Christian life. John Huss- A Bohemian who taught that the authority of the Bible was higher than the authority of the pope. He was excommunicated in 1411 and later burned at the stake in 1415. Little Ice Age- from 1000 to 1300, the temperatures in Europe were warmer than average. This shortened the growing season and lessened the food supply, increasing hunger in Europe. Black Death- a disease believed to have been brought to Europe by trade ships from Asia. It was named by the black swellings that grow on the victim. Killed about 25 million people in Europe in the five years between 1347 and 1352. Hundred Years War- war broke out when England made claims to French land. The war can be divided into 4 stages: 1) England gained much control over France, 2) French re-conquered, 3) England conquered the northern half of France, 4) the French forced the English out, except for the port city of Calais. Longbow- weapon that gave England early victories in the Hundred Years War. It allowed them to defeat the French cavalry from a distance. Cannon- the cannon was utilized at the end of the Hundred Years War to take down walls and storm castles. It aided in the decline of feudalism. Nationalism- a feeling of loyalty to ones land and people. Both the the people of England and France felt nationalistic during the Hundred Years War. War of the Roses- a civil war that began in 1455 in England. Two branches of the royal family, one headed by the dukes of York and the other descended from the dukes of Lancaster, claimed the English throne. It is often seen as ending the medieval period in England. Henry VII (Tudor)- ruled as a new monarch. He used members of the middle class and

local landowners as officials in his court. He gained wealth by taxation and diminished the power of the nobles. Court of the Star Chamber- a secret court that Henry used to destroy over-mighty subjects. It violated many laws of justice. Led Henry to be respected but not loved. Reconquista- reconquest, an effort to drive the Muslims out of Spain. Isabella and Ferdinand- Isabella was the heir to the throne of Castile and Ferdinand was the heir to the throne of Aragon. Their marriage brought an alliance between the kingdoms. They declared Spain a Christian state and persecuted against the Jews and Muslims. Conquest of Granada- Isabella and Ferdinands Christian army conquered the last Muslim kingdom in Spain, Granada, in 1492. Ivan III of Russia- Ivan the Great, took on the title of czar, or emperor, of Russia. He freed Moscow of Mongol rule. He built up Moscow as Russias capital. Boyars- nobles of Russia, often minor princes. They struggled for power in the Russian government. Ivan IV (The Terrible)- He mistrusted and hated boyars due to events in his childhood. From 1547 to 1560, Ivan ruled justly and won many victories against the Mongols. Then, after 1560 turned brutally against the boyars. He hired a police force to kill boyars and other innocent people. St. Basils Cathedral- Ivan IV built this cathedral in Moscow to celebrate his victories against the Mongols.

Chapter 12- Golden Ages in China and Japan

dynasty- Started by emperor Sui Wen-ti in the late 500s, the Sui dynasty reunited China and built the Grand Canal. Grand Canal- the canal cut across the center of China, connecting the Yellow River in the north and the Yangtze River in the south. It helped to unite the north and south of China politically and economically. Tang dynasty- founded by Tai-tsung in 618. China under the Tang dynasty was at its golden age. Korea became a tributary state, taxes were lowered, and land was fairly distributed. Li Po- a celebrated poet of the Tang dynasty. He often wrote about the pleasures of life. Sung dynasty- Sung Tai-tsu began this dynasty in 960. The Sung emperors tried to bribe their invaders, but eventually the north was conquered by the Mongols. The center of civilization was moved to Hangchow, in the south of China. Printing- Chinese printers began to print books around the 600s. During the Sung dynasty, the movable type was invented by Pi Sheng. Magnetic compass- Sung traders utilized the invention of the compass to sense direction at sea. Gunpowder- the Chinese experimented with explosive weapons, though it remained a minor invention until the Europeans learned of it. Mongol Conquest- the Mongols were the barbarians that ransacked and conquered various empires during the times of the golden ages of China and Japan. They lived nomadic, and they spent most of their time on horseback. The Mongols were fearsome warriors who were able to conquer many civilizations. Ghengis Khan- rule of all between the oceans, he became the accepted ruler of all the steppe people in 1206. He conquered much of Asia; he was a brilliant organizer of troops, he was able to employ spies and scope out enemies, and he used cruelty as a weapon.
Sui

Khan- the conquerer of the Sung dynasty. He lived in a very luxurious manner in his capital of Khanbalik. He attempted to extend his rule to Japan, but was defeated. Yuan dynasty- the Chinese name taken by Kublai Khan for his dynasty. The Mongols settled down from their nomadic lifestyle to rule China at this time. Marco Polo- an Italian youth from Venice who traveled to Asia in the years of the Yuan dynasty. He was appointed to be a trusted official in the court of Kublai Khan. He returned to Europe only to be captured as a POW, though he wrote of all the luxuries in China and the east. Many of the Europeans did not believe that Marco Polos encounters were true stories. Ming dynasty- Ming tai-tsu began this dynasty in 1368, after freeing China from Mongol rule. During the time, China was divided politically and culturally into the north and south. Ming rulers reinstated scholar-officials as rulers. Education was greatly prized during this time. Cheng Ho- A Chinese fleet captain that let the Grand Fleet. He was pursuing diplomatic, commercial, and scientific objectives. Manchus- the conquerers that conquered China and took over Peking. The Manchu ruler was declared Chinas emperor. The Manchus tried to stay separate from the Chinese in all ways possible during their rule of China. Ching dynasty- the Manchus ruled this dynasty, though they tried to keep themselves as separate from the Chinese in all ways of life. Though, from a Chinese perspective, life was not much different than under the Ming dynasty. (1644-1912) Yamato emperors- the leading clan of Japan. The Yamato chiefs became to be called the emperors of Japan, though they had no true power over Japan as a whole. Shinto- the way of the gods, Japans earliest religion. The central idea of the Shinto was to worship nature. The sun goddess was the chief deity. Kami is a nature god, all aspects of nature possess one in the Shinto religion. Prince Shotoku- a very influential convert to Buddhism. In 607, he sent a group of scholars to study Chinese civilization firsthand at Changan. This allowed the Japanese to adopt many aspects of Chinese culture. Heian Age- Japans golden age. Named after the capital of Japan at the time. People appreciated poetry, nature, and beauty during this time. It was a very hipster lifestyle. Women also played a large role during this time. Samurai- one who serves, the warriors who fought for their lords. They wore elaborate armor. Bushido- a harsh code that the samurais had to live by. A samurai had to have absolute courage and loyalty to his lord. Shogun- supreme general of the emperors army, the shogun had the powers of a military dictator. Kamakura- the shoguns military headquarters. The 1200s are known in Japanese history as the Kamakura shogunate. Civil war was apparent during this time of Japans history. Daimyo- great names, the most powerful feudal lords who became independent rulers in their own areas. During the time of the daimyos there was civil war. Francis Xavier- the leader of one of the first Catholic missions to Japan. For almost 90 years, Catholic missionaries such as he travelled freely in Japan. Japan under the Tokugawa- Christianity was banned in Japan during this time, and then Japan closed all its doors on Europeans, except the Dutch. There was a large policy of isolation in Japan during this time. Gradually, Japan fell behind. Zen- the Japanese word for meditation. Zen Buddhism had the greatest influence on Japanese
Kublai

culture. Zen Buddhism stressed peace and tranquility.

Chapter 13- Civilizations of India and Southeast Asia

Gupta- a Hindu prince who was crowned king of the upper Ganges valley in 320 AD. He was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty. Science and learning under the Gupta- Gupta scholars made many advances in science, including inoculation, surgery, and the number system. Kalidasa- The greatest literature under Indias golden age was drama. Kalidasa wrote Shakuntala, which reflects one of the key values of Indian literature, emotion. Rajput- India became a land of small kingdoms, ruled by warrior kings called Rajputs. Rajput men lived by a code of honor and bravery, and in the 500s, the Rajputs converted to Hinduism. India at the time was very disunited. Suttee- a Hindu rite where a widow would burn her husbands body on a funeral pyre, and die honorably next to it in flames. Tamerlame- Mongol ruler that arose with power in the late 1300s. He led armies into Persia Russia, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor; he took Delhi and massacred Muslims and Hindus in India. His capital was in Samarkand. Babur- The tiger he conquered India and ended the Delhi sultanate in 1526. Babur founded the Mughal empire. Mughal Empire- a dynasty that was founded by Babur. Mughal monarchs were very rich and powerful. They ruled in India, though they were Mongols. Akbar- most great, he ruled the Mughal empire from 1556 to 1605. He sought support of the Hindus and levied taxes in India. He attempted to start his own faith, which failed. His empire conquered almost all of northern India and much of the Deccan. Jahangir- Akbars son, who unfortunately, was cracked out and never lived up to his potential. He played little part in governing, his wife Nur Jahan was the true ruler of his empire. Shah Jahan- the builder of the Taj Mahal, and the next Mughal monarch. Shah Jahan was cruel to his enemies and allowed religious intolerance in his empire. Aurangzeb- tried to make his empire an Islamic state and persecuted Hindus. By losing support of the Hindus, he greatly weakened his empire. Taj Mahal- a beautiful tomb built by Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, it is one of Indias greatest pieces of architecture. Red Fort at Agra- one of three royal residences built during the Mughal rule. It was an aweinspiring, luxurious Mughal capital. It enclosed a great treasure of wealth. Sikhs- disciples, followers of Nuance. They were persecuted by Mughal rulers. Nanak- A thinker who tired to blend the ideas of Hinduism and Buddhism. He became the guru, or leader, of a new religion. Angkor Wat- the most famous of the Khmer buildings. It was a temple to the Hindu god Vishnu. It was a symbol of the great wealth during the Angkor period, or the Khmer empires time of greatest power. Khmer- people who came from Cambodia and built the longest-lasting empire of the region. Women held high status and aristocrats lived luxuriously. The Khmer empire fell to the Thais.
Chandra

Chapter 14- Africa and the Americas

Sub-Saharan

Africa- lands south of the Sahara, which had limited contact with Europe and maintained a self-sufficient environment.

 Sahara-

extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. It is a desert in Africa. Few oases sprinkle the Sahara, and a lot of trade occurs there. Kalahari- the other of Africas largest deserts. Desertification- a process that occurs when overgrazing kills the grass in an area. The light soil dries out and begins to desert. This is the greatest threat in Sahel. Kingdom of Kush- the first major kingdom of sub-Saharan Africa. It was in the middle region of the Nile Valley. It was dominated by Egypt. Meroe- where the Kushite royal family moved to this city near the Nile. It became a center of trade and manufacturing. Axum- the capital of Ethiopia in ancient times. It grew rich and powerful by controlling trade by 300 AD. Axum was able to remain Christian throughout Muslim conversions surrounding it. Swahili- a new culture from an Arab term meaning people of the coast. It was a combination of the Bantu and Arab cultures. Most Swahili people lived by farming, fishing, and trading. Kingdom of Zimbabwe- where most of the gold and ivory markets came from. Its geographic location provided protection from Muslim influence. It reached its peak during the 1400s. Ghana- the Soninke title for their kingdom. The Arabs applied the name to the entire territory. Ghanas rulers demanded taxes from surrounding chiefs. Ghana heavily taxed the gold-salt trade. Mali- a kingdom established by Sundiata. Mali re-established the gold-salt trade and made a fortune from it. Mansa Musa- Malis next ruler, who was a Muslim. Mali became a powerful empire that dominated west Africa. He became a symbol of wealth to Europe. Ibn Battuta- travelled for 27 years, visiting every Islamic country. He praised the fact that Mali was such a safe kingdom, and the children were encouraged to study the Koran. Songhia- the people who replaced the Mandingo as the controllers of the all-important trade routes in 1450. It declined because it lacked military advancement. Sunni Ail- a ruthless conquerer who was the king of Songhia. Timbuktu- among the cities that flourished at this time. In it, a famous university attracted many Muslim scholars. Griot- specially trained people who were record keepers in African tradition. They memories many past histories. Anasazi- Ancient Ones, they lived in the valleys and canyons of the American Southwest. Their way of life relied on enough rain to grow corn, and when drought struck, their civilization declines. They lived in pueblos. Hopewell- a people who lived far to the east of the Anasazi. They were skilled craftspeople as well as clever traders. They built a distinctive culture. Chillicothe- a city in Ohio where burial mounds of the Hopewell were found. The Hopewell buried many of their finest products in mounds such as these. Moche- built a civilization from 100 to 700 AD, after the Chavin. They built an extensive system of irrigation canals, and were masters of metal working. They never developed a written language. Inca- conquered an empire that stretched across the coast of South America, their able rulers were able to maintain this large empire. They had a large, well-organized bureaucracy. Quipu- a series of knotted strings that runners would use to relay messages. These were used in place of a written language.

 Cuzco-

the southern Inca capital. It contained the palace of the ruler, and its busy streets were buzzing with excitement. Olmec- the people who settled in the rainforest of Mexicos Gulf Coast in 1200 BC. They built many large pyramids and ceremonial centers before mysteriously disappearing. Maya- the people who settled in the rainforest of Guatemala and Mexicos Yucatan peninsula. It reached its peak from 300 to 900, in which many cities were built which became centers of trade. They developed a very precise solar calendar. Tenochtitlan- the Aztec capital, built on a number of small islands in Lake Texaco. The central market place was the citys busiest spot. Aztec- a fierce and poor group of people who established a civilization after they triumphed over their neighbors. By the year 1500, the Aztec king was collecting tribute from surrounding land.

Chapter 15- The Renaissance and Exploration

Renaissance-

a time between 1300 and 1600 known as a golden age. The word means rebirth. Dante- a very famous poet of the Renaissance. He wrote The Divine Comedy, a comedy with three parts. Dante showed the religious influence of the Middle Ages but the worldly concerns of the Renaissance. It served as a philosophical bridge. Vernacular- everyday language of the homeland. Dante wrote The Divine Comedy in the vernacular. Humanism- the practice of scholars studying classical texts. This is a main Renaissance value. Petrarch- An Italian poet who wrote poems in both Italian and Latin. He wrote poems and letters and his poems were truly new age literature. Raphael- painted the walls of Julius IIs private library. His assignment was to celebrate the knowledge. He painted The School of Athens, a fresco on the wall of the library. Castiglione- the author of The Courtier, a book that told the young people of the Renaissance how to be admirable. Isabelle dEste- the most honored woman of the Renaissance. She had an art collection that was famous throughout Europe. She was also a skilled politician. Medici family- the wealthiest family in Florence that gained control of the Florentine government. The Medici gained their wealth thought trade and banking. Cosimo was the most famous of the Medici, for he patronized Brunelleschi to build the dome of Florence. Florence- an Italian city-state that was a leader in the arts. The two major occupations in Florence were textile industry and banking. Florence had a democratic social atmosphere. Donatello- a sculptor who came to work in Ghibertis workshop. He was eager to make lifelike, free standing sculptures. Donatello wanted to show the strength and grace of the human form, when he sculpted David. Machiavelli- wrote The Prince in response to the invasion of Italy by foreigners. He stated that humans have a naturally selfish nature, and that leader should do whatever is necessary in order to maintain power. Michelangelo- sculptor/painter who moved to Rome in 1496. He was commissioned to produce the Pieta and David, and later he painted the roof of the Sistine Chapel with scenes from the Bible. His works were very life-like. Leonardo ad Vinci- The painter/thinker/scientist extraordinaire. Da Vinci was a true Renaissance man. His most famous works include The Last Supper and Mona Lisa.

He studied the human body to paint very life-like figures. Renaissance- the Renaissance gradually spread to northern Europe by royal courts, painters from Italy, and new northern European artists. Flanders was the artistic center of the northern Renaissance. Age of Exploration- the time after the Renaissance when many European countries were sailing into unexplored seas. The Renaissance spirit plated a role in helping to launch it. Caravel- a new vessel designed by Europeans, which had triangular sails for tacking into the wind. It was important tool for discovery. Christopher Columbus- believed that the Earth was round and that he could sail to the Indies. He was commissioned by Isabella of Spain to travel to the Indies, though he stumbled upon North America in 1492. He first landed in San Salvador. He opened a new era in which Europeans rushed to explore the Americas. Marco Polo- Christopher Columbus read his book and became interested in sailing to the east. Prince Henry the Navigator- opened a famous center for navigation in 1420. He helped to launch the Age of Exploration. He organized and paid for many voyages. Bartholomeu Dias- a Portuguese captain who reached the southernmost tip of Africa in 1488. He discovered and named the Cape of Good Hope. Vasco de Gama- A Portuguese sea captain who set sail to India in 1497, sailing through the Cape of Good Hope. His journey was praised in Portugal. Vespucci- A Florentine merchant who was the first to recognize that America was a new country in 1501, and not India. America was named after him. Magellan- a Portuguese nobleman who set out to cross the Atlantic in 1519. He reached a strait near the southern tip of South America, now called the Strait of Magellan. He explored the western coast of South America, and was the first to sail around the world. Balboa- a Spaniard who discovered the Pacific Ocean and claimed it for Spain. Line of Demarcation- a line drawn north to south through the Atlantic Ocean, ordered by Pope Alexander VI. All the lands east of the line would be Portugals, and all the land west of the line would be Spains. This solved conflict between Spain and Portugal. Verrazano- a French explorer who set out in 1524 to look for a new trade route to the Pacific. He discovered New York Harbor. Champlain- a French explorer who sailed up the Saint Lawrence and founded a colony called Quebec in 1608. Quebec became a center of fur trade and was used as a base to explore more of the region. Henry Hudson- A Dutch sailor who was sent in 1609 to look for the northwest passage. Though he did not find, Hudson helped the Dutch to set up a valuable trading post in America, and a small settlement on Manhattan island. This area quickly became a center of trade. He also discovered the Hudson river. John Cabot- a merchant whose voyage in 1497 was aided by King Henry VII. He reached Newfoundland and claimed the first land that was claimed for England. Columbian Exchange- the exchange of many disease as well as crops between the new settlers and the Native American peoples in the Americas. Transatlantic slave trade- The exchange of slaves between the Americas and Africa. The trade is credited wholly to the development of new colonies in the Americas, and the demand for workers to work in those colonies.
Northern

Chapter 16- The Reformation and Scientific Revolution

Reformation- A religious crisis in the 1500s in the Roman Catholic Church that led to the establishment of Protestant churches. Savonarola- an Italian friar who called for a reform of the Church and overthrew the Medici in 1490. His religious zeal led him against most of the values of the Renaissance. He organized the Bonfire of the Vanities, in which everyone in Florence had to burn the positions considered to be vain. Erasmus- a very famous Christian humanist who wrote In Praise of Folly, which satirized greedy merchants. Sir Thomas More- another famous Christian humanist who wrote Utopia. In the book, More tried to create a perfect society. Gutenburg Bible- Johann Gutenburg printed a Bible using the printing press in 1455. The Bible was cheap enough that many people could afford to buy it, and literacy was increased throughout Europe. This fueled the Reformation because people could read the Bible themselves and make their own interpretations. Martin Luther- A priest who disagreed with certain practices and beliefs of the Church. He led the Protestant Reformation and posted the 95 Theses on the door of his church. 95 Theses- formal statements attacking the pardon-merchants, which Luther posted on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg and invited fellow scholars to debate him. Indulgences- pardons issued by the pope that released the buyer from time in Purgatory. Pope Leo X- the pope that issued a bull against and later excommunicated Luther in 1520. Tetzel- a friar who was raising money to rebuild St. Peters Cathedral in Rome by selling letters of indulgence. Wittenberg- where Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses. Trial at Worms- Martin Luther was tried for being a heretic by Charles V, but Charles was unable to capture Luther or stamp out his ideas. This was because many people favored Luther and because Charless empire was simply too large. German Peasants Revolt- when Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1524, German peasants demanded an end to their political and economical bondage. They revolted, much to the concern of Luther. Henry VIII- Wished to divorce his wife, and therefore he broke away from the papacy in 1529 and replaced the pope with the Reformation Parliament. He later closed all the monasteries in England. Catharine of Aragon- Henry VIIIs first wife, who failed to produce a son for him. She was later divorced by Henry. Anne Boleyn- Henrys second wife who also failed to produce a son for him and was later beheaded. Church of England- the Church that was instated into England after Henry broke with the papacy. Henry himself was the head of the Church, and it became the official church of England. John Calvin- published Institutes of the Christian Religion, which set forth a systematic Protestant philosophy. He set a structure for Protestantism. Predestination- the idea that God has known since the beginning who will be saved, it is utilized by John Calvin. Theocracy- a government controlled by church leaders. This was another idea utilized by Calvin, but not by Luther. City of Saints- Geneva under Calvins rule. Calvin and his followers regulated the lives of
Protestant

everyone who lived in the city. Knox- a preacher who utilized Calvins ideals in Scottish towns. Scotland later made Calvinism the official religion. Huguenots- the followers of Calvin, in France. Catholic Reformation- reform in the Catholic church that encouraged the end of corrupt church practices. It has been argued that the purpose of this reformation was to stamp out Protestantism. Council of Trent- the council organized by Pope Paul III in response to Luther; they agreed on: 1) the popes interpretation of the Bible is final 2) Christians are saved by faith and good works 3) Indulges, etc are valid expressions of piety but the abuse of them is banned. Saint Ignatius Loyola- wrote Spiritual Exercises, which laid out a day-by-day plan of meditation, prayer, and study. He founded the Society of Jesus, whose followers are known as Jesuits. Pole Paul III- a reformer of the Catholic Church. He called the Council of Trent, approved the Jesuit order, and directed a council of cardinals to investigate simony, indulgence selling, and other abuses. Index of Forbidden Books- a list of books drawn up by Pope Paul IV that he considered dangerous to the Catholic faith. Counter-Reformation- see Catholic Reformation. Same thing. Peace at Augsburg- the princes agreed that the rulers of each German state would decide its religion. This just resulted in a lot of disunity in Germany. Scientific Revolution- a radical change in the way of thinking during the 1500 and 1600s in which scientific thinkers began to question traditional ideas. Geo-centric theory- the earth-centered theory taught by the Church and believed by earlier astronomers.Th Heliocentric theory- the sun-centered theory determined by Copernicus. Copernicus- wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, in which he revealed the heliocentric theory. Copernicus helped to stimulate the Scientific Revolution. Kepler- proposed three laws of planetary motion: 1) planets have elliptical orbits, 2) planets move rapidly as they approach the sun, 3) the time taken to orbit varies from the distance to the sun. Scientific method- a new study of science that uses a logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas. Galileo- discovered the law of the pendulum and lear that objects fall at the same speed. He then successfully built a telescope, and later published Starry Messenger. Vesalius- wrote On the Fabric of the Human Body, which distinguished the human body from many other animals bodies. Harvey- he showed that the heart pumps blood throughout the body. Leeuwenhoek- used a microscope in 1650 to observe bacteria.
John

Chapter 17- The Spanish Empire and Shifts in European Power

Montezuma- the emperor of tha Aztecs at the time of Hernan Cortess conquest. Hernan Cortes- a Spanish conquistador who looked to colonize land for Spain in Malinche-

the North

American mainland in 1519. He is responsible for the fall of the Aztecs. Cortess invaluable aide, she spoke many languages and served as a sort of translator for Cortes. She helped Cortes gain allies.

 Conquistador Atahualpa-

daring Spanish fortune hunters who searched the Americas for gold and

precious gems. The Inca emperor who won the throne after a bitter battle with his brother. He was taken hostage and later killed by Pizarro. Pizarro- a Spanish adventurer who landed on the coast of Peru in 1532. He conquered the Inca. Macchu Pichu- the great Inca city searched for by the Spaniards, but it was never found until 1911. Ponce de Leon- became the first European to set foot on the US. He founded Florida while looking for the fountain of youth. De Soto- one of Pizarros chief officers, he returned home rich from Inca plunder. He searched for but never found gold. Encomienda- a privilege in which the holder would become the master of a certain area. He could then force the Native Americans in his land to work for him. Viceroy- a royal agent. Philip II-ruled from 1556 to 1598. Under his rule Spain became the staunchest support of Catholicism and the most dangerous enemy of Protestantism. Charles V- Philips father, who left Philip a large empire to rule. Battle of Lepano- war of Spain against the Ottomans, the Ottoman navy was crushed and it was a huge victory for Christendom. Armada- Spanish fleet ships that Philip used to strike at England. They were defeated. El Greco- a Greek from the island of Crete, but all of this major works were painted in Spain. He painted Catholic saints and martyrs, his best known painting are of Catholic figures. Velazquez- show the pride of Spains royal family. He was best known for painting princes and kings. Cervantes- a playwright who wrote Don Quixote de La Mancha, which was a general satire on chivalry. Duke of Alva- led troops to destroy Protestantism in the Netherlands. His troops broke into Dutch homes and carried off heretics. Dutch Republic- each province had a stadtholder, whose power depended on the support of the provinces leading merchants and landowners. Commercial Revolution- the system of trade, profit, and investment that became very important to Europe. It was an early form of capitalism. Dutch East Indies Company- The merchants who invested to get involved with the East Indies Spice Trade in order to gain enormous amounts of wealth. Rembrandt- the greatest of the Dutch artists at the time. His best painting was The Night Watch. He was a master of light and shadow. French wars- the House of Bourbon (Protestants) were fighting the House of Guise (Catholicism) were fighting and both hoping to overthrow the Valois dynasty to begin a new one. Most major towns and cities in France were divided between Catholics and Huguenots. Henry IV of Navarre- he was a king of the House of Bourbon, and therefore a Protestant. Henry converted to Catholicism to gain support. Edict of Nantes- A declaration issued by Henry, stating that the Huguenots could worship in peace. This created religious tolerance in France. Huguenots- French Calvinists. Cardinal Richelieu- Louis XIIIs chief minister and virtual ruler of France. He wanted to

increase the power of the monarchy and of France. He revoked the Edict of Nantes, thus losing support from the Huguenots. The French nobles were also severely limited by him. This allowed the monarchs of France to rule almost unopposed for awhile. Intendants- royal officials that came from the middle class. Richelieu strengthened their role. Hapsburgs- the ruling family of the Holy Roman Empire. They were a threat to the Bourbons of France. Descartes- mathematician/philosopher, he wrote Discourse on Method, which was a guide for seeking truth in science. I think, therefore I am. Thirty Years War- Began in 1618 when Ferdinand sent army to Bohemia to put down the Protestant Revolt. Several German princes saw this as a chance to challenge the Catholic empire. Treaty of Westphalia- ended the Thirty Years War. Germany lost its unity, and the Hapsburg states of Austria and Spain declined. France emerged as Europes strongest state.

Chapter 18: England: Tudor Queen and Stuart Kings

I: Virgin Queen, the third of Henry VIIIs children who gained the throne in 1588 upon the death of Mary. She was a Protestant but attempted to unify all of England under one church. She left a sizable debt for her successors. Mary Stuart- Queen of Scots, Elizabeths cousin. She had support from the pope and from Spain to overthrow Elizabeth in England, but she later faced a revolt in Scotland. She later fled to England and was beheaded by Mary when she was found to have been plotting to steal the English throne. Joint-stock company- a special organization meant to attract capital from many people. Investors bought shares of ownership. Helped to fund voyages to the New World in England. Act of Supremacy-a law passed by Parliament during Elizabeths reign that declared Elizabeth the Supreme Governor of Englands institutions, the church as well as the state. Shakespeare- the greatest playwright and dramatist during the Elizabethan era, arguably of all time. He had a remarkable understanding of human nature, and understood the sound and weight of every word. James I- Elizabeths successor, who also was the king of Scotland at the time. He clashed greatly with Parliament, since Elizabeth had left a sizable debt. Divine Right- the theory that royal power came from God. James was a firm believer in it. King James Bible- the authoritative form of the Bible at the time, it was printed in English in 1611. Charles I- the second Stuart king to rule England, Jamess successor. He was a firm believer in divine right, adn he was constantly clashing with Parliament. He dissolved Parliament for 11 years because they refused to loan him money for costly wars. English Civil War- a battle that occurred during the reign of Charles, the supporters of the monarchy versus the supporters of Parliament. Religion was involved as well, since the Puritans wanted to modify the Church of England. Oliver Cromwell- the military leader of the Puritans and of the Roundheads. He led the New Model Army, and later became the military dictator of England after the war. He closed all theaters and sporting arenas, and life became dull for the English. Cavaliers- those who remained loyal to King Charles during the English Civil War. Generally included English nobles and church officials. Roundheads- the Puritan townspeople who favored Parliament during the English Civil War.
Elizabeth

Model Army- the military that Oliver Cromwell organized. It was mostly composed of zealous Protestants. It eventually defeated the kings forces. Puritans- those who to purify the Church of England from Catholic practices, such as gold crucifixes and the wealth of the clergy. Charles II- Charles Stuart, he was invited to rule England upon the death of Oliver Cromwell. He was fueled the Restoration, opening up all the sports arenas and the theaters. He did not try to restore the idea of the divine right of kings. Habeas corpus- a law passed by Parliament during the reign of Charles. It stated that every prisoner has the right to obtain a write or a document ordering that the prisoner be brought to a judge. This limited the monarchy to an extent. James II- the successor of Charles, who was openly Catholic. He was overthrown during the Glorious Revolution. Glorious Revolution- otherwise known as the Bloodless Revolution. James was overthrown without a single shot fired or battle fought. All of James's supporters abandoned him and he went to France for exile. William and Mary- led the Glorious Revolution. Both Protestant, they were invited by Parliament to overthrow James and later to be the rulers of England. They signed the English Bill of Rights. Bill of Rights- a document drafted by Parliament listing the things that a monarch could not do. This included: no suspended Parliaments laws, no levying taxes without Parliaments permission, no interfering with Parliament freedom of speech, no penalty for someone who opposes the king, no standing armies in times of peace, and no excessive bail. This limited the rights of the monarchy. Absolute monarchy- a ruler with complete power. Thomas Hobbes believed this was the most effective form of government. Thomas Hobbes- wrote Leviathan, he was convinced that all humans were naturally wicked. He believed that subjects had no right to overthrow the monarchy, and that an absolute monarchy was the best for of government. John Locke- wrote Treatises on Government, he believed that people had the gift of reason, and that humans had three basic rights: the right to life, the right to property, and the right to liberty, and that a good government should protect these rights.
New

Chapter 19: Europe in the Age of the Absolute Monarchs

Mercantilism-

an economic theory in which a country has to export more than it imports in order to make a profit. Louis XIV- The Sun King, he was the third king of the Bourbon dynasty. He lived grandly in Versailles. France made impressive economic gains during his reign. Colbert- Louiss minister of finance, he worked tirelessly to improve the economy of France. He incorporated mercantilism into the French economy. Both France and the Huguenots prospered from his policies, though a lot of his work was undid when Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes. Versailles - Louos XIV built a palace there and transformed it from a small town into a royal city. It became an irresistible attraction for nobles throughout France / Europe. Balance of power- a defensive strategy in which no one country or group of countries can dominate others. Led to the war of Spanish Succession because Philip left Louiss grandson the Spanish empire.

King- See Louis XIV. Same thing. Louis was given this title because he was the center of the French government, as the sun is the center of the universe. War of Spanish Succession- began when Philip left his empire to Louiss grandson, Philip V. Many other countries banded together because they feared the power that Spain and France would have. In the Treaty of Utrecht, Philip was allowed to keep Spain but only as a separate empire from France. Romanovs- the family of Peter the Great. They came to power at time of troubles in Russia during the 1600s. The Romanov dynasty ruled Russia for 300 years. Peter the Great- the czar of Russia, he took the throne in 1682. He had a great impact on Russias culture though he ruled brutally. His goal was to modernize Russia. St. Petersberg- the capital city that Peter the Great built. It was in a convenient, but desolate location. Great Northern War- Peter Is war against the Swedes, over a piece of the Baltic coast. In the end, Russia won a broad piece of land on the Baltic Sea. Ottoman Empire- an empire in central Europe that was steadily declining . The government in Istanbul was corrupt, and the army was poorly equipped. Maria Teresa- Charles VIs heir to the Hapsburg throne. The Pragmatic Sanction ensured that all of the Hapsburg land would be given to her after Charles died. Many thought she lacked the forcefulness to defend her lands, thus the War of Austrian Succession started. Prussia- the Hohenzollerns ruled Prussia, and they worked at building up a bigger and better army. The Prussian army invaded Austria to begin the war go Austrian Succession. Prussia kept Silesia after the war. Hohenzollern- the family of north Germany that was eager to take advantage of central Europes power vacuum. Fredrick William I- inherited the title of Great Elector in Brandenburg. He built up a strong standing army, he refused to spend money on anything but building up his army. He more than doubled the size of the Prussian army. Under him, Prussia became a military society Junkers- Prussias landowning nobility. He promoted his officers only from this class. Frederick II- followed many of his fathers policies when he came to throne in 170; he was Frederick Williams successor. He led the Prussian army to invade Austria. Allied with Britain in the Seven Years War.
Sun